Pavement Design

PAVEMENT DESIGN
PAVEMENT DESIGN – Where are we?
MECHANISTIC-
EMPIRICAL MECHANISTIC
EMPIRICAL
EMPIRICAL VS. MECHANISTIC- BASED DESIGN
EMPIRICAL – “Rule of 2”
d L
d = +2
2
L MECHANISTIC
PL
σ bending = ≤ σ allowable
4S
Traditional approach to pavement design
• Overwhelmingly empirical
• Dependent on conditions remaining the same
• Primary focus on structural design
• Limited attention to failure modes
Other issues
• One climatic zone
• One base type
• No subdrainage
• Higher than normal construction quality
• Crude performance measure and model
• Limited incorporation of reliability
Changing conditions
• Guidelines and regulation
• national
• Local
• Traffic loads
• Heavier
• New and different axle and load configuration
Mechanistic-empirical approach
• Accounts for new materials, traffic loads and
construction procedures
• All design features affecting pavement
performance are considered
• Primary focuses on pavement performance
Key rigid pavement performance indicators
• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP)

• Joint faulting
• Transverse cracking – bottom → up
• Transverse cracking – top → down
• Ride quality – smoothness
• Continuously reinforced concrete pavements
• Punchouts
• Ride quality – smoothness
Joint Faulting Transverse cracking
Punchout
Key flexible pavement performance
indicators
• Fatigue cracking - bottom → up
• Fatigue cracking - top → down
• Permanent deformation – rutting
• HMAC thermal cracking
• Ride quality (smoothness)
IRI =
∑ (index vertical )
dis tan cehorizontal
Low-temperature cracking
PAVEMENT DESIGN HISTORY
WHY DO WE NEED PAVEMENTS?

• Comfortable riding
• Prevention of soil erosion
• Safety
PAVEMENT DESIGN INCLUDES
• Pavement section profile

• Materials used in layers
• Design life
• Drainage
• Shoulders
• Joints
• Reinforcements
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
• Constructed of bituminous and granular layers

• First asphalt roadway in the US was constructed in 1870 at
Newark, New Jersey
DESIGN METHODS
1(a) Empirical - No strength test (PR classification system)
Originally, soils are classified as uniform from A-1 to A-8 and
non-uniform from B-1 to B-3.
Later modified, soils were grouped from A-1 to A-7 and a group
index was added
Not widely used
1(b) Empirical – with strength test
The thickness of the pavement was related to the CBR
(California Bearing Ratio) values, defined as the penetration
resistance of a subgrade soil relative to a standard crushed rock
Very popular after World War II
Disadvantage: can be applied only to a given set of environment,

material and loading conditions
DESIGN METHODS (cont...)
2. Limiting shear failure methods

Determines thickness required preventing shear failure of
granular materials and subgrade soils
Ignores ride comfort
3. Limiting deflections method
Determines thickness to limit deflection of subgrade
Boussineq’s equation
Burmister 2-layer method
Computerized methods
Ignores stress and strain in individual layers
4. Regression methods
Based on analysis of road test performance (AASHo –
AASHTO road test)
Design equations are useful only for conditions included in
the test
New materials, new combinations cannot be reliably
designed
DESIGN METHODS (cont...)
5. Mechanistic-empirical methods
Mechanics of materials are used to relate wheel load to
pavement response (stress/strain/deflection)
Relationship between response and performance is based on
correlation to field performance
Improves reliability
Can predict future distresses
OTHER DEVELOPMENTS
• Computer programs
multi-layer theory
CHEV
DAMA
BISAR
ELSYM5
PDMAP
Finite element
SAPIV
ILLI-PAVE
MICH-PAVE (non-linear)
• Serviceability and Reliability – pavement thickness should also
depend on the terminal serviceability index required
• Dynamic Loads – considers inertia due to dynamic loads
RIGID PAVEMENT
• Constructed of Portland cement concrete

• First concrete pavement was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio 1893
• As of 2001, there were 59,000 mi (95,000 km) of rigid pavement
in the US
• Flexural stress – major (only) design factor
DESIGN METHODS
• Analytical – ranges from simple closed-form formulas to complex

derivations to determine stresses and deflections
Goldbeck solution
Westergaard’s liquid foundation
Pickett’s old foundation
Assumes full contact between slab and soil
• Numerical solutions
• discrete elements – assumes subgrade to be a dense liquid
(Hudson and Matlock, 1966)
• finite elements
WESLIQID, WESLAYER, ILLI-Slab, JSLAB, RISC
OTHER DEVELOPMENTS
• Fatigue of concrete
induced flexural stress could be repeated indefinitely without
causing rupture, provided the intensity of extreme fiber
stress did not exceed approximately 50% of the modulus of
rupture, and that, if the stress ratio was above 50%, the
allowable number of stress repetitions to cause failures
decreased drastically as the stress ratio increased (Bates
Road Test, 1923)
To obtain smoother fatigue curve, PCA method assumes a
stress ratio of 0.45
• Pumping – injection of water and subgrade soils through joints
and cracks and along the pavement edge
With increased truck traffic, subgrade type played an
important role in pavement performance
Rigid pavements were constructed on granular base courses
of varying thickness to protect against loss of subgrade
support due to pumping
• Probabilistic methods
FUNCTIONS OF A PAVEMENT
• Load Bearing Capacity: Distribute the load from tires to

subgrade
• Seal roadbed from moisture, prevent dust/loss of soil
• Smooth surface for comfortable ride
• Safe ride: “Friction with tire”, skid resistance
PAVEMENT TYPES
• Flexible Or Asphalt Pavements
• Rigid Or Concrete Pavements
• Composite Pavements
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
• Conventional Flexible Pavements

layered systems with better materials on top where the
intensity of stress is high and inferior materials at the
bottom where the intensity is low
Local materials can be used and results in a most economical
design (true in regions where high-quality materials are
expensive but local materials of inferior quality are readily
available)
Seal coat Surface course

Tack coat Binder course
Prime coat Base course
Subbase course
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS (cont...)
The use of various courses is based on either necessity or economy, some of the
courses may be omitted
Seal coat – a thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof the
surface or to provide skid resistance where the aggregates in the surface
course could be polished by traffic and become slippery; might or might
not be covered with aggregates
Surface course – top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called the
wearing course; usually constructed of dense graded HMA; must be tough
to resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-resistant
riding surface; must be waterproof to protect the entire pavement and
subgrade from the weakening effect of water

Subbase course
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
Binder course – sometimes called the asphalt base course, is the layer
below the surface course
o HMA is too thick to be compacted in one layer, so it must be placed
in two layers
o Binder course generally consists of larger aggregates and less
asphalt and does not require a high quality as the surface course
(economical)
o Binder course > 3 in is generally placed in two layers
Tack coat and Prime coat
o Tack coat – very light application of asphalt usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water, used to ensure a bond between the
surface being paved and the overlying course

Subbase course
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
Tack coat and Prime coat (cont...)
o Tack coat – also used to bond the asphalt layer to a PCC base or an
old asphalt pavement; 3 essential requirements: (a) must be very
thin (b) must uniformly cover the entire surface to be paved (c) must
be allowed to break or cure before the HMA is laid
o Prime coat – an application of low-viscosity cutback asphalt to an
absorbent surface, such as an untreated granular base on which an
asphalt layer will be placed; binds the granular base to the asphalt
layer
o Tack coat does not require penetration of asphalt into the underlying
layer, while prime coat penetrates into the underlying layer, plugs
the voids and forms a watertight surface. Both are sprayed
applications.

Subbase course
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
Base Course and Subbase Course

o Base course – layer of material immediately beneath the surface or
binder course; can be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag or
other untreated or stabilized materials
o Subbase course– layer of material beneath the base course
o The reason of two different granular materials are used is for
economy
Subgrade
o The top 6 in (152 mm) of subgrade should be scarified and
compacted to the desirable density near the optimum moist
content

Subbase course
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
• Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements

• Constructed by placing one or more layers of HMA directly on the
subgrade or improved subgrade
• Conceived by Asphalt Institute (AI) in 1960 and is generally
considered the most cost-effective and dependable type of asphalt
pavement for heavy traffic
• Popular in areas where local materials are not available
Advantages
• No permeable granular layers to
entrap water and impair
performance
• Reduced construction time 2-4 in
Asphalt surface
• Construction seasons may be
extended Asphalt base 2-20 in
• Provide and retain uniformity in
the pavement structure
• Less affected by moisture or frost Prepared subgrade
• Little or no reduction in subgrade
strength
PAVEMENT TYPES
• Contained Rock Asphalt Mats (CRAM)
• constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in
between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt
concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the
vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water
Advantages
• Reduce (eliminate) contamination of subbase with subgrade soil
• Lower vertical strain in subgrade and lower tensile strain in
granular layers
DISCUSSION
1. Importance of binder course
2. Importance of subbase and base
3. Why better materials are placed on top in layered flexible pavement?
PAVEMENT TYPES
RIGID PAVEMENTS
• Constructed of Portland cement concrete and should be analyzed by

the plate theory, instead of layered theory
• Plate theory – assumes the concrete slab to be a medium thick plate
with a plane before bending which remains a plane after bending
Use of base course
• As the weight and volume of traffic increased, pumping began to occur,
and the use of granular base course became quite popular.
1. Control of pumping
• Pumping – the ejection of water and subgrade soil through joints
and cracks along the edges of pavements, caused by downward
slab movements due to heavy axle loads
2. Control of frost action
• Frost action – results in frost heave, which causes concrete slabs to
break and softens the subgrade during the frost-melt period
Portland Cement Concrete 6-12 in

Base or subbase course (may or may
not be used) 4-12 in
PAVEMENT TYPES
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Use of base course (cont...)

3. Improvement of drainage
• When the water table is high and close to the ground surface, a base
course can raise the pavement to a desirable elevation above the water
table
• Open-graded base course can carry away water seeping through
pavement cracks and joints
4. Control of shrinkage and swell
• When moisture changes cause the subgrade to shrink and swell, the base
can serve as a surcharge load to reduce the amount of shrinkage and
swell
• Dense-graded or stabilized base course can serve as waterproofing layer
• Open-graded base course can serve as drainage layer
5. Expedition of construction
• Base course can be used as a working platform for heavy construction
equipments
• Base course can keep the surface clean and dry and facilitate the
construction work
Portland Cement Concrete 6-12 in
Base or subbase course (may or may
not be used) 4-12 in
PAVEMENT TYPES
TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
• Constructed with closely spaced contraction joints

• Dowels or aggregate interlocks may be used for load transfer across the
joints
• Recommended joint spacing: 15 to 30 ft (4.6 to 9.1 m)
• Recommended doweled spacing: < 20 ft (6.1 m)
• Recommended undoweled spacing: < 15 ft (4.6 m)
PAVEMENT TYPES
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
• Steel reinforcements in the form of wire mesh or deformed bars do not

increase the structural capacity of pavements but allow the use of
longer joint spacing
• Typical joint spacing: 30-100 ft (9.1 to 30 m)
• Dowels are required for load transfer across the joints
• Most economical joint spacing: 40 ft (12.2 m)
PAVEMENT TYPES
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
• Eliminates joints (first experiment in 1921) – joints were the weak

spots in rigid pavements
• Pavement thickness reduced to 1 to 2 in (25 to 50 mm) about 70 to 80%
of the conventional pavement
PAVEMENT TYPES
Pre-stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)
• Concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression

• Thickness of the concrete required is governed by its modulus of rupture, which
varies with the tensile strength of concrete
• Prestressed concrete pavements have less probability of cracking and fewer
transverse joints and therefore results in less maintenance and longer pavement life
• First known prestressed concrete pavement: 300 – ft (91-m) pavement in Delaware
(1971)
• Used more frequently in airport pavements than highway pavements because the
saving in thickness for airport pavements is much greater than that for highway
pavements.
PAVEMENT TYPES
COMPOSITE PAVEMENTS
• Composed of both HMA and PCC; PCC at the bottom and HMA on top
– results in an ideal pavement with the most desirable characteristic
• PCC provides a strong base and HMA provides a smooth and non-
reflective surface
DESIGN FACTORS
TRAFFIC AND LOADING
• Tire Loads - fundamental loads at the actual tire-pavement contact points

and are generally assumed to be equal for all tires on any given axle. For
most pavement analyses, it is assumed that the tire load is uniformly
applied over a circular area. Also, it is generally assumed that tire
inflation and contact pressures are the same (this is not exactly true, but
adequate for approximations). Load
a= tire
Pr essuretire
• Equivalent single axle loads (ESALs). This approach converts axle
configurations and axle loads of various magnitudes and repetitions
(‘mixed traffic’) to an equivalent number of ‘standard’ or ‘equivalent’ loads.
• Equivalent Damage – compares damage caused by a wheel to damage
caused by a standard wheel
• Number of repetitions – based on equivalent factors. Each load group is
converted into an equivalent 18 – kip (80-kN) axle load
DESIGN FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT
• Temperature
• AC softens in warm weather and hardens in cold weather
• Temperature gradient is PCC slabs affects curling and slab-soil
contact
• Frost Heave – differential settlements and roughness
• Spring thaw – saturated subgrade becomes weak
• Deicing salts and their adverse effects
• Precipitation
• Affects quantity of water infiltrating into subgrade and location of
groundwater table
• Weakens layers
• Shorter drainage time – less HMA moisture damage
DESIGN FACTORS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
• Stiffness
• Poisson ratio
• Strength
• Durability
• Permeability
• Thermal – Volumetric Properties
PAVEMENT MATERIALS
1. PCC
2. Soils/Granular Materials
3. Stabilized soils
4. HMA
5. Liquid Asphalts
DESIGN FACTORS
FAILURE CRITERIA
DISTRESS TYPES
• Flexible Pavements
• Fatigue cracking – based on the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of
HMA (relates to the allowable number of repetitions)
• Rutting in surface layer – permanent deformation or rut depth along the
wheel paths
• Rutting due to sub-surface layers – mainly due to the decrease in thickness
of the component layers above the subgrade
• Thermal cracking – occurs in locations where winter temperature falls
below -10° F. Pavement will crack when thermal stress is greater than the
fracture strength
• Thermal fatigue cracking – caused by tensile strain in the asphalt layer
due to daily temperature cycle
• Rigid Pavements
• Fatigue cracking – most likely caused by the edge stress at the mid-slab.
Allowable load repetitions depend on the stress ratio between flexural
tensile stress and the concrete modulus of rupture
• Pumping or erosion – caused by the resilient deformation under repeated
wheel loads.
• Faulting, spalling and joint deterioration – major types of distress in rigid
pavement that are difficult to analyze mechanistically.
STRESSES AND STRAINS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
BOUSSINESQ THEORY (1885)

• Can be used to solve for concentrated load applied on a single,
homogenous elastic half-space
• Half-space – an infinitely large area and an infinite depth with a top
plane on which the loads are applied
• Half-space subjected to:
• A circular load with radius a and a uniform pressure q
• Elastic modulus E and a Poisson ratio v
• An element at depth z and distance r from the load center has 3
normal stresses and one shear stress, which are functions of q,
r/a, and z/a.
BURMISTER (1943)
• Introduced the multi-layered elastic theory
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
SOLUTION BY CHARTS
• Foster and Ahlvin (1954) presented charts for determining vertical

stress σz, radial stress σr, tangential stress σt, shear stress τrz, and
vertical deflection w.
• Assume a half-space to be incompressible with Poisson ratio of 0.5
• After the stresses are obtained from the charts, the strains can be
obtained from the following equations:
εz =
1
[σ z − υ (σ r + σ t )]
E
ε r = [σ r − υ (σ t + σ z )]
1
E
ε t = [σ t − υ (σ z + σ r )]
1
E
• If the contact area consists of two circles, the stresses and strains can
be computed by superposition
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
EXAMPLE 1
The figure shows a homogeneous half-space subjected to two circular

loads, each 10 in (254 mm) in diameter and spaced at 20 in (508 mm) on
centers. The pressure on the circular area is 50 psi (345 kPa). The half-
space has an elastic modulus of 10,000 psi (69 MPa) and Poisson ratio of
0.5. Determine the vertical stress, strain and deflection at point A, which
is located 10 in (254 mm) below the center of one circle.
10 in. 10 in.
50 psi 50 psi
E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.5
10 in. 20 in.
A
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
SOLUTION
10 in. 10 in.
GIVEN: a = 5 in. (127 mm)
50 psi 50 psi
q = 50 psi (345 kPa)
z = 10 in (254 mm)
E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.5
LEFT LOAD: r = 0, r/a = 0 10 in. 20 in.

z/a = 10/5 = 2.0
A
From Figures 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
RIGHT LOAD: r/a=20/5=4
σz σt z/a = 10/5 = 2
×100% = 28 ×100% = 1.6
q q
28 × 50 0.76 × 50
σz = = 14 psi 1.6 × 50 σz = = 0.38 psi
100 σt = = 0.8 psi 100
100
σr 2.6 × 50
×100% = 1.6 σr = = 1.3 psi
q 100
1.6 × 50
σt = 0
σr = = 0.8 psi
100
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
SOLUTION
10 in. 10 in.
SUPERPOSITION:
50 psi 50 psi
σ z = 14 + 0.38 = 14.38 psi
σ r = 0.8 + 1.3 = 2.1 psi E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.5
σ t = 0.8 + 0 = 0.8 psi 10 in. 20 in.
VERTICAL STRAIN at A, εz
A
ε z = [σ z − υ (σ r + σ t )]
1
E
εz =
1
[14.38 − 0.5(2.1 + 0.8)]
10,000
ε z = 0.00129
DEFLECTION at A, w
qa
w= F ; Fleft = 0.68, Fright = 0.21
E
50 × 5
w= × (0.68 + 0.21) = 0.022in
10,000
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
SOLUTIONS AT AXIS OF SYMMETRY
• Load is applied over a single circular area, most critical stress, strain and
deflection occurs under the center of circular area on the axis of symmetry,
where τrz=0 and σr= σt, so σz and σr are the principle stresses
FLEXIBLE PLATE
• The load applied from tire to pavement is similar to a flexible plate with a
radius a and a uniform pressure q. The stresses beneath the center of the
plate can be determined from Uniform pressure q
 z3 
σ z = q 1 − 2 2 1.5  Pressure
 (a + z )  distribution
q 2(1 + υ ) z z3 
σ r = 1 + 2υ − 2 2 0.5 + 2 2 1.5 
2 (a + z ) (a + z )  Deflection
basin
• σz is independent of E and ν, and σr is independent of E

HOMOGENEOUS MASS
FLEXIBLE PLATE
• Strain can be determined by
(1 + υ )q  2υz z3 
εz = 1 − 2υ + − 
E  (a 2 + z 2 ) 0.5 (a 2 + z 2 )1.5 
(1 + υ )q  2(1 − υ ) z z3 
εr = 1 − 2υ − + 
2E  (a 2 + z 2 ) 0.5 ( a 2 + z 2 )1.5 
• The vertical deflection w is calculated from
(1 + υ ) qa 1 − 2υ
w=

 2
+
a
2 0 .5
+ [
( a 2
+ z 2 0 .5
) − ]
z


E  ( a z ) a 
• When ν = 0; 3qa 2
w= ;υ = 0 .5
2 E ( a 2 + z 2 ) 0 .5
• On the surface of the half-space, z = 0

2 (1 − υ 2 ) qa
wo =
E
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
EXAMPLE 2
Same as Example 1, except that only the left loaded area exists and
the Poisson ratio = 0.3, as shown. Determine the stresses, strains and
deflection at A.
10 in.
50 psi
E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3
10 in.
A
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
10 in.
SOLUTION 50 psi
GIVEN: a = 5 in. (127 mm) E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3

q = 50 psi (345 kPa)
z = 10 in (254 mm) 10 in.
A
 10 3

σ z = 501 − 2 1.5 
= 14.2 psi
 (5 + 10 ) 
2
50  2(1 + 0.3)10 103 

σ r = 1 + 2 × 0.3 − 2 + 
2  (5 + 10 2 ) 0.5 (52 + 10 2 )1.5 
σ r = −0.25 psi
Negative sign indicates tension, in contrast to a compressive stress of 0.8 psi

when ν = 0.5
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
10 in.
SOLUTION 50 psi
E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3

(1 + 0.3)50  2 × 0.3 ×10 103 
εz = 1 − 2 × 0. 3 + − 
10,000  (52 + 10 2 ) 0.5 (52 + 10 2 )1.5  10 in.
ε z = 0.00144
(1 + 0.3)50  2(1 − 0.3)10 103  A
εr = 1 − 2 × 0. 3 − + 
2 ×10,000  (52 + 10 2 ) 0.5 (52 + 10 2 )1.5 
ε r = −0.00044
w=
(1 + 0 .3)50 × 5 
 2
5
+
1 − 2 × 0 .3 2
( 5 + [
10 2 0 .5
) − 10

 ]
 (5 + 10 )
2 0 .5
10 ,000 5 
w = 0 .0176 in
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
RIGID PLATE
• The deflection is the same at all points on the plate, but the pressure
distribution under the plate is not uniform
• The pressure distribution under a rigid plate is expressed as (Ullidtz, 1987)
qa
q (r ) =
2(a 2 − r 2 ) 0.5
• The deflection of the plate is
π (1 − υ 2 )qa
wo =
2E Nonuniform
Pressure q(r)
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
EXAMPLE 3
A plate loading test using a plate of 12-in (305 mm) diameter was
performed on the surface of the subgrade as shown. A total load of 8000 lb
(35.6 kN) was applied to the plate and a deflection of 0.1 in (2.54 mm) was
measured. Assuming that the subgrade has Poisson ratio of 0.4, determine
the elastic modulus of the subgrade.
12 in
8000 lb
Rigid plate
deflects 0.1 in
ν = 0.4 E = ?
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
SOLUTION
AVERAGE PRESSURE q 12 in
8000 lb
8000
q= = 70.74 psi Rigid plate
36π deflects 0.1 in
π (1 − υ 2 )qa
wo = ν = 0.4 E = ?
2E
π (1 − υ 2 )qa π (1 − 0.4 2 )70.74 × 6
E= =
2 wo 2 × 0.1
E = 5600 psi
STRESSES AND STRAINS IN RIGID PAVEMENT
TYPES OF STRESSES
STRESSES DUE TO CURLING
• When the temperature on the top of the slab is greater than that at the bottom,
the top tends to expand with respect to the neutral axis, while the bottom tends
to contract
• Due to temperature and moisture gradients
• Can be explained in two ways
• Weight of the slab
• Theory of plate on a Winkler foundation
• Curling stresses are not considered in slab thickness design because
• Joints and steel are used to relieve and take care of curling stresses
• When the fatigue principal is used for design, it is practical to combine
loading and curling stresses
• Curling stresses may be added or subtracted from the loading stresses to
obtain the combined stresses
Elastic solid foundation

Winkler foundation
(deflection only where the load
is applied)
TYPES OF STRESSES
WEIGHT OF SLAB THEORY OF PLATE ON A

WINKLER FOUNDATION
Day
Night
TYPES OF STRESSES
STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING
• Methods to determine stresses and deflections in concrete

• Closed – form formula (Westergaard, 1926) for single wheel load
• Influence charts (Pickett and Ray, 1951) for multiple wheel load
• Finite element for multiple slabs on liquid, solid, layer foundation with
load transfer across the joints
CORNER LOADING
GOLDBECK AND OLDER

• A concentrated load is applied at the corner 2x
• Subgrade support is neglected P
• Slab is considered a cantilever beam x
3P
σc = P
h2
TYPES OF STRESSES
CORNER LOADING
WESTERGAARD
• A circular load is applied
• Subgrade reaction is taken into account
3P   a 2  
0.6
σ c = 2 1 −   
h   l  
 
P   a 2 
∆ c = 2 1.1 − 0.88 

kl   l 
Where: σc = stress due to corner loading P 0.25
 Eh 3 
∆c = corner deflection l= 
12(1 − υ )k 
2
P = concentrated load
h = slab thickness E = 4 ×10 6 psi
l = radius of relative stiffness
E = 27.6GPa
a = radius of the contact area
k = modulus of subgrade reaction υ = 0.15
TYPES OF STRESSES
CORNER LOADING
IONNIDES ET AL
• Applied finite-element method to evaluate Westergaard’s solution
3P   c  
0.72
σ c = 2 1 −   
h   l  
P   c 
∆c = 1.205 − 0.69 
kl 2   l 
Where: σc = stress due to corner loading P

∆c = corner deflection
h = slab thickness
c = side length of a square contact area; c = 1.772a
k = modulus of subgrade reaction
TYPES OF STRESSES
EXAMPLE 4
The figure shows a concrete slab subjected to a corner loading. Given k = 100
pci (27.2 MN/m3), h = 10 in (254 mm), a = 6 in (152 mm) and P = 10,000 lb (44.5
kN), determine the maximum stress and deflection due to the corner loading.
10,000 lb
h = 10 in
a = 6 in
k = 100 pci
TYPES OF STRESSES
10,000 lb
SOLUTION
GOLDBECK AND OLDER h = 10 in

3P 3 × 10,000 a = 6 in
σc = 2 = 2
= 300 psi k = 100 pci
h 10
WESTERGAARD
0.25
 Eh 3 
l= 
12(1 − υ )k  3P   a 2   3 ×10,000   6 2  
2 0.6 0.6
σ c = 2 1 −  = 1 −  = 186.653 psi
0.25 h   l   10 2    42. 972 
 
 4 × 106 × 103    
l= 
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
P   a 2  10,000   6 2 
∆c = −   = −  
kl 2
 1.1 0.88 l  100 × 42.972 2  1.1 0.88 42.972  = 0.0502 in
     
l = 42.972 in
TYPES OF STRESSES
10,000 lb
SOLUTION
IONNIDES ET AL h = 10 in
0.25 a = 6 in
 Eh 3 
l=  k = 100 pci
12(1 − υ )k 
2
0.25
 4 × 106 × 103 
l= 
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
l = 42.972 in
c = 1.772a = 1.772 × 6 = 10.632
3P   c   3 × 10,000   10.632  
0.72 0.72
σ c = 2 1 −    = 1 −    = 190.254 psi
h   l   10 2   42.972  
P   c  10,000   10.632 
∆c = 1.205 − 0.69 l  = 100 × 42.972 2 1.205 − 0.69 42.972  = 0.056 in
kl 2      
TYPES OF STRESSES
INTERIOR LOADING
WESTERGAARD
• A circular load is applied at the interior of the slab
0.316 P  l 
σi = 4 log  + 1.069
h 2  b


P  1  a  a 
2

∆i =  1 + ln
 2l   − 0.673 l  
8kl 2  2π      
Where: σi = stress due to interior loading P
∆i = interior deflection
h = slab thickness
a = contact area
b = a when a ≥ 1.724h; when a < 1.724h, b = 1.6a + h − 0.675h
2 2

TYPES OF STRESSES
EXAMPLE 5
Same as Example 4, except that the load is applied in the interior. Determine
the maximum stress and deflection due to interior loading.
10,000 lb
h = 10 in
a = 6 in
k = 100 pci
TYPES OF STRESSES
SOLUTION
0.25
 Eh 3  10,000 lb
l=  h = 10 in
12(1 − υ )k 
2
0.25 a = 6 in
 4 × 106 × 103 
l= 
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
k = 100 pci
l = 42.972 in
1.724h = 1.724 ×10 = 17.24 > a = 6
b = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h = 1.6 × 6 2 + 10 2 − 0.675 ×10
b = 5.804 in
0.316 ×10,000   42.972  
σi =  4 log  + 1 .069  = 143.680 psi
10 2   5.804  
P  1  a  a 
2
 10,000  1   6   6 
2

∆i = 1 + ln 2l  − 0.673 l  = 1 + ln 2 × 42.972  − 0.673 42.972  
8kl 2  2π  8 ×100 × 42.972  2π
2
          
∆ i = 0.0067 in
TYPES OF STRESSES
EDGE LOADING
WESTERGAARD
• A circular and semi-circular load is applied at the edge of the slab
 l  a 
σe =
0 . 803 P
h2  4 log  a  + 0 . 666  l  − 0 . 034 
   
circle
 
 l  a 
σe semi − circle
=
0 . 803 P
h2  4 log  a  + 0 . 282  l  − 0 . 650 
   
 
  a 
∆e
0 . 431 P
= 1 − 0 . 82  l  
circle kl 2   
 a 
∆e
0 . 431 P
= 1 − 0 . 349  
semi − circle kl 2  l 
Where: σi = stress due to interior loading P
∆i = interior deflection
h = slab thickness
a = radius of the contact area
TYPES OF STRESSES
EXAMPLE 6
Same as Example 5, except that the load is applied to the slab edge.
Determine the maximum stress and deflection under both circular and
semi-circular areas.
10,000 lb
h = 10 in
a = 6 in
k = 100 pci
TYPES OF STRESSES
STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING 10,000 lb
SOLUTION
0.25
 Eh 3  h = 10 in
l= 
12 (1 − υ 2
) k  a = 6 in
 4 ×106 ×103 
0.25 k = 100 pci
l=  = 42.972 in
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
0.803P  l a 

σe =
h 2 
4 log 
a
+ 0. 666 
l
− 0.034 
circle

0.803 ×10,000   42.972   6  
=  4 log  + 0. 666  − 0. 034  = 279.374 psi
10 2   6   42.972  
0.431P   a 
∆e =
kl 2 
1 − 0. 82 
circle
 l 
0.431×10,000   6 
= 1 − 0.82  = 0.0207 in
100 × 42.972 2   42. 972 
TYPES OF STRESSES
STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING 10,000 lb
SOLUTION 0.25
 Eh 3 
l= 
12(1 − υ ) k 
2
0.25
h = 10 in
 4 ×10 ×10 
6 3
a = 6 in
l= 
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
k = 100 pci
l = 42.972 in
 l a 
σe semi − circle
=
0 .803 P
h2  4 log  
a
+ 0 . 282  
l
− 0 . 650 
 
0 .803 × 10 ,000   42 .972   6  
=  4 log   + 0 . 282   − 0 . 650  = 225 .604 psi
10 2   6   42 . 972  
  a 
∆e
0 .431 P
= 1 − 0 . 349  
semi − circle kl 2   l 
0 .431 × 10 ,000   6 
= 1 − 0 . 349    = 0 .0222 in
100 × 42 .972 2   42 . 972 
TYPES OF STRESSES
STRESSES DUE TO FRICTION

• The friction between a concrete slab and its foundation causes
tensile stresses in the concrete, in the steel reinforcements, if any,
and in the tie bars
• Plain concrete pavements: spacing of contraction joints must be
chosen in such a way that the stresses due to friction will not
cause the concrete to crack
Doweled transverse joints

Longitudinal joint
Tie bars
Wire fabric or distributed steel
TYPES OF STRESSES
EFFECT OF VOLUME CHANGE ON CONCRETE

• Induces tensile stress and causes the concrete to crack
• Causes the joint to open and decrease the efficiency of the load transfer
CONCRETE STRESS
L/2 Plane of
γ c Lf a
symmetry σc =
2
σ ch
h
Where:
Frictional σc = stress in concrete
stress γc = unit weight of concrete (150 pcf,
Center of slab 0.0868 pci, 23.6 kN/m3)
frictional stress
Fully mobilized
fa = average coefficient of friction between

slab and subgrade
L = length of slab
TYPES OF STRESSES
CONCRETE STRESS
Example 7
Given a concrete pavement with a joint spacing of 25 ft (7.6 m) and a
coefficient of friction of 1.5, determine the stress in concrete due to friction.
SOLUTION:
γ C = 0.0868 pci, L = 25 ft , f a = 1.5

γ Lf 0.0868 × 25 ×12 ×1.5
σc = c a = = 19.5 psi
2 2
Note: The tensile stress of concrete ranges from 3 f c' to 5 f c' ; fc’=3000 psi (13.8
MPa), tensile stress of concrete > 19.5 psi; therefore joint spacing in plain
concrete pavements are not influenced by concrete stress due to friction
TYPES OF STRESSES
JOINT OPENING
• Joint spacing in plain concrete pavements depends more on the shrinkage
characteristics of the concrete rather than on the stress in the concrete
• Longer joint spacing causes joint to open wider and decrease the efficiency
of load transfer
• The opening of a joint can be computed approximately by (Darter and
Barenberg, 1977)
∆L = CL(α t ∆T + ε )
• Where: ∆L = joint opening caused by temperature change and drying shrinkage of
concrete
αt = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete (5 to 6 x 10-6/°F, 9 to 10.8 x
10-6/°C)
ε = drying shrinkage coefficient of concrete (approx. 0.5 to 2.5 x 10-4)
L = joint spacing or slab length
∆T = temperature range; temperature at placement minus the lowest mean
monthly temperature;
C = adjustment factor due to slab-subbase friction (0.65 for stabilized base and
0.8 for granular subbase)
TYPES OF STRESSES
JOINT OPENING
Example 8
Determine the maximum allowable spacing for a given slab with allowable
joint openings for undoweled and doweled joints of 0.05 and 0.25 in (1.3 and 6.4
mm), respectively. Given: ∆T=60°F (33°C), αt = 5.5 x 10-6/°F(αt = 9.9 x 10-6/°C), ɛ = 1.0 x
10-4, C = 0.65.
SOLUTION:
∆L ∆L
L= =
(
C (α t ∆T + ε ) 0.65 5.5 × 10 −6 × 60 + 1.1 × 10 − 4 )
Undoweled Joints
0.05
L= = 178.6 in = 14.9 ft (4.5 m)
(
0.65 5.5 × 10 −6 × 60 + 1.1 × 10 − 4 )
Doweled Joints
0.25
L= = 892.9 in = 74.4 ft (22.7 m)
(
0.65 5.5 × 10 −6 × 60 + 1.1 × 10 − 4 )
TYPES OF STRESSES
STEEL STRESSES
• Steel is used in concrete pavements as reinforcements, tie bars and dowel
bars
• Design of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements and of the tie bars
across longitudinal joints is based on the stresses due to friction unlike the
design of the dowel bars
REINFORCEMENTS
• Wire fabric or bar mats may be used in concrete slabs for control of
temperature cracking
• Reinforcements do not increase the structural capacity of the slab but are
used for two purposes:
• Increase the joint spacing
• Maintain load transfers through aggregate interlocks
• Using steel reinforcements, it is assumed that all tensile stresses are taken
by the steel alone, therefore, σch would be replaced by As fs
γ c hLf a
As = As = area of steel required per unit width
fs = allowable stress in steel
2 fs
YIELD STRENGTH AND ALLOWABLE STRESS FOR STEEL
Type and Grade of Steel Yield strength (psi) Allowable Stress (psi)
Billet steel, intermediate grade 40,000 27,000
Rail steel or hard grade of billet steel 50,000 33,000
Rail steel, special grade 60,000 40,000
Billet steel, 60,000 psi minimum yield 60,000 40,000
Cold drawn wire (smooth) 65,000 43,000
Cold drawn wire (deformed) 70,000 46,000
WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD REINFORCING BARS

Nominal Dimensions, Round Sections
Bar size Weight
Cross-sectional
Designation (lb/ft) Diameter (in) Perimeter (in)
area (in2)
No. 3 0.376 0.375 0.11 1.178
No. 4 0.668 0.500 0.20 1.571
No. 5 1.043 0.625 0.31 1.963
No. 6 1.502 0.750 0.44 2.356
No. 7 2.044 0.875 0.60 2.749
No. 8 2.670 1.000 0.79 3.142
No. 9 3.400 1.128 1.00 3.544
No. 10 4.303 1.270 1.27 3.990
No. 11 5.313 1.410 1.56 4.430
WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Wire size No. Diameter Wieght Cross-sectional area (in2/ft) center to center (in)
Smooth Deformed (in/ft) (lb) 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
W31 D31 0.628 1.054 1.86 1.24 0.93 0.62 0.465 0.372 0.31
W30 D30 0.618 1.020 1.80 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.45 0.36 0.3
W28 D28 0.597 0.952 1.68 1.12 0.84 0.56 0.42 0.336 0.28
W26 D26 0.575 0.934 1.56 1.04 0.78 0.52 0.39 0.312 0.26
W24 D24 0.553 0.816 1.44 0.96 0.72 0.48 0.36 0.288 0.24
W22 D22 0.529 0.748 1.32 0.88 0.66 0.44 0.33 0.264 0.22
W20 D20 0.504 0.680 1.20 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.24 0.2
W18 D18 0.478 0.612 1.08 0.72 0.54 0.36 0.27 0.216 0.18
W16 D16 0.451 0.544 0.96 0.64 0.48 0.32 0.24 0.192 0.16
W14 D14 0.422 0.476 0.84 0.56 0.42 0.28 0.21 0.168 0.14
W12 D12 0.390 0.408 0.72 0.48 0.36 0.24 0.18 0.144 0.12
W11 D11 0.374 0.374 0.66 0.44 0.33 0.22 0.165 0.132 0.11
W10.5 0.366 0.357 0.63 0.42 0.315 0.21 0.157 0.126 0.105
W10 D10 0.356 0.340 0.60 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.12 0.1
W9.5 0.348 0.323 0.57 0.38 0.285 0.19 0.124 0.114 0.095
W9 D9 0.338 0.306 0.54 0.36 0.27 0.18 0.135 0.108 0.09
W8.5 0.329 0.289 0.51 0.34 0.255 0.17 0.127 0.102 0.085
W8 D8 0.319 0.272 0.48 0.32 0.24 0.16 0.12 0.096 0.08
W7.5 0.309 0.255 0.45 0.3 0.225 0.15 0.112 0.09 0.075
W7 D7 0.298 0.238 0.42 0.28 0.21 0.14 0.102 0.084 0.07
W6.5 0.288 0.221 0.39 0.26 0.195 0.13 0.097 0.078 0.065
W6 D6 0.276 0.204 0.36 0.24 0.18 0.12 0.09 0.072 0.06
W5.5 0.264 0.187 0.33 0.22 0.165 0.11 0.082 0.066 0.055
W5 D5 0.252 0.170 0.30 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.075 0.06 0.05
W4.5 0.240 0.153 0.27 0.18 0.135 0.09 0.067 0.054 0.045
W4 D4 0.225 0.136 0.24 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.048 0.04
SOURCE: WRI (1975)

TYPES OF STRESSES
STEEL STRESSES (REINFORCEMENT)
Example 9
Determine the wire fabric required for a two-lane concrete pavement, 8 in (203
mm) thick, 60 ft (18.3 m ) long and 24 ft (7.3 m) wide, with a longitudinal joint at
the center as shown.
SOLUTION: γc=0.0868 pci (23.6 kN/m3)

fa= 1.5 24 ft
fs= 43,000 psi (297 Mpa)
γ c hLf a 0.0868 × 8 × 60 × 12 × 1.5

As = = 60 ft
2 fs 2 × 43000
in 2 in 2 longitudinal
As = 0.00872 = 0.105
in ft
γ c hLf a 0.0868 × 8 × 24 × 12 × 1.5

As = =
2 fs 2 × 43000
in 2 in 2 transverse
As = 0.00349 = 0.042
in ft
TYPES OF STRESSES
TIE BARS
• Tie bars are placed along the longitudinal joint to tie the two slabs together so that
the joint will be tightly closed and the load transfer across the joint can be ensured
• The amount of steel required for tie bars can be determined in the same way as the
longitudinal and transverse reinforcements
As = area of steel required per unit length of slab
γ c hL f a
'
L’ = distance from the longitudinal joint to the free
As = edge where no tie bars exist (two-or-three-
2 fs
lane highways, L’=lane width; four-lane
highway, L’=lane width for the two outer joint
and twice the width for the inner joint)
• Length of tie bars is governed by the allowable bond stress (deformed bars,
allowable bond stress = 350 psi (2.4 Mpa) may be assumed)
• Length of bar should be based on the full strength of the bar
1 f d 
t =  s  d = bar diameter
2 µ  µ = allowable bond stress
• Length t should be increased by 3 in (76 mm) for misalignment
• Standard tie-bar design for simplified construction (most commonly used): 0.5 in
(13 mm) diameter by 36 in (914 mm) long spaced at intervals of 30 to 40 in (762 to
1016 mm)
TYPES OF STRESSES
STEEL STRESSES (TIE BARS)
Example 10
Determine the diameter, spacing and length of the tie bars required for a two-
lane concrete pavement, 8 in (203 mm) thick, 60 ft (18.3 m ) long and 24 ft (7.3 m)
wide, with a longitudinal joint at the center as shown.
SOLUTION: Using billet steel

γc=0.0868 pci (23.6 kN/m3)
L’= 12 ft = 144 in
24 ft
fa= 1.5
fs= 27,000 psi (186 MPa) No. 4 deformed bars, 24 in long, 3 ft o.c.
γ c hL' f a 0.0868 × 8 ×144 × 1.5 in 2 60 ft
As = = = 0.00556
2 fs 2 × 27,000 in
Using No. 4 (0.5 in or 1.2 mm diameter) bars, cross-sectional area = 0.2 in2
Bar spacing: barspacing = 0.2 = 35.971 ≈ 36in(914mm)
0.00556
µ = 350 psi (2.4 MPa), t = 1  f s d  = 1  27,000 × 0.5  = 19.256 ≈ 19.3in
  t = 19.3 + 3 = 22.3 in
2 µ  2 350  (use 24 in or 610 mm)
TYPES OF STRESSES
DESIGN OF DOWELS
• Usually used across the transverse joint to transfer the loads to the
adjoining slab
• Stress and deflection at the joint are much smaller when the loads are
carried by two slabs, instead of one alone
• Use of dowels minimizes faulting and pumping
ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS

• Size and spacing of dowels required are governed by the bearing stress
between the dowel and concrete
4−d  '
fb =   fc
 3 
• Where: fc’ = ultimate compressive strength of concrete (about 3000 psi or 20.7 MPa)
fb = allowable bearing stress (psi)
d = dowel diameter (in)
TYPES OF STRESSES
BEARING STRESS ON ONE DOWEL
• The stress between by viewing the dowel as a beam supported by a flexible

foundation
• Maximum deformation of concrete under the dowel is expressed as
 [P (2 + βz ] 1 Kd
yo =  t 3 I
 d = πd 4
β = 4
 4 β E I
d d  64 4 Ed I d
Where: yo = deformation of dowel at face of joint
Pt = load on one dowel
z = joint width
K = modulus of dowel support (300,000 to 1,500,000 pci or 81.5 to 409 GN/m3)
β = relative stiffness of dowel embedded in concrete
Ed = Young’s modulus of dowel
Id = moment of inertia of dowel
• Bearing stress is proportional to the deformation (should be lower than σallow)
KPt (2 + βz )
σ b = Kyo =
4 β 3 Ed I d
• If σb> σallow, use larger dowel bars or smaller spacing

TYPES OF STRESSES
DOWEL GROUP ACTION
• When load W is applied on one slab near the joint, the dowel group
transfers some load to the adjacent slab
• If 100% efficient, both slabs will deflect equally and relative forces under the slabs
will be equal to 0.5W
• Based on Westergaard’s solution
• Maximum negative moment for both interior and edge loadings occur at a
distance 1.8l from the load (l = radius of relative stiffness)
• At maximum moment, the shear forces equals to 0
• The shear in each dowel decreases inversely with the distance of the dowel
from the point of loading
TYPES OF STRESSES
DESIGN OF DOWELS
Example 11
The concrete pavement shown, 8 in thick has a joint width of 0.2 in (5.1 mm),
modulus of subgrade reaction of 100 pci (27 kN/m3) and modulus of dowel support
of 1.5 x 106 pci (4.7 GN/m3). A load of 9000 lb (40 kN) is applied over the outermost
dowel at a distance of 6 in (152 mm) from the edge. The dowels are ¾ in (19 mm) in
diameter and 12 in (305 mm) on centers. Determine the maximum bearing stress
between the dowel and the concrete. 9000 lb
6 in 1.8l=65.43 in
0.25
SOLUTION:  Eh 3 
l=  8 in
12(1 − υ )k 
2
0.82Pt
0.45Pt
0.09Pt
0.64Pt
0.27Pt
0.25
 4 × 106 × 83 
l=  = 36.35in
12(1 − 0.15 )100 
2
Pt
1.8l = 1.8 × 36.35 = 65.43in
Assuming a straight-line variation, the sum of the forces of the dowels = 3.27Pt equal to ½ of the
applied load based on 100% joint efficiency
4500
Pt = = 1376.147lb(6.1kN )
3.27
TYPES OF STRESSES
9000 lb
DESIGN OF DOWELS 6 in 1.8l=65.43 in
Example 11 (cont...) 8 in
0.82Pt
0.45Pt
0.09Pt
0.64Pt
0.27Pt
SOLUTION:
1 1
Id = πd 4 = π × 0.75 4 = 0.0155 in 4 Pt
64 64
Kd 1 . 5 × 10 6
× .75
β =4 =4 = 0.889 in (22.6 mm)
4Ed I d 4 × 29 × 10 6 × 0.0155
KPt (2 + βz ) 1.5 × 10 6 × 1376(2 + 0.889 × 0.2)

σ b = Ky o = =
4β 3 E d I d 4 × 0.889 3 × 29 × 10 6 × 0.0155
σ b = 3558.219 psi (24.552 MPa )
Check allowable bearing stress

 4 − d  '  4 − 0.75 
σ allow = f b =   fc =   × 3000 = 3250 < 3558.219
 3   3 
σb > σallow, therefore the design is not satisfactory
TYPES OF STRESSES
DESIGN OF JOINTS
• Prevents premature cracks due to temperature and moisture changes
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. CONTRACTION JOINTS
• Transverse joints used to relieve tensile stresses
• Spacing is based on experience since the change in coarse aggregate types may have a
significant effect on the concrete’s thermal coefficient
• Rough guide: joint spacing ≤ twice slab thickness
TYPES OF STRESSES
TYPES OF JOINTS
• A dummy groove is formed by placing a metal strip on the fresh concrete,
which is later removed, or by sawing after the concrete is set. The groove is
then sealed with a plastic material
• Closer joint spacing: load transfer across the joint can be achieved by the aggregate
interlock and no dowels may be needed
• Longer joint spacing: joint may open up and the load transfer through the aggregate
interlock may be used; dowels are needed
• Joints can be formed by placing a felt, asphalt ribbon or asphalt board strip in the fresh
concrete and leaving it permanently
Typical Contraction Joints
Felt, asphalt ribbon or asphalt
board strip
Lubricated
smooth
Seal with plastic material dowel bar
Lubricated Premolded strip

smooth
dowel bar
Dummy Groove
TYPES OF STRESSES
TYPES OF JOINTS
• Usually placed at regular intervals perpendicular to the center line of the
pavement
• Skewed joints with randomized spacing have also been used
• The right and left wheels do not arrive at the joints simultaneously, minimize faulted
joints
• Randomized spacing reduces the resonance and improve the riding comfort
TYPES OF STRESSES
TYPES OF JOINTS
2. EXPANSION JOINT
• Transverse joints for the relief of compressive stress
• Difficult to maintain and susceptible to pumping; no longer
used today
• The minimum width of joint is ¾ in (19 mm). Smooth dowel
bars lubricated at least on one side must be used for dowel
movements. An expansion cap must be installed at the free
end to provide space for dowel movements
¾ in (19 mm) minimum

Seal with plastic material
Expansion cap
fixed
Smooth, lubricated dowel bar

Non-extruding filler
TYPES OF STRESSES
TYPES OF JOINTS
3. CONSTRUCTION JOINT
• If possible, transverse construction joints should be
placed at the location of the contraction joint
• If work must be stopped due to an emergency or machine
breakdown, the key joint placed only in the middle third of a
normal joint interval may be used. Key joints have not
performed well and many failures occurred
First slab First slab
Smooth, lubricated Smooth, lubricated

dowel bars dowel bars
Butt joint at contraction joint Key joint for emergency

TYPES OF STRESSES
TYPES OF JOINTS
4. LONGITUDINAL JOINT
• Relieves curling and warping stresses
• Lane-at-a-time construction is used when it is necessary to
maintain traffic on the other lane
1:4 slope
0.2h
h
First slab 0.1h Deformed bar
Longitudinal joints for lane-at-a-time

construction
Longitudinal joints for full-width construction

Steel plate
Deformed bar Deformed bar Deformed bar
Dummy Groove Ribbon or Deformed plate

premolded strip
Traffic Loading and Volume
Most important factor in pavement analysis and design. Main types of

procedures for traffic loading includes:
• Fixed Traffic
• Fixed Vehicle
• Variable Vehicle traffic
Any design procedure should include

• Loading magnitude
• Loading configurations
• Number of repetitions
FIXED TRAFFIC
• Design thickness of pavement is determined by single load
magnitude independent of load repetitions
• Any wheel configuration is converted to equivalent single-wheel load
(ESWL)
• Design is performed based on the largest equivalent single load
within all configurations
• Commonly used for airports and heavy-traffic highways
• Not commonly-used today
EQUIVALENT SINGLE-WHEEL LOAD
• First introduced during World War II for the wheel loads of B-29
bombers
• ESWL calculated depends on the criteria selected
• Most commonly-used criteria
• Equivalent vertical stress
• Equivalent vertical deflection
• Equal tensile strain
• Equal contact area
EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (ESWL)
Equal Vertical Stress Criterion
• Boyd and Foster (1950) presented a semirational method for

determining ESWL from a theoretical consideration of the vertical
stress in an elastic half-space
• Used by the US Corps of Engineers to produce dual-wheel design
criteria from single-wheel criteria
• Assumes that the ESWL varies with the pavement thickness
2Pd
ESWL
No stress overlap if P
pavement thickness
is smaller than d/2
Complete stress
overlap if pavement Pd
thickness is greater
than 2Sd
z=d/2 z z=2Sd
Depth
0.301 log(2 z / d )
log( ESWL) = log Pd +
log(4 S d / d )
Example 12
A set of dual tires has a total load 2Pd of 9000 lb (40 kN), a contact
radius a of 4.5 in (114 mm) and a center to center spacing Sd of 13.5
in (343 in), as shown. Determine the ESWL by Boyd and Foster’s
method for a 13.5 in (343 mm) pavement.
ESWL 9000 lb
7400 lb
4500 lb
2.25 13.5 27
Depth (in)
0.301log(2 z / d )
log(ESWL) = log Pd +
log(4 S d / d )
0.301log(2 × 13.5 / 4.5)
log(ESWL) = log 4500 + = 3.870
log(4 ×13.5 / 4.5)
ESWL = 7417.383 lb
Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion
• Foster and Ahlvin (1958) – the pavement system is considered as a

homogeneous half-space and the vertical deflections at a depth equal
to the thickness of the pavement can be obtained by Boussinesq’s
solutions
Equal Tensile Strain Criterion
• The tensile strain e at the bottom of layer 1 under a single-wheel load
ESWL = Ps = CPd
Equal Contact Pressure Criterion
• Assumes that a single wheel has a different contact radius but the
same contact pressure as the dual wheels
Equivalent Contact Radius Criterion
• Ionnides and Khazanovich (1993) proposed the use of an equivalent

single-axle radius (ESAR)
• Determines a single wheel load with an equivalent radius that would
lead to the same response if loaded by the same total load as the
dual-wheel assembly
• The maximum bending stress due to dual tires in the interior of a
concrete slab would be the same as a single tire with the equivalent
radius
  S 
aeq = a 1 + 0.241683 
  a 
where aeq = equivalent tire contact radius
a = contact radius of each of the dual tires
S = center - to - center spacing between the dual tires
FIXED VEHICLE
• Design thickness of pavement is determined by the number of
repetitions of a standard single axle load (18 kip or 40 kN)
• Any wheel configuration is converted to equivalent single axle load
(ESAL, 18 kip) by multiplying the number of repetitions of each
configuration by its equivalent axle load factor (EALF)
• Design is performed based on the combined effects of equivalent
single axle loads (ESAL)
• Most commonly used method for the design nowadays because of the
great variety of axle loads
EQUIVALENT AXLE LOAD FACTOR
• Defines the damage to pavement by any axle load relative to the

damage induced by a single axle load (18 kips)
• Design is based on the number of passes of single axle load
• Equivalent load factor used depends on pavement conditions
• Load factors are based on experience but can be derived theoretically
• Defines the damage to pavement by any axle load relative to the

damage induced by a single axle load (18 kips, 80 kN)
• Design is based on the number of passes of the standard axle load
during the design period defined as the equivalent single-axle load
(ESAL) and computed by
m
ESAL = ∑ Fi ni
i =1
where : m = number or axle load groups

Fi = EALF for the ith axle load group
n i = number of passes of the ith - axle load group during the design period
• EALF depends on the type of pavements, thickness or structural

capacity and the terminal conditions at which the pavement is
considered failed
• Load factors are based on experience but can be derived theoretically
Flexible Pavement (AASHTO Equivalent Factors)

• One of the most widely-used methods
• AASHTO Equivalent Factors
W  G G
log tx  = 4.79 log(18 + 1) − 4.79 log( Lx + L2 ) + 4.33 log L2 + t − t
 W18  β x β18
 4.2 − pt 
G t = log 
 4 . 2 − 1. 5 
0.081( Lx + L2 ) 3.23
β x = 0.40 +
( SN + 1) 5.19 L32.23
where Wtx = number of x - axle load applications at the end of time t
W18 = number of 18 - kip(80 kN) single - axle load applications to time t
Lx = load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles or tridem axles
L2 = axle code (1 for single axle, 2 for tandem and 3 for tridem)
SN = structural number (function of thickness and modulus of each layer and drainage conditions)
pt = terminal serviceability
Gt = function of pt
β18 = β x when Lx is equal to 18 and L2 is equal to 1

• EALF can be solved as
W tx
EALF =
W 18
• EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness
• SN = 5 and pt = 2.5 is used by the Asphalt Institute

Example 13
Given pt = 2.5 and SN = 5, determine the EALF for a 32-kip (151 kN)
tandem-axle load and a 48-kip (214 kN) tridem-axle load.
Solution:
For tandem axles
Given : Lx = 32 and L2 = 2
 4.2 − 2.5 
Gt = log  = −0.201
 4 . 2 − 1 .5 
0.081(32 + 2)3.23
β x = 0.40 + = 0.470
(5 + 1) 5.19 (2)3.23
0.081(18 + 1)3.23
β18 = 0.40 + = 0.500
(5 + 1) 5.19 (1)3.23
W  − 0.201 − 0.201
log tx  = 4.79 log(18 + 1) − 4.79 log(32 + 2) + 4.33 log 2 + − = 0.067
W
 t18  0 . 470 0 . 500
Wtx
= 1.167
Wt18
Wt18
EALF = = 0.857
Wtx
Rigid Pavement (AASHTO Equivalent Factors)

• AASHTO Equivalent Factors
W  G G
log tx  = 4.62 log(18 + 1) − 4.62 log( Lx + L2 ) + 3.28 log L2 + t − t
 Wt18  β x β18
 4.5 − pt 
G t = log 
 4 .5 − 1 .5 
3.63( Lx + L2 ) 5.20
β x = 1.00 +
( D + 1)8.46 L32.52
where Wtx = number of x - axle load applications at the end of time t
W18 = number of 18 - kip(80 kN) single - axle load applications to time t
Lx = load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles or tridem axles
L2 = axle code (1 for single axle, 2 for tandem and 3 for tridem)
D = slab thickness in inches
pt = terminal serviceability
Gt = function of pt
β18 = β x when Lx is equal to 18 and L2 is equal to 1
Wt18
EALF =
Wtx

Example 14
Given pt = 2.5 and SN = 5, what are the single- and tandem- axle
loads on a 9-in (229-mm) rigid pavement that are equivalent to
single-axle of 12 kip (53.4 kN) and a tandem-axle load of 40 kip (178
kN)?
Given : L = 20 and L = 1
x 2
Solution:
For single axle Gt = log 4.2 − 2.5  = −0.201
 4.2 − 1.5 
0.081(12 + 1)3.23
β x = 0.40 + = 0.429
(5 + 1)5.19 (1)3.23
0.081(18 + 1)3.23
β18 = 0.40 + = 0.500
(5 + 1)5.19 (1)3.23
W  − 0.201 − 0.201
log tx  = 4.79 log(18 + 1) − 4.79 log(12 + 1) + 4.33 log 1 + − = 0.722
W
 t18  0.429 0.500
Wtx
= 5.283
Wt18
Wt18
EALF = = 0.189
Wtx

For single axle
 4.5 − 2.5 
G t = log  = −0.176
 4.5 − 1.5 
3.63( Lx + 1) 5.20
β x = 1.00 +
(9 + 1)8.4613.52
3.63(18 + 1) 5.20
β18 = 1.00 + = 1.056
(9 + 1)8.4613.52
W  − 0.176 − 0.176
log tx  = 4.62 log(18 + 1) − 4.62 log( Lx + 1) + 3.28 log 1 + −
 W  3.63 ( L + 1) 5.20
1.056
t 18
1.00 + x
(9 + 1)8.4613.52
Wt18
EALF = 0.189 =
Wtx
W  W 
log tx  = 0.724;  tx  = 5.291
 Wt18   Wt18 
Lx = 12.2 kip
VARIABLE TRAFFIC AND VEHICLE
• Design is performed based on individual effect of each traffic and
vehicle
• Most commonly used in the mechanistic design approach
• No need to convert equivalent axle load factor
• Used by the PCA with design charts
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
• To design a highway pavement, it is necessary to predict the number

of repetitions of each axle load group during the design period.
• The traffic used for the design is the average traffic during the design
period
• The initial traffic is multiplied by a growth factor
ni = (no )i GDL × 365 × Y

where : ni = number of load repetitions used in the design for the i th group
(no )i = initial number of repetitions per day
G = growth factor
D = directional distribution factor (usually 0.5 unless traffic in 2 directions is different)
L = lane distribution factor
Y = design period in years
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
• If the design is based on equivalent 18-kip single-axle load, the initial
repetitions per day for the ith group are
(no )i = ( pi Fi )( ADT )o TA
where : (no )i = initial number of repetitions per day
pi = percentage of total repetitions for the ith group
Fi = equivalent axle - load factor(EALF) for the ith group load
(ADT)o = average daily traffic at the start of the design period
T = percentage of trucks in the ADT
A = average number of axles per truck
• The equivalent axle load for the design lane is
ESAL = (ADT)o (T )(T f )(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )

T f = (∑ pi Fi )A
where : Tf = truck factor
Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT)
• The minimum traffic information needed for a pavement design is
the average daily truck traffic (ADTT)
• This can be a percentage of the ADT or an actual value
• Information can be obtained from actual counts on project or similar
roads nearby
• Traffic counts must be adjusted for daily and seasonal variations to
obtain the AADT
• The actual data can be obtained using on-site devices
• If actual data are not available, the table used by AI (1991) may be
used as a guide to determine the ADTT
Truck Factor
• A single truck factor can be applied to all trucks, or separate truck
factors can be used for different classes of trucks
• Can be computed as
Tf =
∑18 - kip ESALs
Number of trucks weighed
18 - kip ESALs = (EALF) × Number of axles
Weigh in motion
Growth Factor
• Assume a yearly rate of traffic growth and use the average traffic at
the start and end of the design period as the design traffic
G=
1
2
[
1 + (1 + r )
Y
]
• Portland Cement Association (1984) applies the traffic at the middle
of the design period as the design traffic
G = (1+ r )
0.5Y
• AI and AASHTO design guide recommend the use of traffic over the
entire design period to determine the total growth factor
Total growth factor = (G )(Y ) =

(1+ r ) −1
Y
r
• Annual growth rate should be determined by
• Attracted or diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing
pavement
• Normal traffic growth due to the increased number and usage of motor
vehicles
• Generated traffic due to motor vehicle trips that would not have been
made if the new facility had not been constructed
• Development traffic due to changes in land use as a result of the new
facility
Lane Distribution Factor
• For two-lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane,
the lane distribution factor is 100%
• For the multi-lane highways, the design lane is the outside lane
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL TRUCK TRAFFIC IN DESIGN LANE

NUMBER OF TRAFFIC PERCENTAGE OF TRUCKS IN
LANES IN TWO DIRECTIONS DESIGN LANE
2 50
4 45 (35-48)
6 or more 40(25-48)
LANE DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

NUMBER OF LANES IN PERCENTAGE OF 18-kip ESAL IN
EACH DIRECTIONS DESIGN LANE
1 100
2 80-100
3 60-80
4 50-75
Example 15
A two-lane major rural highway has an AADT of 4000 during the
first year of traffic, 25% trucks, 4% annual growth rate and 50%
directional and distributional lane factors. Using a truck factor of
0.38, compute the ESAL for a design period of 20 years.
Solution:
(1+ r )Y −1 (1+ 0.04 ) 20 −1

G (Y ) = r = 0.04
= 29.778
ESAL = (ADT)o (T)(Tf )(G)(D)(L)(Y)(365)
= 4000 × 0.25 × 0.38 × 29.778 × 0.5 × 365
ESAL = 2,065,104

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PAVEMENT DESIGN

PAVEMENT DESIGN – Where are we?

EMPIRICAL VS. MECHANISTIC- BASED DESIGN

• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP)

WHY DO WE NEED PAVEMENTS?

PAVEMENT DESIGN INCLUDES

• Pavement section profile

• Constructed of bituminous and granular layers

Disadvantage: can be applied only to a given set of environment,

2. Limiting shear failure methods

• Constructed of Portland cement concrete

• Analytical – ranges from simple closed-form formulas to complex

• Load Bearing Capacity: Distribute the load from tires to

• Conventional Flexible Pavements

Seal coat Surface course

Seal coat Surface course

Seal coat Surface course

Seal coat Surface course

Base Course and Subbase Course

Seal coat Surface course

• Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements

• Constructed of Portland cement concrete and should be analyzed by

Portland Cement Concrete 6-12 in

Use of base course (cont...)

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

• Constructed with closely spaced contraction joints

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)

• Steel reinforcements in the form of wire mesh or deformed bars do not

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

• Eliminates joints (first experiment in 1921) – joints were the weak

Pre-stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

• Concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression

• Tire Loads - fundamental loads at the actual tire-pavement contact points

BOUSSINESQ THEORY (1885)

• Foster and Ahlvin (1954) presented charts for determining vertical

The figure shows a homogeneous half-space subjected to two circular

E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.5

LEFT LOAD: r = 0, r/a = 0 10 in. 20 in.

SOLUTIONS AT AXIS OF SYMMETRY

• σz is independent of E and ν, and σr is independent of E

• On the surface of the half-space, z = 0

E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3

GIVEN: a = 5 in. (127 mm) E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3

50  2(1 + 0.3)10 103 

Negative sign indicates tension, in contrast to a compressive stress of 0.8 psi

E = 10,000 psi ν = 0.3

STRESSES DUE TO CURLING

Elastic solid foundation

WEIGHT OF SLAB THEORY OF PLATE ON A

STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING

• Methods to determine stresses and deflections in concrete

GOLDBECK AND OLDER

STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING

STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING

Where: σc = stress due to corner loading P

STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING

GOLDBECK AND OLDER h = 10 in

STRESSES AND DEFLECTION DUE TO LOADING