Mechanisms of Population Change: Chapter Concepts

Mechanisms of
CHAPTER
Population Change
4
Chapter Concepts
4.1 Adaptation, Variation,
and Natural Selection
• Sexual reproduction and inherited
mutations contribute to variation
among individuals in populations.
• Individuals in a population have
a selective advantage over other
individuals if their mutations allow
them to better survive and reproduce
under selective pressures.
4.2 Developing a Theory

to Explain Change
• Fossil evidence shows that species
change over time and that species
eventually become extinct.
• To develop the theory of natural
selection, which explains evolutionary
change, scientists have gathered and
organized many pieces of evidence.
• There is evidence that modern species
evolved from ancestral forms.
4.3 How Species Form

• A species consists of reproductively
compatible populations.
• New species can form when
populations become reproductively or
geographically isolated from each other.
• The process of adaptive radiation occurs
when a common ancestor diversifies
into a variety of species.
• Two models for the pace of evolution
are gradualism and punctuated
equilibrium.
T here are about 4000 cockroach species worldwide. The fossil in
this photograph shows a 9 cm-long cockroach (Arthropleura
pustulatus) that lived 300 million years ago. It was more than twice
the size of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), a species
common today. It was preserved so well that its mouthparts and
antennae, and even the veins in its wings, are visible. When this
cockroach was alive, there was a greaterr diversity of life forms than
there is today. Fossils have helped to shape our current ideas about
the process by which organisms that are living today descended from
ancient forms of life and changed with the passing of time. Using fossil
evidence, observations of species, experimentation with laboratory
populations, and modern techniques, such as genetic analysis,
scientists are adding to our understanding of life on Earth.
112 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Launch Lab
Could Cockroaches Rule Earth?
Procedure
1. Read the paragraph below, and answer the
questions that follow.
Cockroaches live in many different habitats throughout
the world. They are particularly hardy. They are able
to survive without food for several weeks and have a
varied diet, which can include unusual items such as
wallpaper paste and paint. The females can reproduce
several times a month, once they are reproductively
mature. (Female American cockroaches live for about
14 months and lay their first egg capsule at about one
year of age.)
Analysis
1. One female American cockroach can lay an egg
capsule containing 16 eggs every five days. If a female
is reproductive for two months, approximately how
many offspring will she produce?
2. a) If half of the cockroach’s offspring are female,
and all of them reproduce, how many offspring
will they produce? (Show your calculations.)
b) Do you think this is a realistic situation? Explain.
3. While some cockroach species are abundant in
certain areas, cockroaches are not “taking over the
world.” With a partner, discuss what you think
might limit their populations. (Hint: Review what
you learned in Chapter 3 about the factors that
limit populations.)
4. People often use insecticides to kill cockroaches. In
some cases, however, using insecticides can result
in populations of insects that are resistant to—not
harmed by—the very insecticide they are exposed
to. Then, the insecticide is no longer able to control
the insect populations by killing individuals. How
do you think insecticide-resistance in a population
might happen?
This reconstruction of an ancient tropical forest shows

the type of habitat in which cockroaches, and many other
insect species, first appeared over 300 million years ago.
Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 113

SECTION
Adaptation, Variation,
4.1 and Natural Selection
Section Outcomes
In this section, you will
• describe how sexual
reproduction and changes
in genetic information
result in variation within
populations
• design an investigation
to measure variations in
a population
• describe how some
mutations may improve
an individual organism’s
chance for survival and
reproduction
• define natural selection
Figure 4.1 No two organisms, even within the same species, are identical. Some differences,
such as colour and size, are visible in the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) shown
above. Other differences, such as resistance to a particular parasite or bacterial infection, are not
Key Terms visible, but all differences are examples of the variations among individuals in a population.
variation
biological species Organisms, such as the bighorn sheep in Another adaptation is the biochemical
mutation Figure 4.1, constantly face environmental and body processes of a Richardson’s
selective advantage challenges that limit populations. Severe ground squirrel in hibernation (for
natural selection
selective pressure
weather, drought, famine, and competition example, physiology such as reduced
for food, space, and mates are all challenges heart and breathing rate). The needle-
that organisms may or may not be able to sharp talons and excellent vision of
overcome. Organisms that survive long an owl are structural adaptations that
enough to reproduce have the opportunity make owls excellent predators in their
to pass along to their offspring the genetic environment. The thick, leathery leaves
information that helped them survive. of the buffaloberry are also structural
In this section, you will learn how adaptations. They help to reduce water
variation within species, and organisms’ loss on hot summer days, which are an
interactions with their environment, abiotic feature of their environment.
help to explain changes in populations
from one generation to another.
Adaptations and Survival

The American bittern, Figure 4.2, is
found in marshes and fields in Alberta,
BiologyFile where it lives among grasses and reeds.
FYI The colouring of its plumage helps to
The American bittern’s camouflage the bittern so that it blends
ability to conceal itself
extends to its behaviour, as
in with its environment. As with other
well. It stands so that the species, the bittern’s adaptations make it
lines on its plumage match well-suited to its habitat. An adaptation
the reeds surrounding it. is a structure, behaviour, or physiological
If the reeds are swaying Figure 4.2 The American bittern (Botaurus
process that helps an organism survive
in the breeze, the bittern lentiginosus) is well-camouflaged among
also sways, mimicking the and reproduce in a particular environment.
plants in its habitat. How could the colouration
movement of the reeds. Camouflage is one such adaptation. of individuals help the survival of a population?

Figure 4.3 In sexual
reproduction, the genes
from two parents combine
to produce offspring with
visible and non-visible
variations in their
charactertistics. The kittens
(Felis domesticus) in this
litter have different fur
colour and patterns, partly
because each kitten
inherited a different
combination of genetic
information from its parents.
How do these adaptations develop? The number of possible
Adaptations are the result of a gradual combinations of genes that offspring can
change in the characteristics of members inherit from their parents results in great
of a population over time. A variation— genetic variation among individuals
a visible or invisible difference—that within a population. The kittens in
helps an individual in a population Figure 4.3, for example, are all from the
survive is likely to be passed on from same litter, yet each has different fur
survivor to survivor. Through generations colour and markings. The kittens look
of survivors, this variation will become different because, through sexual
more common, perhaps so common that reproduction, each kitten has inherited
it is considered to be a characteristic, or a different combination of genetic
trait, of the population. Not all variations information from its parents. Some of
become adaptations. A variation in this genetic information is expressed in
an individual can be an advantage or each kitten’s physical appearance and
disadvantage, or have no effect on the behaviour. Other genetic information
individuals as they live and interact in has no visible effect but remains part
their environment. of each kitten’s genetic make-up and
can be passed on to the next generation.
•••
Genetic variation in a population is
2 ofSharks
have an excellent sense
smell. Is this an adaptation?
due to the variety of genetic information
in all individuals of the population. In
Explain your answer.
the next investigation, you will measure
••• variation within a population.
Variation within a Species •••

A biological species is a group of 2 How
does sexual reproduction
lead to variation among
reproductively compatible populations.
This means that members of these individuals in a population?
populations can interbreed and produce •••
offspring that are healthy and are
themselves able to reproduce successfully. Mutations Lead to Genetic Variation
You and your classmates are all the Mutations are changes in the genetic
same species, but clearly there is a great material of an organism. Mutations
deal of variety among the individuals in happen continuously in the DNA of
your class. Why? How does this variation any living organism. They can occur
arise? Offspring have a combination of spontaneously, when DNA is copied
genetic material from both parents. before a cell divides. For example, your
Through sexual reproduction, parents own DNA has about 175 mutations,
pass on distinct units of hereditary compared with your parents’ DNA,
information (genes) to their offspring. because of mistakes that occur as your

INVESTIGATION 4.A Target Skills
Designing an investigation to describe
an inherited variation in a population
Gathering and recording data to
Variations Great and Small demonstrate variation
Stating a conclusion based on analysis
Diversity (variations) within a species can help populations of collected data
survive environmental changes. Diversity within a species
can be monitored genetically, or it can be demonstrated
Data and Observations
by measuring individuals within a population. Most traits
in a population vary in a continuous way from one 1. Conduct your investigations, and record your results.
extreme to the other. A plot of the distribution of the trait 2. Group the data into meaningful categories.
in a population often produces a bell-shaped curve. In this
3. Pool data from other groups if required to produce
investigation, you will design an experiment to measure a
meaningful results.
particular characteristic in two populations—plant seeds
and humans. 4. A frequency histogram is a representation of a
frequency distribution by means of rectangles whose
Question
widths represent class intervals and whose areas are
Are there measurable differences in size among proportional to the corresponding frequencies. Use
individuals of the same species? a computer and spreadsheet software to construct
Hypothesis a frequency histogram of data collected. ICT
Make and record a hypothesis about how a particular Sample Data Table and Histogram
characteristic might be distributed throughout a
Data
population. (For example, would it be evenly distributed?) Range
(mm) Frequency
;gZfjZcXn
Materials 0–10 1
• ruler • bean seeds or peas
10–20 3
• electronic balance • graph paper
20–30 6
Experimental Plan n n n n n
30–40 3
9ViVGVc\Zbb
1. With your group, design an investigation to determine
40–50 2
the variation in the mass of plant seeds and a second
investigation to determine the variation in the length
Analysis
of the human thumb or the width of the human hand.
1. Identify the range of the data that you collected for
2. State and record a hypothesis for each investigation. each investigation.
3. As a group, decide how you will make the appropriate Conclusions
measurements and how many samples you will need.
2. What can you conclude about the variations within
Also decide whether to pool your data with other
a population? Is there a “typical” length or mass? Or
groups. (Keep in mind that the larger the sample size,
is the frequency the same for each data range?
the more reliable the results are.)
3. Would you get a greater or smaller variation in the
4. Design a table similar to the one shown in the sample
range of data if all of the individuals sampled came
to record data for each investigation.
from the same parents—for example, if all of the
5. Identify the variables that you will control to ensure seeds you measured originated from the same plant?
that your data are reliable.
4. What advantage would size (either large size or small
6. Show your experimental plan to your teacher before size) have to the population studied? (For example,
beginning your investigation. what advantage would large size have to a seed?)

A B
Scanning electron micrograph, magnification: 90 000 × Scanning electron micrograph, magnification: 90 000 ×
Figure 4.4 Normal, healthy red blood cells are round and smooth. They pass easily through
blood vessels. Sickled cells can stick in the blood vessels, resulting in blood clots and reduced
blood flow to vital organs. People who inherit the mutated gene for sickled cells from both
of their parents have a condition called sickle cell disease.
DNA is copied. Mutagens, such as UV enables an organism to survive its

radiation, are environmental agents that environment better, which, in turn,
can cause mutations in DNA, as well. means that the organism is more likely
When DNA mutates, a cell may to survive and reproduce. This situation
exhibit new characteristics. You can see is more common when an organism’s
an example of this in Figure 4.4, which environment is changing. Mutations
shows a healthy blood cell (A) and an that once were no advantage, or perhaps
abnormal, sickle-shaped red blood cell were even a disadvantage, may become
(B). Other possible results include the favourable in a new environment. In
cell dying, malfunctioning, or multiplying this situation, the mutation provides
more than it should, resulting in a cluster a selective advantage in the new
of cells that form a tumour. Some environment.
mutations will not appear to have any As an example, there is a mutation in
effect on a cell. Whatever the result, if houseflies that makes them resistant to
the mutation occurs in a body (somatic) the insecticide DDT. This mutation also
cell, the mutation disappears when the reduces the flies’ growth rate. So, before
organism dies. If, however, the mutation the introduction of DDT to their BiologyFile
alters the DNA in a gamete (reproductive environment, having this mutation would
FYI
cell), the mutation may be passed on to have been a disadvantage to the flies. When Mutated genes can cause or
succeeding generations. For example, if DDT was introduced, however, this contribute to some diseases,
the kittens in Figure 4.3 have mutations mutation enabled the individuals that such as diabetes, heart
in their egg or sperm cells, these possessed it to survive. These flies had disease, Huntington’s,
cancer, and Alzheimer’s.
mutations could be passed on to their a selective advantage in the population.
Hereditary conditions can
offspring. These mutations were not They were more likely to survive and occur because a parent with
present in their parents’ DNA. Thus, reproduce, thus potentially passing on this the mutation can pass it to
mutations are a significant source of now-helpful mutation to their offspring. children. There are tests
genetic variation in populations. In another study, researchers found available and more being
developed that can help
that populations of California ground doctors pinpoint the
Mutations Can Provide squirrels that overlap the range of mutation and the disease.
a Selective Advantage northern Pacific rattlesnakes have a The goal of the research is
Mutations that significantly alter proteins factor in their blood that makes them to improve the ability to
in DNA often adversely affect the well- treat patients and prevent
better able to combat the rattlesnakes’
unwanted mutations from
being of an organism and can be harmful. venom. Ground squirrels with this factor passing on to future
In some instances, however, a mutation are likely to be the ones that will survive generations.

BiologyFile and reproduce, thus passing on the genes
for this factor to their offspring. (In other
FYI
A person who receives the
words, the mutation that provided
gene for sickled cells from ground squirrels with the protection
both parents inherits sickle against snake venom gave those
cell disease, which is individuals a selective advantage.) As a
harmful and can be life-
result, in the future, a high proportion
threatening. A person who
receives the gene from only of the population will have the genetic
one parent, however, can make-up that allows them to withstand
benefit from it. This is Scanning electron micrograph, magnification: 16 000 ×
rattlesnake venom.
because people with a In populations that reproduce Figure 4.5 These Staphylococcus aureus cells
single copy of this gene are appear to be identical, but some may have a
more resistant to malaria, an quickly, such as bacteria, viruses, and
mutation that makes them resistant to
insect-borne disease that is many insects, a rapidly changing antibiotics.
one of the leading causes of environment can result in populations
illness and death in Africa. that also become adapted fairly quickly. Investigate this type of organism and its
If the environment changes, the mutated ability to adapt in the next Thought Lab.
form of a gene that was previously
insignificant in the population may Natural Selection
provide a selective advantage to some Natural selection is a process that results
individuals. As a result, the organisms when the characteristics of a population
that have the mutant form survive, and of organisms change because individuals
the genetic information is passed on to with certain inherited traits survive
the next generation. In time, the gene specific local environmental conditions
that provided the selective advantage and, through reproduction, pass on their
BiologyFile becomes more prevalent in the traits to their offspring. For natural
population. The once neutral or even selection to occur, there must be variety
FYI
In natural selection, the
negative mutation can, in some cases, or diversity within a species. This is
environment selects for mean the survival of a population. clearly what caused the antibiotic-
certain characteristics in a For instance, populations of resistant Staphylococcus aureus you
population. For centuries, cockroaches can become adapted to new
however, people have been
will study in Thought Lab 4.1.
environments, such as those where they In this population of bacteria, the
selecting organisms for
particular traits. This is called are sprayed with insecticides, relatively bacteria that survived were selected for
artificial selection. Early quickly. The cockroaches with a by their environment. They survived the
indigenous peoples of mutation that allows them to survive change in the environment around them,
Central America—ancestors the insecticide can potentially pass this
of the peoples who would which was the application of an antibiotic,
develop great cities such mutation onto their offspring. In the and thus could reproduce and pass on
as those of the Olmec and next generation, this mutation becomes the genetic information that coded for
Maya—developed the more common in the population and resistance to that particular antibiotic.
ancestral versions of the more individuals in the population are
corn that we are familiar Individuals did not change during their
resistant to the insecticide. Figure 4.5 lifetime; rather, with the passage of time,
with today from one or
more ancient grasses, shows another species that can quickly the population changed in its ability to
including teosinte. become adapted to new environments resist certain antibiotics. In other words,
because it reproduces so quickly. populations change, not individuals. An
••• abiotic environmental condition can be
2 distinguish
Using a suitable example,

between a mutation
said to select for certain characteristics
in some individuals and select against
that provides a selective different characteristics in other
advantage and a mutation that individuals. In this way, the environment
provides a selective disadvantage. exerts selective pressure on a population.
Modern corn kernel For example, in a population of
•••
compared with teosinte finches, some of the birds may have

wider beaks than others. If there is an
environmental change that makes having
a wide beak an advantage, these wide-
beaked finches will be more likely to
survive and pass on the genes for wide
beaks to their offspring. In native grasses
such as rough fescue, shown in Figure 4.6,
individuals that have the ability to
withstand drought will survive during
conditions of sustained dry conditions.
They will then pass on the trait for drought
resistance to their offspring. In the next
generation, the abundance of the trait
for drought resistance will increase in
Figure 4.6 Three species of rough fescue, Foothills (Festuca campestris),
the population, because more of the Plains (Festuca hallii), and Northern (Festuca scabrella), cover approximately
drought-resistant individuals survive to two thirds of Alberta. In fact, Alberta is the only place in North America where
reproduce. Should there be a big increase all three species grow naturally. In 2001, more than 2000 Albertans voted
rough fescue as their favourite grass for a provincial emblem. The main reason
in the moisture in the population of
given was its role as winter food for bighorn sheep, deer, elk, and bison.
Thought Lab 4.1 Evolving “Superbugs” Target Skills

Analyzing data and applying a
Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, shown in Figure 4.5 on the conceptual model to show how
previous page, can cause painful ear infections in children antibiotic resistance could occur in a
population of Staphylococcus aureus
and life-threatening infections in the wounds of surgery
patients. Like many other micro-organisms, S. aureus bacteria Gathering and recording information
reproduce quickly. They reproduce asexually by dividing as about the rise of antibiotic resistance
frequently as every 20 min. This can result in a single cell in bacteria
having close to a billion descendants in about 6 h. Because of
these astounding reproductive rates, beneficial mutations in 2. With a partner, choose one of the following questions to
the population may increase in frequency very quickly. This research. Prepare a written, oral, or computer presentation
phenomenally rapid asexual cloning of individuals that to share your findings. ICT
are resistant to the new environment (for example, to the • How can the overuse of antibiotics lead to antibiotic
antibacterial action of an antibiotic) makes it challenging resistance in bacteria?
for scientists to develop effective antibiotics. • Why do some agricultural practices contribute to
antibiotic resistance in some bacteria species, and how
Procedure
can this contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria
1. Review the data shown in the table. Based on the data, that cause diseases in humans?
when is bacterial resistance to a particular antibiotic
likely to occur in Staphylococcus aureus? Historical Progression of Antibiotic Resistance of
2. Using different-coloured playing chips, model how a Staphylococcus aureus
population of Staphylococcus aureus could become Year First reports of
resistant to an antibiotic. (Hint: Use one colour of chip Antibiotic introduced resistance in patients
for bacteria that are resistant to an antibiotic.)
penicillin 1941 1945–1946
Analysis streptomycin 1944 1945
1. Explain how the following situation might lead to
tetracycline 1948 1955
antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus in patients.
A patient is prescribed the antibiotic erythromycin for erythromycin 1952 1950s
an infected cut. The prescription instructs the patient methicillin 1961 1961
to take the antibiotic for two weeks. After one week,
however, the cut seems to have cleared up and the gentamicin 1964 1976
patient stops taking the antibiotic. ciprofloxacin 1988 1990
vancomycin 1956 1997

rough fescue’s environment, the trait for situation may be useless or detrimental
drought resistance will no longer be an in another situation. Complete the next
advantage. In fact, if no individuals in Thought Lab to see how changing
the population can withstand extremely environmental conditions affected a
moist conditions, the population may finch population over several years.
not survive in that environment.
•••
Natural selection does not anticipate
change in the environment. Instead, 2 Identify
two examples,
mentioned in this section, that
natural selection is situational. A trait that
show variation in a species being
at one time seems to have no particular
caused by a mutation.
relevance to survival becomes the trait
that later helps individuals in a population
survive and reproduce in a changed
2 Explain
how the ability of a
population of insects to withstand
environment. This trait then persists the effects of an insecticide is an
within a population, because it is inherited example of natural selection.
by the offspring of the survivors. •••
Adaptations that are beneficial in one
Thought Lab 4.2 Analyzing Changes in Beak Depth Target Skills

Analyzing data to show how beak
Rosemary and Peter Grant have been studying the medium depth in the medium ground finch
ground finch (Geospiza fortis) of the Galápagos Islands for changes with the passage of time
several decades. These finches use their strong beaks to Stating and defending a
crush seeds. They prefer the small seeds that are abundant generalization based on data
during wet years. Because fewer small seeds are produced
during dry years, the finches also have to eat larger seeds, 8]Vc\Zh^cWZV`YZei]d[<ZdheôV[dgi^h!&.,,·&.-)
which are harder to crush. For several years, the Grants have
been measuring the depth (dimension from top to bottom)
WZV`YZei]bb
of the finches’ beaks.

NZVg
Procedure
Use the questions below to interpret the graph.
Analysis
1. 1977, 1980, and 1982 were drought years; 1984 was a
wet year. What do you notice about the average beak
depth in the finch population during dry years
compared with wet years?
2. How do the data relate to selective pressure and natural
selection?
3. An observer suggested that the finches exercised their
beaks more when they ate large seeds that were tough
to open, making their beaks stronger. Evaluate the
plausibility of this explanation for the graphed data.
The medium ground finch, Geospiza fortis

Section 4.1 Summary • Mutations and reproduction cause BiologyFile
• An adaptation is a physical feature, variations among individuals in a
Web Link
behaviour, or physiological process population. Health professionals and
that helps an organism survive and • A mutation may provide an individual scientists worldwide are
reproduce in a particular environment. with an advantage or a disadvantage, concerned about the
or neither (neutral). resistance of bacteria to
Examples of adaptations include antibiotics. Many share
camouflage, night vision, deep • Natural selection is the process by
information and ideas in
roots, nesting, and hibernation. which a population of organisms an attempt to slow this
• Variety within a population and the changes because individuals with alarming trend. What
certain traits can better survive the practices do health
environment in which an organism
local environmental conditions and professionals recommend
lives creates a situation in which to reduce the spread of
natural selection can occur. pass on these traits to their offspring. antibiotic-resistant bacteria?
@
www.albertabiology.ca
www
Section 4.1 Review
before it is set into type, to correct errors in grammar,

spelling, usage, and style.]
6. In a population of sparrows, most birds have a bill that
is about 10 mm long. Some birds, however, have bills
that are slightly longer or slightly shorter than average.
Explain why this variation within a population is
important when discussing natural selection.
7. Suppose that you are designing an investigation to
measure variation within a population. Explain why
it would not be appropriate to measure the length of
100 leaves from the same tree.
1. Identify five adaptations of this grizzly bear that make
it well suited for survival in its habitat. Use the following information to answer the next question.
2. Describe how variations occur in populations. Insect Resistant Pests

Pesticide resistance is a genetically based phenomenon.
3. Using examples from this chapter, show how mutations Resistance occurs when a pest population—insects, for
and natural selection happen by chance. instance—is exposed to a pesticide. When this happens,
Use the following information to answer the next question. not all insects are killed. Those individuals that survive
frequently have done so because they are genetically
Pumpkins predisposed to be resistant to the pesticide.
A gardener is trying to win a competition for the largest
Repeated applications and higher rates of the insecticide
pumpkin. Every year, she saves the seeds from the largest
will kill increasing numbers of individuals, but some
pumpkin in her garden. The next year, she plants only
resistant insects will survive. The offspring of these
those seeds in a large plot. She finds that her pumpkins
survivors will carry the genetic makeup of their parents.
are becoming larger over the years.
These offspring, many of which will inherit the ability
to survive the exposure to the insecticide, will become a
4. a) Explain whether there is selective pressure in this
greater proportion with each succeeding generation of
pumpkin population.
the population.
b) Is this situation an example of natural selection?
Justify your answer. 8. Explain how some insects develop resistance to
5. Evaluate the following statement: “Natural selection pesticides in terms of natural selection.
works like a newspaper copy editor; it works only with 9. Explain what is meant by the expression “populations
what is already present in a population.” [Note: Copy evolve, not individuals.”
editors check written material, usually as the final step

SECTION
Developing a Theory
4.2 to Explain Change
Section Outcomes Scientific knowledge develops as people culture was that all species of organisms
observe the world around them, ask had been created independently of one
• compare different
questions about their observations, another and had remained unchanged
explanations for changes and seek answers to their questions. A ever since.
in populations over time scientific hypothesis is a statement that
• describe evidence to provides one possible answer to a Buffon’s Histoire Naturelle
support the theory of One of the first people to challenge
question, or one possible explanation for
evolution
• explain how scientific an observation. Hypotheses are tested to publicly the idea that life forms are
knowledge is accumulated determine their validity, mainly through unchanging was French naturalist
and organized to develop experiments, observation, developing Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
theories models from data, or a combination of (1707–1788). In 1749, he published the
• analyze data to determine
these. Hypotheses that consistently lead to 44-volume Histoire Naturelle, which
relatedness among
organisms successful predictions and explanations compiled his understandings of the
are sometimes synthesized into a general natural world. In this work, Buffon noted
statement that explains and makes the similarities between humans and
successful predictions about a broad apes, and speculated that they might
Key Terms
range of observations. Such a statement have a common ancestor. In other
theory of evolution by is called a scientific theory. writings, Buffon suggested that Earth
natural selection For centuries, people have been was much older than 6000 years, as was
paleontology
asking questions about how life developed commonly believed.
inheritance of acquired
characteristics on Earth. They have found objects (such Buffon’s ideas were revolutionary
fossil record as fossils), made observations (such as for his time. By 1830, however, other
transitional fossils recognizing the natural variations in scholars from many areas of inquiry—
biogeography
populations), collected and analyzed paleontology, geology, geography, and
homologous structures
analogous structures data, and formulated hypotheses to biology—began to share their ideas to
explain their observations. The resulting explain how life could change with the
theory of evolution by natural selection passage of time.
is a well-supported, widely accepted
explanation of how life has changed, Cuvier’s Fossils
and continues to change, during Earth’s French naturalist Georges Cuvier (1769–
history. In this section, you will survey 1832) is largely credited with developing
key events in the development of this the science of paleontology, the study of
theory, as well as scientific observations ancient life through the examination of
that support it. fossils. Cuvier found that each stratum
(layer of rock) is characterized by a
Developing the Theory of unique group of fossil species. He also
Evolution by Natural Selection found that the deeper (older) the
Some ancient Greek philosophers stratum, the more dissimilar the species
believed that life evolved gradually. are from modern life (see Figure 4.7). As
However, two of the most influential Cuvier worked from stratum to stratum,
philosophers, Plato (427–347 B.C.E.) he found evidence that new species
and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.), believed appeared and others disappeared over the
that all life existed in a perfected and passage of time. This evidence showed
unchanging form. This view of life that species could become extinct.
prevailed in western culture for over To explain his observations, Cuvier
2000 years. By the sixteenth century, proposed the idea that Earth experienced
the predominant philosophy in western many destructive natural events, such as
floods and volcanic eruptions, in the past.

Figure 4.7 Deep rock YOUNGERSTRATUM BiologyFile
strata (layers of rock) WITHMORE
are older than strata that RECENTFOSSILS FYI
are closer to the surface. Writers of history use the
Different species of term catastrophism to
fossilized organisms can OLDER describe Cuvier’s ideas
be found in different rock STRATUM about the powerful forces
strata. This is evidence that WITHOLDER that led to the extinction
not all life forms came into FOSSILS of species in Earth’s past.
existence at the same time. Cuvier did not use this term
(The arrangement of strata himself, although he did
varies when mountains are refer to these events as
formed. Often, the strata catastrophes.
are tilted and the oldest
layers are toward the
inside of the mountain.)
These events, which he called revolutions, •••

were violent enough to have killed
numerous species each time they occurred. 2 How
did Lyell’s observations
about changes in geology inspire
••• naturalists’ thoughts about
2 species
A geologist finds the fossil of a

of fish in one stratum but
changes in life on Earth?
•••
not in the next highest stratum.
Infer how Cuvier might have Lamarck: The Inheritance
explained this observation. of Acquired Characteristics
••• In his book Philosophie Zoologique,
French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1744–1829) outlined his ideas about
Other scientists had ideas that differed changes in species over time. By
from Cuvier’s theory. Scottish geologist comparing current species of animals
Charles Lyell (1797–1875) rejected the with fossil forms, Lamarck observed
idea of revolutions. He proposed, instead, what he interpreted as a “line of descent,”
that geological processes operated at the or progression, in which a series of fossils
same rates in the past as they do today. (from older to more recent) led to a
He reasoned that, if geological changes modern species. He thought that species
are slow and continuous rather than increased in complexity over time, until
catastrophic, then Earth might be more they achieved a level of perfection.
than 6000 years old. As well, Lyell Lamarck also thought that
theorized that slow, subtle processes characteristics, such as large muscles,
could happen over a long period of time that were acquired during an organism’s
and could result in substantial changes. lifetime could be passed on to its
offspring. Following this reasoning, the
The forces that build and erode
large, powerful chest muscles of a horse
BiologyFile
mountains, for example, and the rate at
would be passed on to its offspring, FYI
which this change happens is no different Early Chinese records
today than it was in the past. Floods in which would have the same
describe the bones of
the past had no greater power than characteristics. Lamarck called this the “underground dragons.”
floods that occur today. This idea inheritance of acquired characteristics. These are fossils that
Lamarck provided a hypothesis for scientists, much later,
inspired naturalist Charles Darwin and recognized as being parts
others. If Earth is slowly changing, they how the heredity of characteristics from
of dinosaurs. The use of
wondered, could slow, subtle changes one generation to the next might “dragon bones” in traditional
also occur in populations? happen. More importantly, he noted medicine dates back at least
that an organism’s adaptations to the 3500 years.

environment resulted in characteristics Darwin’s Evidence
that could be inherited by offspring. At In 1831, 22-year-old Charles Darwin
the time, there was little understanding (1809–1882) left England on the HMS
of cell biology and no understanding of Beagle, a British survey ship. The primary
genetics. The idea of inheriting acquired purpose of the expedition was to map
characteristics was generally accepted to the coast of South America. As well, the
explain observations that species are not journey provided Darwin with an
static and could change. Even Charles opportunity to explore the natural
Darwin, who is credited with developing history of various countries and
a comprehensive theory to explain how geographical locations. Figure 4.8
change in populations can occur, accepted outlines the Beagle’s journey.
Lamarck’s idea of inheritance and At first, Darwin did not always
acknowledged Lamarck in his writing. understand the significance of many of
Lamarck’s ideas were controversial to his observations. Years later, however,
many people, though, simply because they many of these observations (as well as
firmly believed that species never changed. ideas and observations resulting from
By the end of the 1800s, as biologists new work by Darwin and others) became
learned about cells, genes, and heredity, important to his theory of evolution
Lamarck’s mechanism for inheritance by natural selection. Darwin’s main
was rejected. observations, and the questions he
••• asked about these observations, are
summarized in Table 4.1.
2 time
A farmer spends much of her

outdoors and, as a result, has •••
very tanned skin. What would
the hypothesis of inheritance
2 Describe,
using two examples,
how Charles Darwin used
of acquired characteristics say observation of the world around
about the skin of her children? him to develop his hypothesis
Why? about how species might change
••• with the passage of time.
•••
Figure 4.8 The five-year voyage of the HMS Beagle
took the young Charles Darwin around much of the
world. Most of his time, however, was spent exploring
the coast and coastal islands of South America.
7gî^h]
>haZh
:jgdeZ
Cdgi] !ZORES
6bZg^XV 6iaVci^X
DXZVc 8VcVgn
>haVcYh
8VeZKZgYZ
<Va{eV\dh >haVcYh 6[g^XV
>haVcYh Hdji]
6bZg^XV 8dXdh
7V]^V >haVcYh
IV]î^
G^dYZ 6jhigVa^V
KVaeVgV^hd ?VcZ^gd
BdciZk^YZd 8VeZd[
<ddY=deZ @^c\<Zdg\Z
;VaàVcY HdjcY IVhbVc^V CZl
>haVcYh OZVaVcY
8VeZ=dgc

Table 4.1 Darwin’s Observations and Questions Arising from Them
Observations Questions
1. The flora and fauna of the different regions the Beagle visited were distinct If all organisms originated in their present
from those Darwin had studied in England and Europe. For example, the forms during a single event, Darwin wondered,
rodents in South America were structurally similar to one another but were why was there a distinctive clustering of similar
quite different from the rodents Darwin had observed on other continents. organisms in different regions of the world?
Why were all types of organisms not randomly
distributed?
2. Darwin observed fossils of extinct animals, such as the armadillo-like Why would living and fossilized organisms that
glyptodont, that looked very similar to living animals. looked similar be found within the same region?
glyptodont, an ancient 4 m, 2 t animal modern armadillo from South

from South America America (1.5 m)
3. The finches and other animals Darwin saw on the Galápagos Islands closely Why did the Galápagos species so closely
resembled animals he had observed on the west coast of South America. resemble organisms on the adjacent South
American coastline?
The Galápagos Islands, shown

in this satellite image, include
more than 20 small volcanic
islands located approximately
1000 km off the coast of
Ecuador.
4. Galápagos species (such as tortoises and finches) looked identical at first, but Why was there such a diversity of species in such
actually varied slightly between islands. Each type of Galápagos finch, for a small area? Could these species have been
example, was adapted to eating a different type of food based on the size and modified from an ancestral form that arrived on
shape of its beak. Ten finch species that occur on one of the islands, Santa the Galápagos Islands shortly after the islands
Cruz, are shown here. were formed?
Warbler finch Cactus ground finch
(Certhidea olivacea) (Geospiza scandens)
Woodpecker finch Sharp-beaked ground

(Cactospiza pallida) finch (Geospiza difficilis)
Small insectivorous tree finch Small ground finch

(Camarhynchus parvulus) (Geospiza fuliginosa)
Large insectivorous tree finch Medium ground finch

(Camarhynchus psittacula) (Geospiza fortis)
Vegetarian tree finch Large ground finch

(Platyspiza crassirostris) (Geospiza magnirostris)
5. Through his experience in breeding pigeons and studying breeds of dogs Could a process similar to artificial selection
and varieties of flowers, Darwin knew that it was possible for traits to be also operate in nature?
passed on from parent to offspring, and that sexual reproduction resulted
in many variations within a species.

BiologyFile Darwin and Wallace and Darwin proposed two main ideas in
the Theory of Evolution On the Origin of Species:
FYI
Darwin did not use the by Natural Selection 1. Present forms of life have arisen by
word “evolution” in the
Charles Darwin was not the only person descent and modification from an
original edition of On the ancestral species.
Origin of Species. (“Evolved” to organize his and others’ observations
is used once; it is the final and ideas into a comprehensive theory to 2. The mechanism for modification is
word in the book.) Instead, explain how species changed over time. natural selection working for long
Darwin wrote about Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), periods of time.
“descent with modification.”
One reason he did not use
another British naturalist, reached
Darwin proposed that all life on
“evolution” is that he felt it conclusions that were similar to
Earth had descended from some
implied progress—that Darwin’s. The findings of both scientists
each generation was unknown organism. As descendants of
were made public in a presentation by
improving in some way. this organism spread out over different
Charles Lyell in 1858.
Natural selection is different habitats during the millennia, they
from progress. It results Darwin and Wallace accepted that
developed adaptations that helped them
from an ability to survive populations changed as time passed,
local conditions and better survive in their local environments.
but they were unclear how populations
reproduce successfully, Darwin’s theory of natural selection
changed. An essay by economist Thomas
thereby giving the survivors showed how populations of individual
the opportunity to pass on Malthus (1766–1834), called Essay on the
species became better adapted to their
the trait that helped them Principles of Population, provided them
local environments over time.
survive and reproduce. with a key idea. Malthus had proposed
Compare Darwin’s hypothesis to
that populations produced far more
explain evolution with Lamarck’s ideas
offspring than their environments
about inheritance in the next Thought Lab.
(for example, their food supply) could
support and were eventually reduced
by starvation or disease.
Further Evidence of Evolution
According to Darwin and Wallace, In On the Origin of Species, Darwin
individuals with physical, behavioural, assembled a group of facts that had
or other traits that helped them survive previously seemed unrelated. Darwin
in their local environments were more certainly was not the only person to
likely to survive to pass on these traits to conclude that life had changed during
offspring. Darwin and Wallace reasoned long periods of time, but he was the
that competition for limited resources first person to publish these ideas in a
among individuals of the same species comprehensive manner. Darwin’s ideas
would select for individuals with were developed, for the most part, by
favourable traits—traits that increased his observations of the distribution
their chances of surviving to reproduce. of organisms throughout the world
Thus, a growing proportion of the (Table 4.1 on the previous page).
population would have these traits in Before and after publication of On the
later generations and, as time passed, the Origin of Species, biologists, geologists,
population as a whole would have them. geographers, and paleontologists
Darwin called this process natural provided a wealth of information
selection. He published his ideas in 1859 that supported and strengthened
in On the Origin of Species by Means of what scientists now call the theory
Natural Selection. of evolution by natural selection.
••• The Fossil Record

2 How
might competition for
resources lead to natural
Sedimentary rock with fossils provides
a fossil record of the history of life by
selection? showing species that were alive in the
••• past. (See Figure 4.9.) For instance, when
people examined the Burgess Shale fossil

A
Figure 4.9 (A) The animals

unearthed in the Burgess Shale
lived over 500 million years ago
during the Cambrian Explosion,
when a stunning “explosion” of
Earth’s biodiversity occurred.
Remarkably, even some soft
parts of animals, such as gills
and digestive systems, are
preserved. (B) This 60 cm fossil
of Anomalocaris canadensis was
found in the Burgess Shale
near Field, British Columbia.
Target Skills
Thought Lab 4.3 Comparing the Ideas
of Lamarck and Darwin Comparing Darwinian and Lamarckian
explanations of evolutionary change
Evaluating and communicating the
merits of alternative explanations for
evolutionary change
“… natural selection, or the survival of the fittest, does

not necessarily include progressive development—it
only takes advantage of such variations as arise and are
beneficial to each creature under its complex relations of
life. And it may be asked what advantage, as far as we can
see, would it be to an … intestinal worm … to be highly
organised. If it were no advantage, these forms would
be left, by natural selection, unimproved or but little
Flying fish (Exocoetus volitans) are actually superb gliders, improved, and might remain for indefinite ages in their
not flyers. To escape predators, the fish, which are about present lowly condition.”
18 cm long, aim toward the surface of the water and beat
—Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species, 1859
their powerful tails back and forth. When they break the
surface, they continue to beat their tails, which increases Procedure
their forward speed up to about 55 km/h. By spreading
1. Rewrite each quotation in your own words.
their side-fins, they are able to glide up from and over
the surface for distances as great as 200 m! 2. How does Lamarck’s idea of “use or disuse” differ from
Darwin’s idea, which was later called “descent with
Darwin and Lamarck both developed ideas about the modification?”
inheritance of characteristics. Although Darwin read
Lamarck’s work and learned from his ideas, Darwin Analysis
eventually proposed an alternative hypothesis that gave 1. Flying fish use large pectoral fins to glide in air. Explain
a different explanation for the mechanism that resulted in how (a) Lamarck and (b) Darwin might account for the
change. Read the following quotations from the writings origin of the large pectoral fins and the ability to glide.
of Lamarck and Darwin:
2. Lamarck suggested that organisms arise spontaneously
“The environment exercises a great influence over the and then become increasingly more complex. With a
activities of animals, and as a result of this influence the partner, discuss why this idea is not supported by the
increased and sustained use or disuse of any organ are theory of natural selection. (Hint: You might want to
causes of modification of the organization and shape of consider an organism such as a snake, which evolved
animals and give rise to the anomalies observed in the from a population of animals that had legs.)
progress of the complexity of animal organization.”
—Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in Philosophie zoologique, 1809

BiologyFile beds in British Columbia, they found been extinct and are unlike anything in
fossils of animals that had lived in an our modern oceans.
Web Link
The Burgess Shale in British
ancient ocean during the Cambrian The fossil record provides the
Columbia, the rich fossil beds period, over 500 million years ago. Not following evidence:
near Drumheller, Alberta, only are micro-organisms and soft- • Fossils found in young layers of rock
and the Joggins Fossil Cliffs bodied animals preserved in the Burgess (from recent geological periods and
in Nova Scotia are just a few
Shale, but also these fossil beds contain usually closer to the surface) are much
of many Canadian sites with
a rich store of fossils. What some of the earliest animals with hard more similar to species alive today than
have Canadian fossils parts to be seen in the fossil record. Some fossils found in deeper, older layers
contributed to our of the fossilized animals found in the of rock.
understanding of evolution? Burgess Shale are ancestors of animals • Fossils appear in chronological order in
@
www
that are common today. Others have long the rock layers. So, probable ancestors
'EOLOGIC4IME3CALE
-ILLION -AJOREVOLUTIONARY 2EPRESENTATIVE
%RA 0ERIOD
YEARSAGO EVENTS ORGANISMS
1UATERNARY
#ENOZOIC
(UMANSEVOLVE
4ERTIARY
&IRSTPLACENTALMAMMALS

#RETACEOUS &LOWERINGPLANTS
DOMINANT
-ESOZOIC

&IRSTBIRDS
*URASSIC &IRSTMAMMALS
&IRSTFLOWERINGPLANTS

4RIASSIC &IRSTDINOSAURS

0ERMIAN #ONE BEARINGPLANTSDOMINANT
&IRSTREPTILES
'REATCOALDEPOSITSFORM
#ARBONIFEROUS
&IRSTSEEDPLANTS

0ALEOZOIC
$EVONIAN &IRSTAMPHIBIANS
&IRSTLANDPLANTS
3ILURIAN &IRSTJAWEDFISH

/RDOVICIAN !LGAEDOMINANT
&IRSTVERTEBRATES

#AMBRIAN 3IMPLEINVERTEBRATES

,IFEDIVERSIFIES
0RECAMBRIAN
%UKARYOTES
Figure 4.10 This 0ROKARYOTES
geologic time scale
shows when ,IFEEVOLVES
organisms first appear

in the fossil record.

2ODHOCETUSKASRANISSMALLHINDLIMBSWOULD
NOTHAVEHELPEDITSWIMMUCHLESSWALK
0AKICETUSATTOCKILIVEDONLANDBUTITSSKULLHAD
ALREADYEVOLVEDFEATURESCHARACTERISTICOFWHALES
!MBULOCETUSNATANSLIKELYWALKED
ONLANDASMODERNSEALIONSDO AND
SWAMBYFLEXINGITSBACKBONEANDPADDLING
WITHITSHINDLIMBSASMODERNOTTERSDO -ODERNTOOTHEDWHALES
Figure 4.11 Fossil evidence suggests that modern, aquatic, toothed whales evolved from a
terrestrial ancestor, Pakicetus attocki. Basilosaurus and Dorudon, not shown in this illustration,
appear more recently in the fossil record, after the appearance of Rodhocetus.
for a species would be found in older of hundreds of transitional fossils—

rocks, which would usually lie beneath fossils that show intermediary links
the rock in which the later species was between groups of organisms—has
found. helped scientists better understand
• Not all organisms appear in the fossil the process and relationships between
record at the same time. For example, groups of organisms. Transitional fossils
the fossil history of vertebrates shows link the past with the present. For
that fish are the oldest vertebrates. In example, scientists have found fossilized
subsequent layers, the fossils of other whales that lived 36 to 55 million years
vertebrates—amphibians, reptiles, ago. These fossils link present-day whales
mammals, and birds—appear. This to terrestrial ancestors. The Basilosaurus
reinforces scientific evidence that and Dorudon were ancient whales that
amphibians evolved from ancestral had tiny hind limbs, but led an entirely
fish, reptiles evolved from ancestral aquatic life. Dorudon was about the size
amphibians, and both mammals and of a large dolphin, about 5 m long. It had
birds evolved from different groups of a tiny pelvis (located near the end of its
reptiles (mammals first, and then birds). tail) and 10-cm legs, both of which
It is important to remember that these would have been useless to an animal
changes were slow and took millions that lived an aquatic life. A more
of years. The geological time scale in recently discovered transitional form,
Figure 4.10 shows when organisms Ambulocetus, announced in 1994, had
first appear in the fossil record. heavier leg bones. Scientists hypothesize
that it lived both on land and in water.
•••
Figure 4.11 shows Ambulocetus, as well
2 record
List two ways that the fossil

has helped scientists
as two other ancestors of present-day
whales, whose discovery has filled gaps
understand that organisms
in the fossil record of whales.
change over time.
In 1995, the fossil of a previously
••• unknown dinosaur called Atrociraptor
(“savage robber”) was discovered
Transitional Fossils near Drumheller (see Figure 4.12). Figure 4.12 Based on
The original fossil record gave only Atrociraptor was a small meat-eating where Atrociraptor was
scattered “snapshots” of ancestral forms, dinosaur, about the size of a 10-year-old found in the fossil record,
and critics of the theory were concerned it was alive about 70 million
child. It is thought to be a close non- years ago, during the
about the “gaps.” The ongoing discovery birdlike relative of Archaeopteryx. Fossils Cretaceous period.

BiologyFile of Archaeopteryx show a transitional continent. This suggests that animals
stage in the fossil record because this on islands have evolved from mainland
Web Link
The theory of plate tectonics,
species had characteristics of both migrants, with populations becoming
developed by geologists reptiles (dinosaurs) and birds. adapted over time as they adjust to the
and paleontologists, Archaeopteryx had feathers, but, unlike environmental conditions of their new
explains how the locations any modern bird, it also had teeth, claws home. For example, the lizards found on
of continents have changed
on its wings, and a bony tail. the Canary Islands, off the northwest
over Earth’s history. What
pivotal role did Canadian In early 2005, a Canadian team of coast of Africa, are very similar to the
geologist John Tuzo Wilson paleontologists made another amazing lizards found in west Africa.
play in formulating this discovery at a fossil site in China. They • Fossils of the same species can be found
theory? How does this found a pair of shelled eggs inside a on the coastline of neighbouring
theory support the theory
of evolution by natural fossilized dinosaur. The dinosaur, a continents. For example, fossils of the
selection? kind of theropod, is considered to be reptile Cynognathus have been found
an ancestor of modern birds. The shape in Africa and South America. How
@
www of the eggs, the evidence at the fossil
site, past fossil discoveries, and the
can this be explained? The location of
continents are not fixed; continents are
paleontologists’ understanding of the slowly moving away from one another.
biology of birds and reptiles suggested At one time, the continents of Africa
to them that this dinosaur laid its eggs in and South America were joined in one
intervals like modern-day birds, rather “supercontinent.”
than all at once like reptiles do. • Closely related species are almost never
found in exactly the same location or
Patterns of Distribution habitat.
As you know from Chapter 3, organisms
are not distributed evenly over Earth. Anatomy
Biogeography is the study of the past Vertebrate forelimbs can be used for
and present geographical distribution various functions, including flying (birds
of organisms. Many of the observations and bats), running (horses and dogs),
that Darwin and Wallace used to develop swimming (whales and seals), and
their theories were based on biogeography. swinging from tree branches (monkeys).
Darwin and Wallace hypothesized that Despite their different functions,
species evolve in one location and then however, all vertebrate forelimbs contain
spread out to other regions. the same set of bones, organized in
Biogeography supports this similar ways. How is this possible? The
hypothesis with examples such as the most plausible explanation is that the
following: basic vertebrate forelimb originated
BiologyFile • Geographically close environments with a common ancestor. Homologous
FYI (for example, desert and forest habitats structures are those that have similar
Aboriginal people have in South America) are more likely to structural elements and origin but may
lived off the land in the be populated by related species than have a different function. The limbs
Wood Buffalo region in are locations that are geographically shown in Figure 4.13 have similar
Northern Alberta for more
than 8000 years. The Wood
separate but environmentally similar structures, such as number of bones,
Buffalo National Park was (for example, a desert in Africa and a muscles, ligaments, tendons, and blood
created with the help of desert in Australia). So, for instance, vessels. These structural elements are
local Aboriginal groups to cacti are native only to the deserts of arranged, however, to be best suited for
preserve the cultural history
North, Central, and South America. different functions: walking, flying, or
of the area and to protect
the world’s largest free- They are not naturally found in other swimming. Homologous structures are
roaming bison (Genus Bison) deserts in the world, such as those in similar because they were inherited from
herd and the last natural Australia or Africa. a common ancestor. As you can see in
nesting site for the • Animals found on islands often closely Figure 4.13, homologous structures
endangered whooping
crane (Grus americana). resemble animals found on the closest differ in their anatomy based on an

organism’s lifestyle and environment.
For example, the bones in a horse’s leg
are larger and heavier than the bones in
a bat’s wing.
Homologous structures can be
similar in structure or function or both.
The limbs in Figure 4.13 are structurally
similar. As well, the lower limbs of the
human, frog, and horse perform the
same function: movement on land.
Functional similarity in anatomy,
however, does not necessarily mean that
HUMAN FROG BAT PORPOISE HORSE
species are closely related. The wings
of insects, birds, bats, and pterosaurs Figure 4.13 These
(extinct flying reptiles) are similar in makes up insect wings.) All of these vertebrates have the same
basic arrangement of
function, but not in structure. (For organisms evolved independently of one
bones (as indicated by
example, bones support bird wings, another and did not share a common the colours), but the
whereas a tough material called chitin ancestor with wings. bones have different uses.
Thought Lab 4.4 Homologies of Hair Target Skills

Hypothesizing the adaptive significance
of variations in the structure of hair
Using electronic research techniques to
analyze and synthesize ideas related
to hair as a homologous structure, in
order to determine patterns and links
CUTICLE CORTEX MEDULLA CUTICULARSCALE

c) the vibrissae (“whiskers”) of a cat
d) the thick mane of a lion
e) the long, thick hair of a woolly mammoth
f) the horn of a rhinoceros, which is made of densely
packed hair
PIGMENTGRANULES g) the “scales” of a pangolin, which are modified hairs
8gdhhHZXi^dcd[V=V^g h) the soft, fluffy qiviut (fur) of a muskox
Mammals are the only animals that have hair. Among 3. Conduct research to investigate the structure of the hair
mammalian species, hair can vary in length, density, texture, you have chosen. Research how the animal’s lifestyle and
and colour. The basic structure of hair, however, is the same habitat might explain the particular function(s) of its hair.
for all mammals. Each hair has a central medulla that is
surrounded by a dense cortex, which contains most of the Analysis
pigment granules that give each hair its colour. The cortex is 1. Based on the information you collected and your
covered by a layer called the cuticle. The scales of the cuticle understanding of natural selection,
are specific to a particular genera or even species of a) hypothesize how the structure of the hair is related
mammals. Thus, mammalian hair has a common origin, to abiotic conditions in an animal’s environment
yet may serve different functions. In this activity, you will
b) write a hypothesis stating how the variations might
investigate variations in the functions of mammalian hair.
have arisen from the basic hair structure of a common
Procedure mammalian ancestor
1. Work in small groups of three or four. 2. Present your findings to the others in your group in
a written or oral report, a computer presentation, or
2. Each person in your group should choose a different
another form that is easily shared. ICT
type of mammalian hair from the following list:
a) the stout, strong hairs of a porcupine 3. Write a statement that describes one similarity and one
difference in the adaptations of the hair studied by the
b) the dense underfur, or underhairs, of a sea otter
members of your group.

BiologyFile Body parts that perform similar •••
Try This
Some structures evolved for
functions, even though the organisms do
not have a common evolutionary origin, 2 How
does an understanding of
embryology support the idea
one function and became are called analogous structures. that similar organisms, such as
useful for another function vertebrates, have a common
as time passed. For example,
•••
feathers might have evolved
originally as an adaptation
2 homologous
Are bird wings and bat wings
structures or
ancestor?
•••
for insulation and later
analogous structures? Explain
might have become useful Molecular Biology
for flight. Adaptations that your answer.
were originally selected ••• The evolutionary relationships among
for one function but later species are reflected in their DNA and
became useful for another proteins. The field of molecular biology
Embryology
function are called developed as technologies to identify
exaptations. Originally, The embryos of different organisms
exaptations were called pre- exhibit similar stages of embryonic molecules, such as DNA and protein
adaptions. How could the development. For example, all vertebrate molecules, developed. This field has
term “pre-adaptation” lead
embryos have paired pouches, or out- provided evidence that helps to support
to some misconceptions the idea of common ancestry and
about natural selection? pocketings of the throat. In fish and
some amphibians, the pouches develop evolution through natural selection. From
into gills. In humans, the pouches molecular biology, we have learned the
become parts of the ears and throat. following information about life on Earth:
• All cells consist of membranes filled
At certain stages in the development
of the embryo, the similarities among with—among other components—
vertebrates are more apparent than the water, genetic material, proteins, lipids,
differences, as you can see in Figure 4.14. and carbohydrates.
• Proteins called enzymes control
The similarities among embryos
in related groups (such as vertebrates) biochemical reactions in all organisms.
• In all organisms, proteins are
point to a common ancestral origin. It
follows that related species would share synthesized from amino acids.
• In all organisms, all cells that can
Figure 4.14 Similarities both adult features (such as basic arm-
in the embryos of fish, bone arrangements, as discussed earlier) replicate contain DNA. Since DNA
reptiles, birds, and and embryonic features (such as the carries genetic information, scientists
mammals provide
presence of paired pouches in the throat). can determine how closely related two
evidence of evolution. organisms are by comparing their
FISH CHICKEN PIG HUMAN DNA. If two species have similar
patterns in portions of their DNA, this
similarity indicates that these portions
of their DNA were most likely inherited
from a recent common ancestor.
Genetics
The use of modern technology has led to
many discoveries that support Darwin’s
theory. Scientists now know how species
passed on their traits to their offspring,
and how the blueprints (genes) for these
traits could change by mutation, as
you learned in section 4.1. Current
evolutionary theory connects genetics
with the theory of natural selection,
and how natural selection operates on
populations. Thus, genetic evidence

and the understanding of heredity and • Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
mutations lend support to hypotheses Wallace both developed hypotheses
that stem from observations of fossils, to explain natural selection.
anatomy, biogeography, embryology, • Contributions by Cuvier, Lamarck,
and molecular biology. Malthus, Lyell, and others helped to
develop the hypotheses that have
•••
become the theory of evolution by
2 that
List five different fields of science

have contributed to the
natural selection.
• The fossil record, biogeography,
theory of evolution by natural
anatomy, molecular biology, and
selection. How has each field
genetics all provide evidence for
contributed to refining this theory?
evolution.
••• • New discoveries of fossils, called
transitional fossils, help fill in the
Section 4.2 Summary “gaps” in the fossil record.
• Scientific theories explain facts and tie • Homologous structures are those
them together in a comprehensive way, that have similar structural elements
enabling scientists to make predictions and origin but may have a different
about new situations and experimental function. Analogous structures
outcomes. perform similar functions, even though
• The theory of evolution ties together the organisms do not have a common
facts to provide a logical framework evolutionary origin.
that explains how life on Earth has
changed and is still changing.
Section 4.2 Review
1. Describe the contributions of the following people 5. List three facts that support the idea of organisms
to the understanding of evolution: sharing a common ancestor.
a) Cuvier 6. An athlete breaks her leg. Years later, she has a child who
b) Malthus walks with a limp. Is this an example of a trait being
c) Wallace passed from one generation to the next? Justify your
answer.
d) Lyell
7. At the site of a fossil bed, you come across fossils in a
2. Although Lamarck and Darwin proposed different
number of layers in the sediment. Which layers would
explanations for how characteristics are passed from
have the oldest fossils, and which would have the
parent to offspring, their theories had some similarities.
youngest fossils? Explain your reasoning.
Identify and compare these similarities.
8. Define the term transitional fossils and explain how
3. Is a bat more closely related to a bird or to a mouse?
these help scientists to better understand relationships
Explain your answer using the terms “analogous
between groups of organisms.
structure” and “homologous structure.”
9. Use word processing or spreadsheet software to create a
4. Much of the theory of evolution has been developed by
table summarizing the differences between homologous
interpreting certain observations or by making logical
and analagous structures. Use the following headings:
inferences about these observations. Outline the
structure, function, and origin. ICT
inferences that Darwin and other scientists made
from each of the following observations. 10. Explain how scientists can use DNA to determine the
a) Some species found on islands are very similar evolutionary relationship between two organisms.
to species found on neighbouring continents.
b) No two individuals are exactly alike.
c) Resources, such as food, are limited.

Connections Social and Environmental Contexts
Debating Science
“When I consider healthy discussions that take place in the scientific world, vigorous
debate (or at least consideration) of opposing alternatives is critical for the successful
development of ideas and identification of promising new areas of research. The ideas
that withstand critical challenges from colleagues end up being the most robust and
strongest theories.”
—Brent Edwards, PhD,
Starkey Hearing Research Centre
How often have you read about a scientific “breakthrough” police itself effectively. Individual publications must have
only to see it disputed (or completely contradicted) a few strict guidelines for submissions to ensure that legitimate
months later? What’s good for you one year seems to be research is being presented for review.
bad for you the next. What is going on? In Darwin’s day, 1858, he publicly reported on the
Science is a process of constructing, refining, and studies he and Alfred Russel Wallace had done related to
revising knowledge and understanding. Individuals or the origin and diversity of life to the Linnean Society in
small groups of scientists start the process. However, London. On the Origin of Species was published the next
the result of their work—a new discovery, a rejected year as a book, and scientific colleagues used it to review
hypothesis, or a modified theory—is a collaborative the evidence presented and the conclusions. That review
process that requires feedback, discussion, and the continues as more evidence is found, and more
eventual consensus of others in the scientific community. conclusions are reached, published, and debated.
The Role of Scientific Review Science and Society

Science requires, and is founded on, the practice of peer Scientific debates are not always confined to the topics
review. In 1560, an Italian scholar, Giambattista della of scientific evidence and conclusions. Scientists do
Porta, founded the first organization for the exchange of not exist in a vacuum; they are part of society. Their
scientific ideas, known as The Academy of the Mysteries discoveries have led to inventions that have transformed
of Nature. Its purpose was to present scientific ideas the ways in which we live our lives. Some scientific
for review and discussion. Since that time, countless discoveries go beyond practical applications to challenge
societies, associations, journals, symposia, conferences, assumptions that sustain social institutions.
and now Internet resources have been set up to give For example, since the days of Aristotle, people in
scientists a place to communicate their ideas and findings western society had believed that Earth was the centre
for the evaluation of their peers. of the universe. Theologians and political authorities
This scrutiny is an essential part of the scientific had based their justification of social order on this
process. Peer reviewers compare assumptions with their understanding. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish
own knowledge, attempt to replicate or verify findings, astronomer, challenged this Earth-centred view by
and frequently challenge their colleagues’ conclusions. publishing a new theory about Earth orbiting the Sun.
This is why it is so important to document all procedures In the 1600s, the astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei
and carefully record the resulting data. (1564–1642) was imprisoned and threatened with torture
The review process has uncovered faulty for supporting Copernicus’s theory. Representatives of
experimental designs, incorrect conclusions, and—at the state felt that a Sun-centred universe was a dangerous
times—deliberately fraudulent data. In many cases, idea that would undermine social structures and authority.
however, the process of peer review and scientific debate When Darwin published his book in 1859, those
has led to the development, refinement, and acceptance debating his theories and conclusions were not just
of scientific laws and theories that help shape our scientists. Many non-scientists were alarmed by the
understanding of the world around us. implications of Darwin’s conclusions, which were
The process is not foolproof. The sheer volume of thought to challenge the idea that humans were created
material being published today in a variety of increasingly intentionally by God for a special purpose and that,
specialized journals makes it very difficult for the field to again, this would undermine the social order.

The social debate over evolution was still raging in •••
1925 when the state of Tennessee passed legislation that 1. You and your colleagues at the university have
made it “unlawful” for any teacher there to “teach any discovered a protein that you believe is a major
theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of trigger for certain types of heart disease. You’ve rerun
man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man your tests many times and gotten consistent results.
has descended from a lower order of animals.” A high Now it’s time to publish them. Choose two potential
school biology teacher named John Thomas Scopes was journals in which you could publish the research.
soon charged with the offense. His trial, which became
a) Describe the readership, including the total
known through the media as “The Scopes Monkey Trial,”
number and their general areas of expertise.
was held in a packed courthouse and followed by national
newspapers in the U.S. (It also was the first trial to be b) Describe the process for submitting research
broadcast on national radio.) for review.
The arguments for and against the indictment largely c) Explain how the publication is funded.
revolved around preserving the separation of church and d) Assess and describe any potential impact the
state, the validity of various interpretations of the Bible,
factors you’ve researched might have on the
and whether a conviction created a special status for one
quality of attention and review your team’s
faith. The actual science related to the theory of evolution
was not the focus of the debate; the concern was about its work on proteins and heart disease will receive.
social impact. 2. When and why do you think members of the general
Some of the current debates among scientists—for public should get involved in discussions about
example, about climate change and the importance of scientific findings? Describe the best forum for
preserving biodiversity—have also moved beyond the holding such discussions (for example, schools,
sphere of science and entered the public forum. Once courts, newspapers, radio, television, public
again, scientific conclusions are under fire, not because meetings, or the Internet) and why you think
the science is thought to be wrong, but because there are it is the most effective.
concerns that the implications will somehow undermine
3. The peppered moth, Biston betularia, has been the
social (and economic) principles and practices.
subject of scientific study since 1848, when it was
noted that the numbers of individuals of flecked and
dark moth populations fluctuated over relatively
short periods of time that corresponded to the
amount of air pollution in the moth’s habitat.
Numerous studies confirm the hypothesis that
natural selection is driving these population changes.
However, this hypothesis has been challenged, mainly
in the popular media, rather than in scientific
journals. Do research to find and summarize the
evidence that has been cited to challenge the hypothesis.
4. The Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine is
one of a handful of scientific journals devoted to
communicating the negative results of failed
investigations and disproved hypotheses. Some
scientists suggest that all scientific journals should
do a better job of providing such information. Do
you agree? Justify your reasoning.
Some observers of the Scopes Monkey Trial suggested that if

they had a chance to debate the issue, monkeys might have
strong objections.

SECTION
How Species Form
4.3
Section Outcomes
A B
• explain ways in which
species can become
reproductively isolated
• describe how new species
form
• compare two models
that explain the rate of
evolution
Figure 4.15 The Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) (A) and Southern leopard frog (Rana
Key Terms
sphenocephala) (B) were once thought to be part of a single, extremely variable species. Today,
speciation scientists agree that what they thought was one species of leopard frog is at least seven
geographical barriers different, but related, species in North America.
biological barriers
adaptive radiation The two leopard frogs in Figure 4.15 look species of warbler? In this section, you
gradualism remarkably similar, but they are different will learn how populations remain
punctuated equilibrium
species. How is a species defined? reproductively isolated from one another
Historically, biologists defined species and how this can lead to the formation
in terms of their physical form. Physical of new species.
similarity, however, does not necessarily
mean that organisms are the same species. Forming a New Species
Biologists now consider physiology, There are two general pathways that can
biochemistry, behaviour, and genetics, lead to the formation of new species, or
as well, when distinguishing one species speciation. As shown in Figure 4.16A, a
from another. new species may result from accumulated
changes in the population over a long
What Is a Species? period of time. A new species gradually
As you read in Section 4.1, a biological develops as a result of mutation and
species consists of populations that can adaptation to changing environmental
interbreed and produce a group of viable conditions, and the old species is
offspring, which can also reproduce gradually replaced. This is known as
in nature. Biological species that are transformation. The evolution of
geographically isolated cannot interbreed. mammoths followed this pathway. The
What about biological species that share ancestral mammoth lived approximately
the same habitat? 2.6 million to 700 000 years ago. It slowly
Biological species can also be evolved into the steppe mammoth that
described as being reproductively isolated lived 700 000 to 500 000 years ago, and
from other species. Obviously, highly finally into the woolly mammoth that
dissimilar species, such as elephants lived 350 000 to 10 000 years ago.
and frogs, cannot mate, so they are If this pathway were the only
reproductively isolated. Populations mechanism for the creation of new
that breed at different time periods, such species, however, the total number and
as those that breed in the spring and diversity of species in existence would
those that breed in the fall, are also remain virtually unchanged. In the
reproductively isolated. What about second pathway to speciation, shown in
species that are similar, such as two Figure 4.16B, one or more species arise

longer able to reproduce successfully BiologyFile
with individuals in the other population.
Try This
Most woolly mammoths
Geographical Barriers became extinct about
A Transformation Geographical barriers, such as 11 000 years ago. (A smaller
mountains and rivers, prevent form, called the dwarf
woolly mammoth, survived
interbreeding and result in speciation
until as recently as 3500 to
because they keep populations physically 5000 years ago on an island
separated. For example, a substantial lava off the coast of northern
flow may isolate populations, changes in Russia.) Fossil records show
ocean levels may turn a peninsula into that human hunting had a
role to play in the extinction
an island, or a few colonizers may reach a of the woolly mammoth, as
geographically separate habitat (such as a did global warming. Many
newly formed island). After a long period scientists are concerned
of time, speciation will occur. The about how global warming
B Divergence might affect populations
separated populations will no longer be
today. (For example,
Figure 4.16 There are two pathways to able to mate and reproduce successfully changes in climate or water
speciation: (A) one species evolves into with others members of the original levels can affect food
another species and (B) one or more species
population. supplies or result in a loss
arise from a parent species.
The geographic isolation of of habitat.) With a partner,
discuss ways in which global
from a parent species that continues to a population does not have to be warming might affect the
exist. This is known as divergence. For maintained forever for speciation to evolution of species by
example, the small hoofed Hyracotherium, occur. It must be maintained long natural selection.
which lived approximately 50 million enough, however, for the population to
years ago, is thought to have been the become reproductively incompatible
common ancestor of modern horses, with the original population.
tapirs, and rhinoceroses. Members of the ancestral species
Both pathways to speciation are the of Galápagos finches reached one of the
result of natural selection. The second islands in the archipelago, possibly as
pathway increases biological diversity a result of being blown off course in a
because it increases the number of species. tropical storm. Unable to return to the
mainland, the ancestral species evolved
••• differently from their mainland relative.
2 Defi
ne speciation and the two
general pathways to speciation.
The ancestral birds, and their successive
generations, have since spread through
••• the islands. New species developed as
they evolved in response to the unique
Keeping Populations Separate environments on individual islands. BiologyFile
For speciation to occur, two populations Figure 4.17 on page 138 shows the FYI
must be prevented from interbreeding. hypothesized descent of multiple species Charles Darwin used the
from one common ancestor. The length variations he could see and
This means that the populations must measure in the Galápagos
become isolated from one another of each vertical line reflects how much finches to hypothesize how
through geographical or biological the DNA of each species has mutated speciation might have
barriers. If the populations remain from the group’s common ancestor. happened in the Galápagos
Islands. Today, DNA evidence
isolated long enough, speciation will
Biological Barriers supports Darwin’s original
eventually occur because of changes hypothesis and adds further
accumulated in the population due Even if the ranges of species overlap, information to help
to natural selection, which affects there are many biological barriers that scientists understand how
reproduction. When this happens, can keep the species reproductively the different lineages of
isolated. For example, behaviour is finches could have arisen
individuals in one population are no from an ancestral
a biological barrier that will keep population.

WARBLERFINCH WOODPECKERFINCH
#OLIVACEA #PALLIDUS
MEDIUMGROUND
FINCH'FORTIS
SMALLINSECTIVOROUS
TREEFINCH SHARP BEAKEDGROUND
#PARVULUS FINCH'DIFFICILIS
LARGEINSECTIVOROUS
TREEFINCH
#PSITTACULA
LARGEGROUNDFINCH
'MAGNIROSTRIS
SMALLGROUNDFINCH
'FULIGINOSA
CACTUSGROUNDFINCH
'CONIROSTRIS
VEGETARIANTREEFINCH
#CRASSIROSTRIS
WARBLERFINCHES TREEFINCHES GROUNDFINCHES

'ENUS#ERTHIDEA 'ENUS#AMARHYNCHUS 'ENUS'EOSPIZA
Figure 4.17 Hypothesized evolutionary relationships for finches

from the Galápagos Islands. The ancestral population initially
gave rise to four lineages of finches. As time passed, different
lineages began to become geographically and reproductively
COMMONANCESTOR isolated from each other. For example, the birds that are now
called warbler finches developed beaks that were more slender
than the beaks of their ancestor to specialize in eating insects.
BiologyFile individuals separate. The courtship movements to identify themselves to

songs of birds are one type of the females.
Web Link
Scientists at the University behavioural barrier. Male birds use Other species may live in the same
of British Columbia have distinct calls that are recognized by other general area but use different habitats,
been tracking the speciation birds of the same species during their and therefore encounter each other
of greenish warblers
mating season. Birds that have diverged rarely, if at all. An example is two species
(Phylloscopus trochiloides)
in various habitats in Asia. from a common ancestral species may of garter snakes. One species usually lives
The songs of different have similar calls, but their calls are near water, and the other species lives in
populations of this bird different enough from the calls of open areas, rarely near water. This is
differ slightly in each habitat neighbouring species to provide a different from a geographical barrier
throughout their range.
What other differences
biological barrier to reproduction. because there is no physical impediment
have resulted from the Species of spiders also use biological keeping the populations apart.
birds’ isolation? barriers. Female spiders use pheromones Take a look at the behavioural
(chemical signals) to attract mates of the barriers to reproduction in leopard
@
www same species. Some male spiders, such
as the one in Figure 4.18, use specific
frogs in the following Thought Lab.

•••
2 How
is a bird’s call a barrier to
speciation?
•••
Speciation Occurs in
Reproductively Isolated
Populations
When populations become reproductively
isolated—even when they have not
become geographically isolated—
speciation has occurred. For example,
Figure 4.18 The small (15 to 20 mm), male animals can become reproductively
golden orb spider (from the Genus Nephila) isolated within the geographical range
signals his identity and intentions to the
female (20 to 30 mm, shown on the left) by of a parent population if they begin to Figure 4.19 At one time,
plucking a strand of the web. His “love song” use resources that are not used by their more than 600 species of
keeps his species reproductively isolated parents. Lake Victoria in Africa is the cichlids lived in Africa’s
from other spider species because the largest tropical lake in the world. The Lake Victoria. By analyzing
female recognizes the signals of his particular a specific gene in the fish,
mating behaviour. This prevents him from
lake is home to hundreds of species of scientists have estimated
being mistaken for an interloper and being closely related fishes, called cichlids (see that the first cichlids
eaten by the female. Figure 4.19). Each species has features entered Lake Victoria
200 000 years ago.
&ISHEATER ,EAFEATER
:OOPLANKTONEATER
3NAILEATER )NSECTEATER
!LGAESCRAPER
Thought Lab 4.5 Leopard Frogs: One Species or Seven? Target Skills
Using a range of tools to gather and
Procedure record data and information about
species of leopard frogs
How do frog calls result in keeping species separate? Listen
to the calls of two different species of leopard frogs, supplied Using appropriate modes of
by your teacher. representation to communicate ideas
Analysis (Rana blairi), Florida (Rana sphenocephala

1. How is a frog call a barrier that keeps species distinct? sphenocephala), Ramsey Canyon (Rana subaquavocalis),
and lowland (Rana yavapaiensis). Choose two of these
2. Leopard frogs in North America include the northern species. Use print or electronic resources to help you
leopard frog (Rana pipiens), southern leopard frog (Rana describe, in point form, the differences that result in
sphenocephala), Rio Grande (Rana berlandieri), plains their being considered separate species. ICT

BiologyFile that make it unique from other cichlid selective pressures resulted in different
species in the lake, and none of these feeding and mating habits, as well as
FYI
In the 1950s, the Nile perch
species is found anywhere else on Earth. morphological (physical) differences of
was introduced to Lake Remarkably, these species all are the hundreds of types of fruit flies that
Victoria as a source of descended from a single common now inhabit the islands.
food for the local human ancestor—a species of cichlid that
population. This species The Pace of Evolution
entered Lake Victoria from the Nile
preyed heavily on cichlids
and, by 1990, more than half River. This incredible explosion of How fast is evolutionary change? There
of the known species of speciation within the same lake are currently two models that scientists
Lake Victoria cichlids had happened as small groups of the parent have proposed for the pace of evolution:
vanished. Now, however, population began to exploit different gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
the perch is being fished
heavily and some cichlid food sources and habitats in the lake. The Since Darwin’s time, many evolutionary
populations appear to be lake level has risen and fallen many times biologists have supported the model of
recovering. during its history, periodically isolating gradualism, which says that gradual
small groups of fish, and these fish have change occurs steadily, in a linear
changed extensively because of selective fashion. According to this model, big
pressures. Scientists studying the cichlids changes (such as the evolution of a new
hypothesize that many of the species in species) occur as a result of many small
the lake today originated after the lake changes. The fossil record, however,
dried to just a few small pools of water rarely reveals fossils that show this
about 14 000 years ago. Populations were gradual transition. Instead, paleontologists
isolated in these pools of water until the most often find species that appear
water level rose again. The speciation of suddenly in the fossil record and then
cichlids has produced a remarkable disappear from the record just as
variety of cichlids with a fascinating abruptly. (It should be remembered,
diversity of teeth, jaws, mating however, that not all species have
behaviours, and coloration. necessarily left fossils, and many
••• fossils have not yet been discovered.)
The different rates of evolution and
2 How
could the rise and fall of
lake levels over thousands of
evidence in the fossil record that show
periods of rapid change (for example,
years result in the speciation
rapid speciation after mass extinctions)
of a population of fish?
have led to another model to explain
••• the rate of evolution: punctuated
equilibrium. This model proposes that
Adaptive Radiation evolutionary history consists of long
The diversification of a common periods of equilibrium where there
ancestral species into a variety of species, is little change, “punctuated” or
all of which are differently adapted, is interrupted by periods of speciation.
called adaptive radiation. The speciation According to the model of punctuated
of finches throughout the Galápagos equilibrium, most species undergo most
Islands is an example of adaptive of their morphological changes when
radiation. Another example is the fruit they first diverge from the parent
fly genus Drosophila of the Hawaiian species––for example, if a population
islands. Descendents of the ancestral colonizes a new area. After that, species
Drosophila proliferated on the first island change relatively little, even as they give
they inhabited. Then, individuals began rise to other species. Gradualism and
to disperse to other islands. The islands punctuated equilibrium are modelled
were ecologically different enough to in Figure 4.20.
have different environmental situations Questions about the pace of
acting on individuals. The various evolution have stimulated much

Figure 4.20 Two models
have been proposed to
explain the pace of
evolution: (A) gradualism
and (B) punctuated
equilibrium.
4IME
A Gradualism B Punctuated equilibrium
discussion and research, as do all good the backbone of biology as a science, and
scientific hypotheses. Debate over the provides a framework to understand the
specific details of the mechanisms of world in which we live. The theory of
evolution by natural selection will evolution explains observations seen
continue; details may be adjusted as new in fossils, anatomy, animal behaviours,
technologies and scientific techniques molecular biology, biogeography,
are developed. Nevertheless, the theory genetics, and geology. It is summarized
of evolution by natural selection forms in the box below.
The theory of evolution by natural selection includes the following ideas:

1. Life forms have developed from 4. The mechanism by which one species
ancestral species. evolves into another species involves
random heritable genetic mutations.
2. All living things are related to one
Some mutations result in a survival
another by varying degrees through
advantage for an individual; if so, the
common descent.
individual is more likely to survive and
3. All living things on Earth have a pass this mutation on to its offspring.
common origin (share a common Eventually, the successful mutation
ancestor). increases in the population and causes
the population as a whole to start
to change.
Section 4.3 Summary interbreeding. Barriers to reproduction

• A species consists of a reproductively can be geographical or biological.
compatible population. Speciation has occurred when
• A new species can form via one of populations become reproductively
two pathways: transformation or isolated (they cannot interbreed).
divergence. Both are the result of • Adaptive radiation is the diversification
natural selection; only divergence of a common ancestral species into a
increases biological diversity. variety of species, all of which are
• Speciation (the formation of a differently adapted.
new species) can occur when two • Scientific debate about the pace of
populations are prevented from evolution continues. Two models are
being proposed: gradualism, that is,

gradual change occurred in a steady, history is said to consist of long periods
linear way over time; and punctuated of equilibrium, interrupted by periods
equilibrium, whereby evolutionary of speciation.
Section 4.3 Review
1. Explain how geographical isolation leads to speciation. Use the following information to answer the next question.
2. Use word processing or other software to create a flow Adaptive Radiation
chart illustrating the two pathways that can lead to the A team of researchers led by Washington University
formation of a new species. Identify the pathway that biology professor Jonathan Losos has spent the last several
leads to an increase in biodiversity. ICT years studying lizards of the genus Anolis (commonly
called “anoles”) that live on large Caribbean islands. He
3. Explain the difference between habitat isolation and
has focussed on Puerto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, and Jamaica.
a geographical barrier to reproduction.
All four islands are inhabited by a diverse array of anole
4. In the Hawaiian Islands, there are thousands of species lizards (there are 57 species on Cuba alone), and all four
of plants and animals that are found nowhere else on islands have quite similar habitats and vegetation.
Earth. How would you explain this phenomenon? Unlike rats and cockroaches, which are generalists and are
5. Suppose that you are asked to catalogue the species of much the same wherever you find them, anole lizards are
birds living in a remote area that has never before been specialists. In Puerto Rico, for example, one slender anole
visited by biologists. List the criteria you would use to species with a long tail lives only in the grass. On narrow
determine whether the individual birds you observe twigs at the base of trees you find a different species, also
or collect are the same species or different species. slender, but with stubby legs. On the higher branches of
the tree a third species is found, of stocky build and long
6. Use word processing or spreadsheet software to create a
legs. High up in the leafy canopy of the tree lives a fourth
table or chart that compares and contrasts the ideas of
giant green species.
gradualism and punctuated equilibrium. ICT
The DNA data are clear-cut: specialist species on one
Use the following information to answer the next question. island are not closely related to the same specialists
Red Island and Blue Island are hypothetical islands 500 km elsewhere and are closely related to other anoles
off the coast of South America. Red Island is volcanic in inhabiting the same island.
origin and is only five million years old. Blue Island
separated from South America more than 80 million 8. Explain how the situation described above would be an
years ago. example of adaptive radiation.
7. Predict the origins of the animals on both islands and

explain how they may be similar to or different from the
animals of South America.

Chapter 4
Sexual reproduction, which combines the genetic The theory of evolution was developed from the ideas
information from two parents, results in variations in the and observations of a number of scientists. Darwin and
characteristics of offspring. These variations may or may Wallace developed similar theories to explain evolution by
not give the organism a survival advantage. If it does, the natural selection, and Darwin published his version in On
variation is likely to be passed on to an increasing number the Origin of Species in 1859. Since publication, discoveries
of organisms in the population. in fields such as paleontology, biogeography, anatomy,
The main source of variations is mutations. Mutations embryology, genetics, and molecular biology have produced
occur when DNA is copied during cell division; mutations supporting evidence for the theory.
that occur in reproductive cells are the ones that can be Organisms that can interbreed and produce healthy
passed on. When the characteristics of a population change offspring that can also reproduce are considered to be a
because more individuals with certain inherited traits biological species. New species form when populations
survived in the local environment and passed the traits on, become reproductively isolated, due to either geographical
it is called the process of natural selection. For this reason, or biological barriers. Natural selection will occur differently
the environment can be considered to be the driving force within isolated populations, resulting in variations that
of population changes as time passes. If, however, an could mean the isolated populations can no longer mate.
environmental change is so sudden or severe that no Speciation may or may not result in increased biodiversity.
individuals of a population have characteristics that
enable them to survive it, extinction is inevitable.
Chapter 4 Graphic Organizer
3ELECTIVEPRESSURESACTON 'RADUALISMAND
INDIVIDUALSANDSOME PUNCTUATEDEQUILIBRIUM
INHERITEDVARIATIONSPROVIDE ARETWOHYPOTHESESABOUT
ASURVIVALADVANTAGE THEPACEOFSPECIATION
#HARACTERISTIC 4HEREISVARIATIONAMONGINDIVIDUALS !NCESTRALSPECIES

ADAPTATIONSHELP OFAPOPULATIONDUETO TRANSFORMORDIVERGE
SPECIESSURVIVEIN ģSEXUALREPRODUCTION INTONEWSPECIES
THEIRHABITATS ģMUTATIONSINGENES SPECIATION
6ARIOUSLINESOFEVIDENCEFROMBIOLOGYAND 3PECIESAREREPRODUCTIVELY
GEOLOGYSHOWTHAT ISOLATEDDUETO
ģPOPULATIONSCHANGEOVERTIME ģGEOGRAPHICALBARRIERS
ģDIFFERENTSPECIESARERELATEDTOONEANOTHER ģBIOLOGICALBARRIERS

Chapter 4
Understanding Concepts 8. Are the bird wing and the bat wing homologous
1. Explain the term “selective pressure” as it relates to the structures? Explain.
study of evolution. 9. Describe how the anatomy of animals is used to explain
2. How might the colour of a field mouse affect its survival? evolution.
3. Describe the possible fates of a mutation and the effects 10. Baleen whales, such as grey and humpback whales, have
that a mutation may have on a population. teeth and body hair as embryos, but not as adults. What
does this suggest to you about the evolutionary history
4. Describe the relationships among variations, of these animals?
adaptations, and natural selection.
11. Explain the role of the environment in the pace of
5. Darwin incorporated observations he made on the speciation.
Beagle expedition into what would eventually become
the theory of evolution by natural selection. Summarize Applying Concepts
some of these observations. 12. Describe a breeding program that would help a farmer
develop a herd of dairy cows that produced more milk
6. Explain why Darwin referred to “descent with
per cow than another herd of dairy cows.
modification” rather than “evolution” in On the
Origin of Species. Use the following information to answer the following question.
Use the following information to answer the following question. Fruit Flies
A researcher sets up an experiment involving two
Ord’s Kangaroo Rat
populations of fruit fly that are genetically very different
The Ord’s kangaroo rat seems perfectly suited to its
from each other. The two populations are placed in two
habitat, the sand dunes of southwestern Alberta. Using its
enclosed areas that are connected by a narrow tube
long tail and long hind legs, this small mammal can jump
through which the flies can fit.
2 m in the air as it hops away from predators, such as
snakes and owls.
13. Illustrate, using words or diagrams or both, how these
populations could develop as separate species.
Use the following information to answer the next question.
Bean Seeds
A bean is an example of a dicotyledon (having two
embryonic seed leaves). The cotyledons make up the
majority of the bean seed. The cotyledons store food for
the developing embryo in the form of starch.
Suppose that you measured variations in a population
of bean seeds and found that 80% of the population you
7. Explain how (a) Lamarck and (b) Darwin would measure had seeds that were 13 to 17 mm long.
account for the origin of the long hind legs of the
Ord’s kangaroo rat. 14. a) Describe an advantage a large seed size might have
Use the following information to answer the following question. to a newly germinated bean seedling.
b) Identify two environmental pressures that might
Homologous vs. Analogous Structures favour a small seed over a larger seed.
The wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bird share a c) Briefly outline a breeding strategy that a gardener
common function and are both called wings. The bird could use to produce beans with larger cotyledons.
wing and insect wing did not arise from an original
ancestral structure that became modified through
evolution into bird wings and butterfly wings.

Use the following information to answer the next question. Use the following information to answer the next question.
Proteins Garter Snakes
Proteins are a class of organic compounds that are present
in and vital to every living cell. Proteins are made of a long A B
chain of amino acids. The primary structure of protein
molecules is determined by the sequence of amino acids.
The amino acid sequence of a protein determines the
higher levels of structure of the molecule. A single change
in the primary structure (the amino acid sequence) can
have a profound biological change in the overall structure The northwest garter snake (Thamnophis ordinoides) (A)
and function of the protein. and the common garter snake (T. sirtalis) (B) occupy
Scientists compare differences in amino acid sequences to different habitats in a similar geographic area. The
determine evolutionary relationships among organisms. northwest garter snake prefers open areas such as
Some short amino acid sequences are given below. meadows and rarely enters water. The common garter
snake is most commonly found near water.
Amino Acid Sequences in Four Primates
Baboon Chimpanzee Lemur Human 16. Explain why these garter snakes are likely to remain
ASN SER ALA SER
separate species.
THR THR THR THR Making Connections

THR ALA SER ALA 17. Choose a fossil, either one described in this chapter or
one you have researched. Describe how this particular
GLY GLY GLY GLY
fossil helps provide scientists with information on how
ASP ASP GLU ASP populations change over time.
GLU GLU LYS GLU 18. Suppose that you are a family physician who often
VAL VAL VAL VAL prescribes antibiotics. Make a list of criteria for your
ASP GLU GLU GLU patients, to help them understand (in terms of
developing antibiotic resistant bacteria), why they
ASP ASP ASP ASP
must take antibiotics only as prescribed.
SER THR SER THR
PRO PRO PRO PRO
Hawaiian Plants
GLY GLY GLY GLY
You are a biologist who is working with a student to
GLY GLY SER GLY collect plants in Hawaii. You notice that your assistant did
ASN ALA HIS ALA not label a plant with the name of the island on which is
was collected. When asked, he explains that he did not
ASN ASN ASN ASN
think this was necessary because he thought that the plant
was found on all the Hawaiian Islands.
15. a) Count how many amino acids in a baboon differ
from the amino acids in a human. Calculate the 19. Write a memo to your assistant clearly outlining why it
percentage difference by determining the number of is necessary to label the exact island and location where
different amino acids divided by the total number of the plant was found, as well as the time when the plant
amino acids studied, and multiply by 100. Do the was found. Focus your memo on the concepts presented
same for the chimpanzee and for the lemur. in this chapter.
b) Identify the primate that appears to be most closely
related to the human and identify the primate that
appears to be least closely related to the human.
c) Would an evolutionary biologist draw a conclusion
based solely on the evidence provided in this chart?
Explain.

Career Focus: Ask a Paleontologist
Since childhood, Dr. Darla Zelenitsky has been fascinated
by dinosaurs. Today, she is a paleontologist and
researcher at the University of Calgary. She works
in conjunction with the Royal Tyrrell Museum in
Drumheller, Alberta. Dr. Zelenitsky’s research on
dinosaur eggs is changing the way that scientists
look at dinosaur evolution and may help to explain
the success of many dinosaur species.
Q Why are other scientists interested in your research Q Do you think dinosaurs are more related to birds than
findings? to reptiles?
I’ve been looking at the interrelationships or Actually, birds are a lineage of dinosaurs—and they
relationships of dinosaurs based on their represent an extremely successful group of living
reproduction. This is an approach that’s never animals. With respect to reproduction, I suspect that
been used before. dinosaurs shared strategies with crocodiles and birds,
or just with birds, or they had reproductive strategies
Q What made you think of studying dinosaur
reproduction? unique to themselves. Brooding is an example of a
reproductive strategy that some dinosaurs share with
Generally, scientists have looked more at the demise
modern birds, but do not share with alligators and
of the dinosaurs and why they went extinct. However,
crocodiles. On the other hand, crocodiles and birds
I’m interested in why dinosaurs survived for so long
only have one functional oviduct, whereas we suspect
[165 million years]. I think their long evolutionary
that dinosaurs had two functional oviducts and that
success can be explained by studying their
they laid two eggs at a time. We see evidence of this
reproductive strategies.
in some dinosaur nests, where the eggs appear to be
Q How do you study the reproductive strategies of laid in pairs.
dinosaurs?
Q Which dinosaurs’ eggs do you work with?
We examine evidence from dinosaur eggs and
I’ve worked with eggs from various dinosaurs all over
compare this to evidence from eggs of modern
the world––some meat-eating, some plant-eating.
crocodiles and birds. We can look at the number of
I’ve looked at giant sauropod eggs from France,
eggs in a clutch, the size and shape of the eggs, or the
hadrosaur (duck-billed dinosaur) eggs from Alberta,
pores in the eggshells, which would have allowed the
prosauropod eggs from South Africa, and the eggs of
embryos inside the eggs to breathe. These features can
bird-like dinosaurs, called oviraptorids, from Asia.
tell us what kind of nesting environment dinosaurs
most likely used: open, like bird nests, or buried, like Q Where are you currently doing most of your fieldwork?
crocodile nests. In southern Alberta at Devil’s Coulee, a fossilized
Q What else can you learn about dinosaur reproduction nesting site with preserved dinosaur eggs, embryos,
from dinosaur eggs? and nests. Dinosaurs are a tremendous natural
We can learn about their nesting behaviours. There resource in Alberta, and we’ve got some of the
are fossils of dinosaurs sitting on top of their eggs, most prolific dinosaur sites in the world.
much like modern birds do, from the Gobi Desert Q Does one have to be a research scientist to be involved
in Mongolia. Birds use their bodies to incubate or in paleontology?
brood their eggs. No. There are a lot of amateurs involved in
paleontology, looking for and studying fossils. The
Royal Tyrrell Museum has volunteer programs in
which people help to excavate and prepare fossils.

Other Careers Related to Paleontology
Paleoartist Trained artists, or researchers with a skill for Professional Paleontologist Researchers with expertise
drawing, rely on fossils and other evidence to create visual in vertebrate or invertebrate paleontology, or other areas
representations of what past life might have looked like. of paleontology, may work as curators at natural history
Paleoartists may illustrate books, research papers, and museums. Some paleontologists are professors at
magazine articles, and may create paintings and other universities; they teach, train graduate students, and
visuals for museums, films, and television. conduct various kinds of paleontological research.
Paleotechnician Technicians (also called fossil Paleoclimatologist Scientists examine evidence of

preparators), along with researchers and volunteers, search Earth’s ancient climates by studying tree rings, glaciers,
for and excavate fossils and prepare fossils for study. For and rocks. Paleoclimatologists, who may have graduate
example, paleotechnologists may carefully remove rock degrees in Earth sciences, sometimes work with
from fossilized bones and create models of dinosaurs. paleoecologists, who study ancient environments and
Paleotechnologists may also help researchers reconstruct populations. Paleoclimatologists can help to develop
dinosaur skeletons. An undergraduate degree in geology, computer models for predicting future climate change.
paleontology, or zoology is good preparation for a career
as a paleotechnician. Stratigrapher Geoscientists study the formation of rock
layers in order to learn about past environments. As well,
they help governments and industries make decisions
about resource development. To conduct fieldwork and
analyses for government agencies, such as the Geological
Survey of Canada, a doctorate degree in geology is
required.
Micropaleontologist Microscopic fossils, such

as diatoms, are the most abundant type of fossils,
and their presence can indicate nearby oil or
gas deposits. Micropaleontologists, who have
undergraduate degrees in geology, work with
petroleum companies to find sources of
fossil fuels.
This model shows what a newly hatched

dinosaur may have looked like in a nest.
Go Further…
1. List and research three methods,
other than studying dinosaur
eggs, that paleontologists could
use to study the evolutionary
relationships between dinosaurs
and birds.
2. How might geneticists contribute
to the study of past life forms?
3. Why is it important to understand
the process of evolution in order
to make informed decisions about
human actions that could affect
Earth’s biodiversity?

UNIT
2
Understanding Concepts 18. Distinguish between a fact and a theory. Give an
1. Define the term “population.” example of each.
2. Describe the study of ecology. 19. Explain why DNA is a useful tool for determining
possible relationships among species of organisms.
3. Hypothesize what might happen if all the predators Give an example to support your answer.
were eliminated from an ecosystem.
20. Describe how the following items contributed to
4. Explain why organisms are not evenly distributed Darwin’s theory of evolution:
across Earth. a) his experiences on the voyage of the Beagle
5. Identify three abiotic factors that create different b) Lyell’s Principles of Geology
habitats within a pond, and illustrate their effects c) Malthus’s essay about populations
on the pond ecosystem. 21. a) Describe the possible fates of a mutation and the
6. Identify four factors that might limit the population size effects that a mutation may have on a population.
of animals (such as a raven) that live as scavengers. b) Explain what could happen in a population when
a mutation provides a selective advantage.
7. Give an example of (a) biome, (b) an ecosystem within
the biome, and (c) a community within this ecosystem. 22. a) Give an example of a geographical barrier and
a biological barrier.
8. Explain why two species classified in the same family b) Explain how each barrier keeps species separate.
must also be in the same order.
23. Life is very diverse, but all species share many features,
9. Give an example of how (a) an abiotic factor and especially at the cellular and molecular level. How can
(b) a biotic factor can limit population growth. evolution explain this seeming contradiction?
10. Identify the factors that might produce regular 24. You are a paleontologist and find a fossilized skeleton
population cycles typical of small herbivore species, of a whale-like aquatic animal with tiny legs. Is this a
such as mice and squirrels. transitional fossil? Explain your answer.
11. The following metaphor can be used to describe the
Applying Concepts
terms habitat and niche. “The habitat of a species can be
compared to an address, while its ecological niche can Use the following information to answer the next question.
be compared to a job.” Write another metaphor to
describe the range of an organism.
12. Pick an organism that lives in an environment you are
familiar with. List the factors that might limit the A B
growth of its population.
Dichotomous Key
13. Give three examples of how a population of deer mice 1a. front and hind wings similar in size and shape, and
in a field might compete for the available resources. folded parallel to the body when at rest… damsel fly
14. Explain why diversity within a population is necessary 1b. hind wings wider than front wings near base, and
for evolution. extended on either side of the body when at rest…
15. Explain the differences among structural (physical), dragonfly
physiological, and behavioural adaptations. Give an
example of each. 25. a) Use the dichotomous key provided to identify the
organisms in the diagrams. Explain how you arrived
16. Are a bat wing and a butterfly wing homologous at your decision.
structures? Explain your answer. b) From the key and the diagrams, explain why you
17. Explain why it is correct to talk about the evolution could infer that dragonflies and damsel flies evolved
of populations, but it is incorrect to talk about the from a common ancestor.
evolution of individual organisms.

Use the following information to answer the next question. Use the following information to answer the next question.
The following shows the levels of classification for a grey Stomata are openings on the surfaces of leaves that allow
wolf. These levels are not in order according to the plants to release water. The following graph shows the
hierarchical classification system in use today. number of stomata on the leaves of one tree species.
order: Carnivora 6kZgV\ZcjbWZgd[hidbViV^c&%aZVkZhd[
class: Mammalia &%igZZhd[dcZheZX^Zh^c[djg8VcVY^Vcegdk^cXZh
kingdom: Animalia
CjbWZgd[hidbViV
phylum: Chordata
domain: Eukarya
species: lupus
family: Canidae
genus: Canis

26. a) Place the levels of classification in order from most
general to most specific.
!" /. .3 "#
b) Identify the scientific name of the grey wolf.
28. a) Describe what these data might tell you about the
Grizzly Bears precipitation in the areas where the data were
Female grizzly bears typically have only one offspring collected.
every three to five years. Black bears, however, have their b) Based on these data, infer the relationship between
offspring (often twins or even triplets) every two years. precipitation and number of stomata on trees.
Female grizzlies do not begin breeding until they are five
to seven years old, whereas female black bears begin Use the following information to answer the next question.
breeding when they are from three to five years old. Transect
Grizzly bears and black bears are omnivores, but grizzly In order to estimate the size of a population of oak tress,
bears have a more restricted diet and are more particular a forester runs several 100 m transects through a 100 ha
about their dining sites. Grizzly bears are also larger than (hectare) woodlot and counts the number of oaks within
black bears. 5 m of the transect line. Five transects produced counts of:
15, 17, 25, 16, and 20 oak trees respectively.
27. a) Identify which species of bear is more likely to
become endangered as changes occur in their habitat 29. a) Use this information to calculate the density of oak
and explain your reasoning. trees in this area.
Use the following information to answer the next question. b) Estimate the size of the oak population in the
woodlot.
Grizzly bears can mate with black bears, but the offspring c) Identify another method the forester could have used
are not fertile. On the other hand, grizzly bears can mate to sample the population of trees in this woodlot.
with polar bears, and the offspring are fertile.
30. Outline an experimental procedure that would
b) Infer the evolutionary relationship among grizzly demonstrate variation within a population of corn.
bears, black bears, and polar bears. Consider using the length of corn cob or the number
of kernels of corn per cob in your experimental design.
Include a suitable hypothesis.
31. Describe the relationships among mutations, variations,
adaptation, and natural selection.
32. An evolutionary biologist said, “Evolution is like
modifying a machine while it’s still running.” Interpret
this statement.
Unit 2 Review • MHR 149

33. a) Use graphics software and point-form notes to show Use the following information to answer the next question.
the two pathways that can lead to the formation of a
Trout
new species. ICT
The population of trout in a small lake has fluctuated
b) Identify the evolutionary pathway that leads to an
around 2000 for the last 10 years. The owner of a fishing
increase in biodiversity and explain why.
resort on the lake wants to increase the number of trout
34. Explain how the following situations are reproductive available for clients to catch. The owner plans to stock the
barriers that keep species separate. lake with 1000 more individuals of the same species.
a) Species of fireflies use distinctive patterns of flashes.
b) Two species of grass flower at different times of year, 37. Predict the short term and long terms effects of adding
yet live in the same environment. the additional fish on the population of trout in this
c) The crossing of two species of fly produces a fertile lake.
hybrid offspring, whose offspring is weak and
38. Compare the diversity of habitats and the biodiversity
infertile.
in a forest that has been logged and replanted with a
35. Use word processing or graphics software to make a single species of tree to a forest that has not been logged.
graphic organizer showing the relationship among
39. Explain how the examination of proteins in individual
climate, soil, plants, and animals in a biome. ICT
organisms can demonstrate relatedness among species.
40. Explain the conditions in which a seemingly neutral
Protecting our Forests mutation that is present in a small portion of a
Governments restrict the movement of plants or animals population might become quickly perpetuated in,
across boundaries, including provincial borders. In and advantageous to, the entire population.
Alberta, for example, people are not allowed to transport
wood with bark on it into the province. These measures
are designed to help prevent the spread of mountain pine Models for Evolution
beetles and Dutch elm disease that can harm Alberta’s
forests—one of the prime concerns during outbreaks of
pine mountain beetle is the death of high-value pines in
thousands of hectares of forest.
The fungus that accompanies the mountain pine beetle
larvae reduces the aesthetic value of forests by staining
the wood blue; the mountain pine beetle also reduces the
4IME
4IME
timber volume, and the monetary gains of the high-value

mature tree. During the last mountain pine beetle
outbreak (1977 to 1987) in Alberta, an estimated NEWSPECIES
1 068 167 m3 of lodgepole pine were killed.
DIVERGENCE
NEWSPECIES
36. Explain, both in terms of the ecosystems in Alberta and DIVERGENCE
the economic impact of these types of pest outbreaks, A B
why it is important for all citizens to respect this type of
restriction. Two models for evolution are shown in the diagram above.
41. Identify each model, and explain how each is used to

model evolution.
42. Use word processing or graphics software to produce a
timeline outlining the major events and ideas that have
led to the current theory of evolution. ICT

Making Connections Use the following information to answer the next question.
Use the following information to answer the next question. Level of Chlorophyll a
Frog Populations

8]adgde]naaV b\$b'
Imagine two frog populations in two different locations.
The frogs differ only in the colour of their skin.

43. a) Suggest data that would help you decide if both
populations belong to the same species of frog.
b) Assume that the two populations are different
species. Suggest data that would help you decide how
closely related these two species are to each other.
9VnhV[iZg[addY^c\
44. Should people be as concerned about some species
of mosses becoming extinct as they are about whales The graph above shows the level of chlorophyll a (a
becoming extinct? Explain. pigment needed for photosynthesis) in a stream, in the
45. All populations eventually face limits to their days following a flood that nearly scoured all life from the
population because of abiotic and biotic factors. stream. The chlorophyll indicates the growth of algae in
Compare a micro-organism (such as the bacteria the stream.
E. coli), a plant species (such as a tree), and a mammal
49. a) Compare the amount of growth in the first 30 days
(such as a deer), with respect to the types of factors that
with the amount of growth in the second 30 days.
might limit the growth of populations of these species.
b) Explain what might be enhancing or limiting the
46. Many of the endangered species in the world have very algae growth in this 60-day period.
specific, or narrow, ecological niches. Explain why c) The main animals in this stream are invertebrates
species with narrow ecological niches are more likely that feed off the algae. Predict what might be
to become extinct than species with broader ecological happening to the populations of these herbivorous
niches. invertebrates during this 60-day time period.
47. Given your understanding of diversity within a species Use the following information to answer the next question.
and natural selection, explain why it is important to
maintain biodiversity. Pests
You are a gardening expert who runs a local greenhouse
48. Do you think antibiotics should be available in a and nursery. A gardener calls you and explains that she
pharmacy without a prescription? Explain your had an insect infestation in her garden. When she applied
answer in terms of natural selection. an insecticide, 99 percent of the insects were killed. After a
few weeks, she noticed that the insect problem was back so
she applied more pesticide. This time, only 50 percent of
the insects were killed by the pesticide.
50. Explain why the insecticide did not work as well the
second time it was applied.
Unit 2 Review • MHR 151

Mechanisms of Population Change: Chapter Concepts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanisms of Population Change: Chapter Concepts

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanisms of Population Change: Chapter Concepts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanisms of

4.2 Developing a Theory

4.3 How Species Form

112 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

This reconstruction of an ancient tropical forest shows

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 113

Adaptations and Survival

114 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Variation within a Species •••

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 115

116 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

DNA is copied. Mutagens, such as UV enables an organism to survive its

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 117

118 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Thought Lab 4.1 Evolving “Superbugs” Target Skills

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 119

Thought Lab 4.2 Analyzing Changes in Beak Depth Target Skills

of the finches’ beaks.

    

The medium ground finch, Geospiza fortis

120 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Section 4.1 Review

before it is set into type, to correct errors in grammar,

2. Describe how variations occur in populations. Insect Resistant Pests

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 121

122 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

These events, which he called revolutions, •••

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 123

124 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

glyptodont, an ancient 4 m, 2 t animal modern armadillo from South

The Galápagos Islands, shown

Woodpecker finch Sharp-beaked ground

Small insectivorous tree finch Small ground finch

Large insectivorous tree finch Medium ground finch

Vegetarian tree finch Large ground finch

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 125

••• The Fossil Record

126 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Figure 4.9 (A) The animals

“… natural selection, or the survival of the fittest, does

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 127

128 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

for a species would be found in older of hundreds of transitional fossils—

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 129

130 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Thought Lab 4.4 Homologies of Hair Target Skills

CUTICLE CORTEX MEDULLA CUTICULARSCALE

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 131

132 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Section 4.2 Review

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 133

The Role of Scientific Review Science and Society

134 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Some observers of the Scopes Monkey Trial suggested that if

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 135

136 MHR • Unit 2 Ecosystems and Population Change

Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Population Change • MHR 137

WARBLERFINCHES TREEFINCHES GROUNDFINCHES

Figure 4.17 Hypothesized evolutionary relationships for finches