Name: Dhruv Patel

Student ID: 12948321 L1.1

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology

48541 Signal Theory

Lab 1 – DSO Measurements

Vertical setup. Horizontal setup. Trigger setup. Run control. Automatic time
measurements. Automatic voltage measurements. Cursor measurements.
Reducing random noise on a signal. Frequency-domain measurement.
Aliasing. Windowing.

Introduction
The digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is a versatile tool for the engineer. It has
the ability to sample and store voltage waveforms, giving it the ability to
“capture” transient waveforms and also the ability to perform mathematical
operations on the sample values. One very important operation is known as the
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) which gives the DSO the ability to display the
spectral content of a waveform. Like any tool though, it has its limitations, and
careful operation is required to interpret results correctly.

Objectives
1. To become familiar with setting up a DSO.

2. To become familiar with basic time and voltage measurement techniques

using a DSO.

3. To become familiar with the FFT and aliasing when using a DSO.

Equipment
 1 Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) – Agilent DSO-X 2004A with Wave Gen

 1 Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG) – Agilent 33210A with Option 002

 1 TIMS trainer with 1 adder, 1 headphone amplifier or tunable LPF

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 L1.2
 4mm leads (assorted colours), 2 BNC to 4mm leads, 1 BNC to 4mm
adaptor

Safety
This is a Category A laboratory experiment. Please adhere to the Category A
Cat. A lab
safety guidelines (issued separately).

Basic Setup

Refer to the Lab You will be asked to perform various and wide-ranging tasks with the DSO, so
Equipment Guide
it is important that you have the Lab Equipment Guide (LEG) as a reference.

Function Generator Setup

1. Set the arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) up for a sinusoidal wave of

2 kHz. Set the amplitude to 5 Vp-p and 0 V DC offset. Press Utility .
Ensure that Output Setup is set to “High Z Load”.

2. Ensure the DSO has been set to its default setup configuration.

3. Connect the AWG output to Channel 1 of the DSO.

Vertical Setup

1. If necessary, set the Channel 1 position to 0.0 V with the vertical

Position knob.

2. Press 1 and select each softkey option within the vertical setup menu and
notice that each change affects the status line and information area
differently. Adjust the vertical scale (volts/div) to 1 V/div.

Horizontal Setup

1. Turn the Horizontal knob and notice the change it makes to the status line.

2. Press Horiz . Toggle the Time Ref softkey to see the effect of
moving the trigger point . Return the time reference to the centre.

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 L1.3
3. Change the Time Mode to see the effect. Restore the Time Mode to
Normal and set the horizontal scale to 100 s/div.

4. Turn the horizontal delay knob to see the effect. Push the horizontal delay
knob to reset the delay to 0.00 s.

Trigger Setup

1. Turn the trigger Level knob and notice the changes it makes to the display.

2. Press Trigger then use the Source softkey to scroll through each of
the options and notice that each change is shown in the status line.

3. Press Mode/Coupling . Change the Mode to see the effect on the

status line.

4. Leave the mode on Normal. Adjust the trigger level so that it is above the
positive peak of the displayed sine wave and notice the change in the status
line. Return the trigger mode to Auto and notice the effect. Move the
trigger level back to 0.0 V.

5. Change the Coupling to LF Reject and observe the display and status
line. Return the Coupling to DC.

6. Change the AWG frequency to 2 Hz. Adjust the time base to 100 ms/div.
Press Horiz and change the Time Mode to Roll.

7. Change the AWG wave shape to square, then ramp, then back to sinusoid.

8. Press Run/Stop to freeze the display. Press Run/Stop again to

resume acquisition and refresh the display.

9. Set the AWG to a 20 kHz sinusoid. Try to adjust the timebase to display
two cycles – note that the timebase setting is restricted in roll mode.

10. Set the Time Mode to Normal and adjust the timebase to 10 s/div.

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L1.4
Run Control

1. Press Single . Note that the Run/Stop button is illuminated in red

and the trigger indicator in the status line shows “Stop”.

2. Set the AWG for ramp. Does the displayed waveform change?

3. Disconnect the input from DSO channel 1. Does the displayed waveform
change?

4. Reconnect the input to DSO channel 1. Press Single . Does the

displayed waveform change?

5. Press Run/Stop to resume continuous acquisition.

Time-domain Measurement
Automatic Time Measurements

1. Press Meas . Notice that measurements for frequency and peak to peak
are automatically displayed for channel 1.

2. Change the AWG wave shape to square. Adjust the duty cycle to the
minimum available.

3. On the DSO, press the Type: softkey. Select Duty Cycle then press
Add Measurement. Note the measured duty cycle.

4. Adjust the duty cycle in steps across its full range using the AWG knob.
Note the maximum duty cycle available.

5. Use the AWG keypad to return the duty cycle to 50%. Set the wave shape
to sinusoid. Set the frequency to 2 kHz.

6. Set the DSO timebase to 100 s/div.

7. Remove the Phase Shifter module from the TIMS trainer and set the
“Frequency Range” switch to “LO”. Carefully replace the Phase Shifter
module into the TIMS unit.

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 L1.5
8. Turn the TIMS trainer on. Connect the earth of the AWG lead to the green The TIMS is turned
on at the back –
GND terminal on the TIMS trainer. You may leave the earth of the DSO when on, you should
see the LEDs in the
lead floating (since it is connected to earth anyway). counter section light
up
9. Connect the AWG output to the Phase Shifter unit’s “IN” terminal. Measure
the Phase Shifter input and output on DSO Channels 1 and 2 respectively.
On the Phase Shifter unit, turn the coarse and fine knobs fully anticlockwise,
and turn the ±180º switch on.

10. Press Meas . Press Type and then select Phase measurement. Press
Settings and then set Source 1 to channel 2 and Source 2 to

channel 1. Press then Add Measurement. Measure the phase

difference between the two waveforms. Determine which channel (Source)
is used as the reference by the DSO for the phase measurement. Vary the
Phase Shifter Coarse knob to see the effect. Turn off Channel 2.

Automatic Voltage Measurements

1. Press Source and select “Channel 1”. Be careful when

using the automatic
voltage
2. Press Type and select “Peak-Peak”. Press Add Measurement. Change measurements – the
DSO can’t
the measurement Type to “Average N cycles” and add this measurement differentiate
between a noise
for channel 1. Change the measurement Type to “DC RMS N cycles” and peak and a signal
peak
add this measurement for channel 1.You should now have three
measurements for channel 1 voltage.

3. Note each of the three measurements for a sinusoidal signal then change the
AWG waveform to square, then to ramp, and observe the change in the
measurements.

4. Set the AWG to a sinusoidal wave, and vary the DC offset. Note the effect
on the Vp-p, Vavg and Vrms values. Return the DC offset to 0.00 V.

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 L1.6
Cursor Measurements

The cursor keys are useful for making custom time or voltage measurements on
a signal.

1. Connect a 2 V p-p, 200 Hz square wave from the AWG to the TIMS trainer
The RC LPF is
located in the RC LPF input in the Utilities module. The RC LPF is a simple first-order RC
Utilities module
circuit that acts as a “lowpass filter”. Measure the AWG output with
Channel 1. Measure the RC LPF output with Channel 2.

2. Press Horiz . Set the Time Ref softkey to Left. Set the timebase to
50 s/div. Set the vertical scale to 500 mV/div for each channel.

3. Press Cursors . Source selects a channel for the voltage (vertical)

cursor measurements. Cursors selects the cursor(s) to be positioned by
turning the cursors knob. To erase the cursor readings and remove the
cursors from the display press the Cursors button again.

4. Press Cursors . Change the cursors’ source to Channel 2 by pressing

the Source softkey.

5. Press the Cursors softkey and select Y1 as the active cursor. Move the
Y1 cursor to align with the bottom of the output response by rotating the
cursors knob.

6. Press the Cursors softkey and select Y2 as the active cursor. Move the
Y2 cursor to align with the top (steady-state value) of the output response.
Check that the cursor measurement displays Y2  2.000 V .

7. Press the Units softkey. Press Y Units and select Ratio %. The
cursors will now measure in percent but this measurement needs a reference.
Press Use Y Cursors As 100% to set the current Y cursor positions
as the reference values. Y1 will now show 0%, Y2 100% and Y2 100%.

8. Move Y2 to read as close as possible to Y2 = 63.2%.

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 L1.7

9. Press . Press the Cursors softkey then select X1 as the active cursor.
Position X1 to align with the vertical edge of the input square wave on
channel 1. (The timescale is the same for all channels!)

10. Select X2 as the active cursor and position it to align with the intersection
of the Y2 cursor and the channel 2 waveform.

11. Record the following measurement:

v A step-response for
100% a first-order system

steady-state
63.2%

0
t
T

T 48 microseconds

12. Connect the 200 Hz square wave from the AWG to the TIMS trainer
Headphone Amplifier input “A”. Measure the AWG output with Channel 1.
Measure the Headphone Amplifier “LPF” output with Channel 2.

13. Set the timebase to 200 s/div.

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 L1.8
14. Use the cursors to record the following quantities:

A typical step-
response for an
v
underdamped P.O. = percent overshoot
second-order
system
105%
100%
95%

steady-state

0 tp 1/ f d t
ts

t p  542 microseconds P.O.  +293.75 mV

t s  796 microseconds f d  1/248 Hz

15. Turn off the cursors. Turn Channel 2 off.

16. Disconnect the DSO and AWG leads from the TIMS unit.

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 L1.9

Reducing Random Noise on a Signal

If the signal you are applying to the DSO is noisy, you can set up the DSO to
reduce the noise on the waveform. There are two methods to reduce noise –
bandwidth limiting and averaging.

Bandwidth Limiting

This method applies the incoming signal to a lowpass filter before it is sampled
Bandwidth limiting
by the DSO. This method works only when the noise has very high frequency will only help if the
signal frequency is
content. The bandwidth limiter “cuts off” frequencies above 20 MHz. less than about
1 MHz.
1. Change the AWG waveform to a sinusoid. Set the amplitude to 20 mV and
the frequency to 20 Hz.

2. Connect DSO channel 1 to the AWG output.

3. Set the vertical scale to 20 mV/div and the horizontal scale to 10 ms/div. If
necessary, press Mode/Coupling and select HF Reject for trigger
coupling. You should see a noisy sinusoid.

4. Press 1 . Press the BW Limit softkey. The noise should be reduced.

5. Turn bandwidth limiting off by pressing the BW Limit softkey again.

Averaging

The second method of reducing noise works when noise is present below the
cutoff frequency of the bandwidth limit filter. First, you stabilize the displayed Averaging can only
be used to clean up
waveform by removing the noise from the trigger path. Second, you reduce the a signal if the noise
is “uncorrelated”
noise on the displayed waveform by averaging the samples.

1. Press Mode/Coupling . Remove the noise from the trigger path by

turning on either Noise Rej or HF Reject (choose the one that results
in a stable trigger). The displayed sinusoid should be noisy but stable.

2. Press Acquire , then press the Acq Mode softkey to select

“Averaging”.

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 L1.10
3. Vary the setting for # Avgs to select the number of averages that best
eliminates the noise from the displayed waveform. In this mode the DSO
calculates the average value of each point over the previous # frames of
acquired data. The higher the number of averages, the slower the displayed
waveform responds to waveform changes. Set # Avgs to 16.

4. Change the AWG wave shape to square, then ramp, then back to sinusoid to
see the effect of averaging.

5. Press the Acq Mode softkey to select “High Resolution”. This mode
averages sequential samples within the same acquisition rather than
corresponding samples from previous acquisitions. At low sweep speeds the
DSO oversamples the signal and the effective resolution is increased by
averaging samples which would otherwise be ignored. The update rate of
the display is not affected.

6. Change the AWG waveform to a sinusoid of 2 Vp-p.

7. Disconnect the lead from the DSO channel 2 BNC input (i.e. physically
remove the lead from the DSO input).
The DSO
autodetects the
probes attached to 8. Press the DSO’s Auto Scale button. If you did not disconnect the
the inputs, so it is
important to remove lead from channel 2 (which has no signal, apart from noise) the DSO will try
any unwanted
signals before to set the horizontal and vertical scales to view this “interesting” noisy
hitting the Auto
signal, rather than settings the scales for the signal attached to channel 1 (if
Scale button
required, you can undo the effect of the Auto Scale button by choosing the
Undo Autoscale softkey).

9. Set the Channel 1 position to 0.0 V and the trigger level to 0.0 V. These
may have changed due to the Auto Scale feature.

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 L1.11

Frequency-domain Measurement
Normally, when a signal is viewed on an oscilloscope, it is viewed in the time-
domain. That is, the vertical axis is voltage and the horizontal axis is time. For
many signals, this is the most logical and intuitive way to view them. But when
the frequency content of the signal is of interest, it makes sense to view the
signal in the frequency-domain. In the frequency-domain the horizontal axis is
frequency and the vertical axis is voltage but is usually scaled in dBV (decibels
relative to 1 V RMS).

g(t )

0 t The frequency-
domain
representation, or
spectrum, is a graph
G (f ) of the sinusoids
present in a signal

0 f

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is an algorithm that efficiently converts a

time-domain signal into its frequency-domain representation.

Sample Rate and Frequency Resolution

1. Set up a 2.2 kHz, 4 Vp-p sinusoid on the AWG. Set the DSO vertical scale
to 1 V/div and horizontal scale to 100 s/div.

2. Press the Math button and set Function to “g(t): Internal”.|

Ensure Operator is “+”, Source 1 is “1” and Source 2 is “2”.

3. Set Function to “f(t): Displayed”. Set Operator to “FFT”. Set

The DSO’s FFT
Source 1 to “g(t)”. Check the function information displayed just above function displays the
frequency content of
the softkey descriptions. It should show “f(t)=FFT(Ch1+Ch2)”. the signal

4. Use the shared position knob adjacent to the Math key to adjust the
offset to approximately -30 dBV.

5. Use the shared scale knob to adjust the vertical scale to 10 dB/div.

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 L1.12
6. Turn the Horizontal knob and observe the sample rate and FFT Resolution
shown on the display. Set the horizontal scale to 1.000 ms/div.

What is the sample rate at this setting? What is the FFT Resolution?

fs  5 MSa/s fs N  5/22 z

An FFT only
displays frequencies The FFT will only display frequencies from 0 to half the sample rate, f s 2 .
from 0 to half the
sample rate
7. Set the frequency Span to 5 kHz and the Center frequency to 2.5 kHz.
The Span and Center controls can be used to zoom in on a part of the
FFT display.

8. Connect channel 2 to the TIMS 2 kHz Message signal in the “Master

Signals” section. Turn on channel 2 and adjust the vertical scale and position
to accommodate the signal in the display without clipping (it will not be a
stable sinusoid, but you can see the peaks).

9. Turn off channel 1 and channel 2 so that only the FFT is displayed. Note
that although the display of the channels is turned off the data acquisition
still takes place and the data is available to calculate the FFT.

10. Note that even though two sinusoids are present in the signal g(t), the DSO
only displays a single “peak”, with a fairly wide side lobe.
The timebase and 11. Change the DSO horizontal scale to 10.00 ms/div, so that the sample rate
sample rate are
inversely changes to 250 kSa/s. The DSO now displays two peaks corresponding to
proportional to one
another the two sinusoids that make up “g(t)”.

12. Note that the side lobes of the “peaks” are reduced and that the difference
between frequencies which can be distinguished on the display is also
reduced. This is a consequence of increasing the frequency resolution by
decreasing the sample rate. Be aware though, that although the frequency
resolution of the FFT is determined by the sample rate and number of points
calculated, the selected display settings may reduce the effective resolution
visible on the display.

13. Disconnect Channel 2 from the TIMS.

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 L1.13

Aliasing
The frequency f s 2 is also known as the folding frequency. Frequencies that

would normally appear above f s 2 (and therefore outside the range of the

FFT) are folded back into the normal range of the FFT. These unwanted
To prevent aliasing,
frequency components are called aliases, since they erroneously appear under we have to sample
at greater than twice
the alias of another frequency. To prevent aliasing, the DSO has to sample at the bandwidth of the
signal
greater than twice the highest frequency in the signal being measured (twice the
bandwidth). It is therefore necessary to have some idea of the frequency content
of the signal being measured to interpret the DSO’s FFT results correctly.

Fixed Signal with Varying Sample Rate

1. Set the AWG frequency to a triangle wave of approximately 2.6 kHz (you
will need to change the ramp symmetry to 50%). Observe just the spectrum
(turn off Channel 1) on the following settings.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq

250 kSa/s 125 kHz 62.5 kHz

You should observe a spectrum similar to the following.

A triangle wave’s
spectrum with no
aliasing

The leftmost spectral line is the fundamental. The next line is the 3 rd
harmonic. The next is the 5th harmonic and so forth. The higher harmonics
are small in amplitude with the 35th harmonic just visible above the FFT
noise floor. The frequency of the 35th harmonic is 35 x 2.6 kHz = 91 kHz,

Signal Theory
 L1.14
which is within the folding frequency of f s 2 (125 kSa/s). Therefore, no

significant aliasing is occurring.

2. Change to the following settings:

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq

50 kSa/s 20 kHz 10.0 kHz

Now the upper harmonics of the triangle wave exceed the folding frequency
and appear as aliases in the display.

A triangle wave’s
spectrum with
aliasing

3. Change the sample rate to 12.5 kSa/s, then 5 kSa/s. The frequency plot is
severely aliased.

Often the effects of aliasing are obvious, especially if you have some idea as to
the frequency content of the signal. Spectral lines may appear where no
frequency components exist.

It is important to Signals that are bandlimited (that is, have no frequency components above a
recognise aliasing
and take steps to certain frequency) can be viewed alias-free by making sure that the effective
prevent it
sample rate is high enough.

Signal Theory
 L1.15
Varying Signal with Fixed Sample Rate

1. Set the AWG waveform to a sinusoid with a frequency of 3 kHz. Push

Auto Scale on the DSO. Turn all the channels off and observe just
the spectrum of channel 1 with the following settings.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq

12.5 kSa/s 6.25 kHz 3.13 kHz

2. Press Cursors and measure the frequency of the spectral peak.

Confirm that the DSO is detecting a large spectral peak at 3 kHz.

3. Increase the AWG frequency in steps of 1 kHz using the cursors and knob.
The spectral peak (representing the AWG sinusoid) should move to the
right as you increase the frequency – this is what we expect. Slowly increase
the frequency to 6 kHz.

4. Continue increasing the AWG frequency slowly. Aliasing occurs as the We’re setting the
measured signal’s
frequency exceeds 6.25 kHz. Slowly increase the frequency from 7 kHz to bandwidth above
the DSO’s folding
10 kHz. The spectral peak moves to the left on the display. frequency

5. Slowly decrease the AWG frequency in steps of 100 Hz so that the spectral
peak returns for the first time to the vertical cursor positioned at 3 kHz.
(The AWG’s frequency should still be greater than 6.25 kHz). The DSO is
now telling us that a frequency component exists at 3 kHz!

6. Read the frequency off the AWG display:

Record the
f1  9.5 kHz frequency of the
source

State the relation between the DSO’s observed frequency, the sample rate,
and the actual frequency of the sinusoid:

f DSO  3 kHz

Signal Theory
 L1.16
7. Turn the Cursors off.

Windowing
The FFT operates on a finite length time record, but assumes that this time
record is exactly one period of an infinitely long periodic signal. With the
waveform shown below, where an integral number of periods fits exactly within
the time record, the infinitely long signal assumed by the FFT is correct.

FFT replicas
producing the
desired waveform t t t

real signal assumed signal by FFT

Time Record

However, we do not normally have control over how the waveform fits into the
time record of the DSO, with the result that discontinuities are introduced by
the replication of the time record by the FFT over all time:

FFT replicas
producing
t t t
discontinuities
real signal assumed signal by FFT
Time Record

This effect is known as leakage, and the effect in the frequency-domain is very
apparent. For the case of a single sinusoid as shown, the normally thin spectral
line will spread out in a peculiar pattern.

The solution to the problem of leakage is to force the waveform to zero at the
ends of the time record so that no discontinuity will exist when the time record
is replicated. This is accomplished by multiplying the time record by a window
function.

The window function modifies the time record and will produce its own effect
in the frequency domain, but for a properly designed window, the effect is a vast
improvement over no window at all.

The Hanning window, and it’s effect in the time-domain, is shown below:

Windowing reduces
spectral leakage

Signal Theory
 L1.17

t t t

real signal Hanning window assumed signal by FFT

Even though the overall shape of a time-domain signal is changed by a window,

the frequency content remains basically the same. There are many windows, all
suited to different purposes. The Agilent DSO-X 2004A DSO has four, and are
used for the following measurements:

Window Useful for:

The Hanning and
Flat Top windows
Hanning making accurate frequency measurements or for should be used most
resolving two frequencies that are close together of the time

Flat Top making accurate amplitude measurements of frequency

peaks

Rectangular good frequency resolution and amplitude accuracy, but

only where there will be no “leakage” effects,
e.g. self-windowing or synchronized waveforms

Blackman-Harris greatly reducing “leakage” into adjacent FFT “bins”

compared to the rectangular window, but at a cost of
reduced frequency resolution

We normally use the Hanning or Flat Top window. The Rectangular and
Blackman-Harris windows should be considered windows for special situations.

Signal Theory
L1.18
Windows

1. Press Math . Press the More FFT softkey and ensure Window is set to
“Hanning”.

2. Set the AWG frequency to 2 kHz. Observe just the spectrum on the
following settings.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq Window

25.0 kSa/s 100 Hz 2.00 kHz Hanning

Sketch the spectrum:

3. Set the following.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq Window

25.0 kSa/s 100 Hz 2.00 kHz Flat Top

Sketch the spectrum:

Signal Theory
 L1.19
4. Set the following.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq Window

25.0 kSa/s 100 Hz 2.00 kHz Rectangular

Sketch the spectrum:

5. Set the following.

Sample rate Freq Span Center Freq Window

25.0 kSa/s 100 Hz 2.00 kHz Blackman-Harris

Sketch the spectrum:

6. Turn off and disconnect all equipment..

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L1.20

Questions
Encircle the correct answer, cross out the wrong answers. [one or none correct]

1. DSO Basics
(i)
A waveform consisting of a 3 V peak-to-peak sinusoidal voltage is
superimposed on a 3 V DC voltage. A DSO measuring the signal using AC
coupling will display the following components:

(a) only the AC (b) only the DC (c) both AC and DC

(ii)
The DSO always takes 50,000 time-domain samples, then zero pads the time
record to 65,536 samples before performing an FFT. By increasing the sample
rate (e.g. from 12.5 kSa/s to 50 kSa/s), the resolution of the FFT will:

(a) increase (b) decrease (c) remain the same

(iii)
The spectral leakage of the Rectangular window, compared to the Flat Top
window, is:
NONE of the answers are correct
(a) more (b) less (c) the same

(iv)
The spectrum of a sinusoid on a DSO that uses a rectangular window will in
general look like:

(a) (b) (c)

(v)
A DSO’s sample rate is set to 100 kSa/s. The DSO display range will be:

(a) 0 to 200 kHz (b) 0 to 100 kHz (c) -50 kHz to 50 kHz

Signal Theory
 L1.21

2. Aliasing
(i)
A signal has bandwidth B and is ideally sampled at a rate of f S . Aliasing will

NOT occur when:

(a) f S  B (b) f S  2 B (c) f S  B 2

(ii)
A sinusoid of frequency 13 kHz is sampled at 20 kHz. The DSO display has a
span of 0 Hz to 9.77 kHz. The display will look like:
(a) (b) (c)

(iii)
A 67 kHz sinusoid is ideally sampled at 100 kHz. The ideal spectrum is:
G (f )

-200 -133 -67 0 67 133 200

(a) f (kHz)

G (f )

-233 -167 -133 -67 -33 33 67 133 167 233

(b) f (kHz)

G (f )

-233 -133 -33 33 133 233

(c) f (kHz)

(iv)
A signal has a known bandwidth of 7 kHz. For maximum frequency resolution
without aliasing, the DSO sample rate should be set to:
(a) 12.5 kSa/s (b) 25 kSa/s (c) 50 kSa/s

(v)
A signal is known to be of the form g t   cos2f1t cos2f 2t  , where
f1  5 kHz and f 2  15 kHz . It is desired to measure the frequency f1 using a
DSO spectrum. For maximum frequency resolution, the DSO sample rate
should be set to:
NONE of the answers are correct
(a) 25 kSa/s (b) 50 kSa/s (c) 100 kSa/s

Signal Theory
L1.22

Signal Theory