Inflation and Nigeria's Economic Growth, An Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model Approach (1981-2018)

American International Journal of Business Management (AIJBM)
ISSN- 2379-106X, www.aijbm.com Volume 3, Issue 2 (February 2020), PP 10-24
Inflation and Nigeria’s Economic Growth, An Auto Regressive

Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model Approach (1981-2018)
Efanga, Udeme Okon1, Ugwuanyi, Georgina Obinne Ph.D2,

Umoh, Emmanuel Alphonsus3
1&2
Department of Banking and Finance, College of Management Sciences, Michael Okpara University of
Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria.
3
Department of Statistics, Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon1
ABSTRACT:-This study empirically ascertained the impact of inflation on economic growth of Nigeria
employing annual time series data collected from Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin between 1981 and
2018. The data was modeled and analyzed using Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model. Other
diagnostic test such as; unit root test, test of Normality, Auto correlation test, Heteroskedasticity test and
Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM test were also carried out and they confirmed the validity and reliability
of the model employed. Real gross domestic product was employed as the explained variable, while inflation
was employed as the explanatory variable and exchange rate was employed as controlled variable. The results
elicited from the study suggested that inflation rate had a negative significant impact on economic growth of
Nigeria, while exchange rate recorded a negative and insignificant impact on economic growth of Nigeria. This
study concluded that inflation is dangerous to the economy of Nigeria as such, must be curbed. The study
therefore recommended that effort should be made my monetary authorities in Nigeria to reduce money supply
using various fiscal and monetary policy instruments thereby reducing the availability of money in circulation
which will in turn reduce inflation rate in Nigeria.
KEY WORDS:- inflation rate, economic growth, exchange rate, auto regressive distributed lag model,
Central Bank of Nigeria.
I. INTRODUCTION
The cardinal objective of macro economic policies is primarily to foster and enhance economic growth
and to keep inflation rate as low as possible. Inflation is a phenomenon that threatens all economics because of
its perceived undesirable effects. The problem of inflation surely is not a new phenomenon. It has been a core
economic problem of Nigeria over the years. Inflation is a household economic indicator for all market oriented
economics, it is important to note that though inflation is always looked upon in a negative light, mild or
creeping inflation may have a positive effect or impact on an economy. It is believed that mild inflation greases
the wheel of growth of any economy. Mild inflation would encourage producers and sellers to produce and
purchase more and make extra profit from the slight increase in price of a certain product thereby increasing
production capacity, creating more employment and increasing economies of scale. However, chronic inflation
is very harmful and inimical to any economy (Omoke and Ugwuanyi 2010[1]).
Pursuing and maintaining price stability continues to be an indispensable objective of monetary policy
targets for most countries in the world today. The emphasis given to price stability in conduct of monetary
policy is with a view to promoting sustainable growth and development as well as strengthening the purchasing
power of the domestic currency amongst others. The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) employs the monetary
targeting framework in the conduct of its monetary policy. This is based on the assumption of a stable and
predictable relationship between money supply and inflation. Consequently, the need to understand the
relationship between inflation and economic growth of the Nigerian economy become imperative and the
dynamics of inflation became central to the success of monetary policy to ensure the achievement of price
stability. The effect of inflation (price instability) in the growth and development of the Nigerian economy
cannot be over-emphasized.
According to Umaru and Zubairu (2012[2]) failure to pay adequate attention to price instability in
managing monetary policy in order to maintain sustainable national growth and development cum strengthening
purchasing power of the local currency is tantamount to steering the ship of state economy to a halt. Admittedly,
the necessity to advance research on the dynamics of inflation and its effect on economic growth in Nigeria
became crucial to researchers, policymakers, Central Bank of Nigeria among others.
*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 10 | Page

Inflation And Nigeria’s Economic Growth (1981-2018): An Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL)
This paper is segmented into five segments, with the first segment being the introductory segment, and then the
review of related literature and theories associated with inflation and economic growth. The third segment
emphasizes on the methodology employed in this study, thereafter, followed by data analysis and results
interpretation in the fourth segment. The last segment concludes the study and proffers some recommendations.
II. Review of Related Literature

2.1 Concept of Inflation
Inflation is described as the general and recurrent rise in the overall level of prices for goods and
services. It is measured as an annual percentage increase. As inflation rises, every naira one owns buys one a
smaller percentage of a good or service. The value of a naira does not remain constant during inflation. The
value of a naira is measured in terms of purchasing power, which is the real, tangible goods that money can buy.
When inflation rises, there is usually a decline in the purchasing power of money. Inflation is measured by the
consumer price index, which reflects annual percentage change in the cost borne by an average consumer when
he or she buys a basket of goods and services that may be fixed or varied from time to time usually on annual
basis. The Laspeyres formula is generally used (Anyanwaokoro, 1999[3]). There are a few causes of inflation
where aggregate demand rises faster than aggregate supply, thereby increasing the cost of goods and services.
The imbalance of aggregate demand and supply is associated with government's deficit, expansion of bank's
interest rates and increase of foreign demand. Considering the influence of inflation on economic growth,
Hossain, Ghosh and Islam (2012[4]) posit that besides high inflation level which constrains economic
performance or zero inflation that actually stagnates it, mild (single digit) inflation rate is sine qua non for
economic prosperity. In spite of that the problem posed by inflation is a global phenomenon since it cuts across
both developed and emerging economies; therefore, its control remains a “nightmare” to economic
policymakers throughout the world. Nowadays in Nigeria, concerns have been raised over the persistent rise in
inflation rate with attendant eroding of value of naira and general price instability. In that regard various
scholars hold diverse views on inflation and growth relationship some of which are summarized below: Barro
(2013[5]) observes that the severity of inflation on growth in the short run is insignificant, but adversely affects
living standards. Likewise, Kasidi and Mwakanemela (2013[6]) argue that inflation has a negative impact on
growth stressing that there is no long run relationship with growth. Furthermore, Bruno & Easterly (1998)
affirm that growth declines significantly during high inflation periods, adding that inflation nevertheless
promotes growth when its rate is at lower levels. This means that high inflation does not promote growth; it
affects economic growth negatively after attaining a certain threshold (i.e. the level at which effect begins).
Jones and Manuelli (2001[7]) trace lull in economic activities cum growth to inflationary pressures, which
manifest in several respects: waste in time and resources by individuals and businesses while trying to safeguard
their wealth from inflation. This phenomenon likely brings about inefficient allocation of production resources
with a general decline in macroeconomic performance. Also, decreased savings brings about decreased
investments, which ultimately diminishes growth level. General uncertainty about future price levels
discourages investment and likely lower capital formation in the economy. Besides, the returns on investments
are reduced by inflation; for this reason investors may invest in short-term capital rather than making long-term
investments. Investors would rather invest in assets that can hedge against inflation (property, equity) instead of
productive assets such plant and equipment (Jones and Manuelli, 2001[7]). This may further weaken the
production capacity of the economy, incessant labour negotiations waste resources and rise in nominal wages
resulting in unproductiveness and lower growth. Ambler (2003) posits that higher inflation discourages
competitiveness in international trade with trading partners, affecting export-import trading relations, thereby
resulting in disequilibrium in the balance of payments in form of a current account deficit. Reduced foreign
exchange capacity in any economy over time will limit a country’s ability to enhance its current account deficit.
In addition, with the relaxed competition in international markets, profits accruing to merchandise sector will
decrease. In essence, resources will move away from the merchandise sector into the non-merchandise sector.
Inflation understates the real value of depreciation (i.e. the amount or percentage by which goods or services
decrease in value over time, usually one year). In this case, higher profits are declared resulting in higher tax
paid on profits. This situation is likely to be unfavourable to companies desiring to make additional investments.
Consider an economy where an individual splits his wealth into two parts, namely: capital stock and money. Of
course money is earmarked for consumption and investment. A higher inflation level could result in decreased
consumption rate, while investment may increase because investment, ceteris paribus, brings in a higher return.
However, with the low return on money, the net return becomes low, and because of that investment and capital
stock level drop. In consequence, economic growth drops on account of lower consumption, lower investment
and lower capital stock. During higher inflationary pressures, there are likely outcomes: First is an increase in
the growth rate because, as depreciation rises, the tax paid on capital is reduced. Secondly, there is a decrease in
growth rate. As the volume of money enlarges likewise does the nominal interest rate.

Unfortunately, inflation rate creates confusion with regard to buying, selling, borrowing, investing, and so on.
For any of these, one needs to anchor one’s decisions on current and future prices. Uncertainty creates confusion
about these prices, thereby discouraging investment with accompanying decreased capital stock in an economy.
This brings about a higher chance of correctly forecasting shorter-term prices than longer-term ones. However,
willing investors will expect to be compensated for their risk due to the increased uncertainty making investing
more costly for borrowers.
2.1.2 Types of Inflation in Nigeria

Broadly speaking, inflation can be grouped into four types according to its magnitude.
1. Creeping inflation: This occurs when the rise in price is very slow. A sustained annual rise in prices of less
than 3 percent per annum falls under this category. Such an increase in prices is regarded safe and essential for
economic growth.
2. Walking inflation: This occurs when prices rise moderately and annual inflation rate is a single digit. This
happens when the rate of rise in prices is in the intermediate range of 3 to less than 10 percent. Inflation of this
rate is a warning signal for the government to control it before it turns into running inflation.
3. Running inflation: When prices rise rapidly at the rate of 10 to 20 percent per annum, it is called running
inflation. This type of inflation has tremendous adverse effects on the poor and middle class its control required
strong monetary and fiscal measures.
4. Hyper inflation: Hyper inflation occurs when price rises very fast at double or triple digit rates. This could
get to a situation where the inflation rate can no longer be measurable and absolutely uncontrollable prices could
rise many times everyday. Such a situation brings a total collapse of the monetary system because of the
continuous fall in the purchasing power of money.
Basically, two causes of inflation have been identified, namely, demand-up and costs push inflation.
i. Demand-pull inflation is caused by an increase in the conditions of demand; these could either be an increase
in the ability to buy goods or an increase in the willingness to do so.
ii. Cost – push inflation arises from anything that causes the conditions of supply to decrease. Some of these
factors include a rise in the cost of production, an increase in government taxation and a decrease in quantity of
foods produced.
2.2 Concept of Economic Growth
Economic growth means the increase in the overall productivity that is measured by the gross domestic product
(GDP). Productivity in this context means the tendency or the ability of a state to produce goods and services
from its own resources. Any rise in the productivity marks the increase in the economic growth.
Nell in Munyeka (2014[8]) refers to economic growth as the most important single measure of the performance
of an economy. Economic growth connotes an increase in the capacity of a country to produce goods and
services by comparing contemporary output level with previous ones. Thus, the comparison may result in a
positive or negative growth. Conventionally, it is measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic
product, or RGDP. Growth is normally calculated in real terms such as inflation adjusted terms so as to
minimize the effect of inflation on the price of an economy’s total production.
2.2.1 Types of economic growth

Economic growth is further divided into two, which are: real economic growth and nominal economic growth .
i. Real economic growth
Real economic growth is when the rate of change of overall productivity is rising. That is, if a state is becoming
more capable of producing goods and services with each passing year because of an increase in natural and
human resources or any other factors available, then it is said to have risen in its real economic growth .
ii. Nominal economic growth
The nominal economic growth is contrary to the real economic growth. The nominal economic growth
is when the GDP of a state is rising merely because there is an increase in the prices of commodities or if the
pay rates are rising. This is just the growth in numbers where there is no growth in real sense because the state is
not showing any extraordinary progress in real sense. So this kind of economic growth is determined by the rate
of inflation which is exactly not what a state should aim for.
Economic growth is not exactly measured in terms of increased production of goods and services. Yes
that is what the productivity is but some goods and services are more valuable than the rest. It means that the
quantity does not matter, what matters is the quality and the value of the goods and services. That is what is
meant by the real productivity. Hence, economic growth is measured in U.S. dollars.

2.2.2 Factors affecting economic growth

There are several factors that impair economic growth some of which are unemployment, inflation,
brain drain, poverty, lack of natural resources, lack of human resources, dearth of foreign investments, education
setbacks, social evils, terrorism, disturbed law and order situation, poor healthcare facilities, bad living standard
etc (Wikipedia,2017).
2.3 Implication of Inflation on Economic Growth

The traditional Keynesian model comprises of the Aggregate demand (AD) and Aggregate Supply
(AS) curves, which aptly illustrates the inflation growth relation sip. According to this model, in the short run,
the (AS) curve is upward sloping rather than vertical, which is its critical features. If the AS curve is vertical,
Changes on the demand side of the economy affect only prices. However, if it is upward sloping changes in AD
affect both prices, and output, Dornbusch, et al, (1996[9]). This holds with the fact that many factors drive the
inflation rate and the level of output in the short-run. These include changes in expectations, labour force, prices
of other factors of production, fiscal and /or monetary policy.
In moving from the short-run to the hypothetical long-run, the above mentioned factors and its shock
on the steady state of the economy are assumed to balance out. In this steady state situation, nothing is changing,
as the name suggests. The dynamic adjustment of the short-run AD and AS curve yields an adjustment path
which exhibits an initial positive relationship between inflation and growth, however, turns negative towards the
later part of the adjustment path.
Therefore, even if the prices of goods in the economy have increase, output would not decline, as the
producer has to fulfill the demand of the consumer with whom the agreement was made. The aggregate supply-
aggregate demand (AS-AD) framework also postulated a positive relationship between inflation growth whereas
growth increased, so did inflation. In the 1970’s however, the concept of stag inflation gained permanence, and
the validity of the positive relationship was questioned. Widely accepted at that time, the Philips curve
relationship had appeared to not hold. This was evidenced by periods of low or negative output growth, and
inflation rates that were historically high. During this period, prices rose sharply, while the economics around
the world experienced massive unemployment.
2.4 Theoretical Review

2.4.1The Monetarists: The monetarists, following from the Quantity Theory of Money (QTM), have
propounded that the quantity of money is the main determinant of the price level, or the value of money, such
that any change in the quantity of money produces an exactly direct and proportionate change in the price level.
The QTM is traceable to Irving Fisher’s famous equation of exchange: MV=PQ, where M stands for the stock of
money; V for velocity of circulation of money; Q is the volume of transactions which take place within the
given period; while P stands for the general price level in the economy.
Transforming the equation by substituting Y (total amount of goods and services exchanged for
money) for Q, the equation of exchange becomes: MV=PY. The introduction of Y provides the linkage between
the monetary and the real side of the economy. In this framework, however, P,V, and Y are endogenously
determined within the system. The variable M is the policy variable, which is exogenously determined by the
monetary authorities. The monetarists emphasize that any change in the quantity of money affects only the price
level or the monetary side of the economy, with the real sector of the economy totally insulated. This indicates
that changes in the supply of money do not affect the real output of goods and services, but their values or the
prices at which they are exchanged only. An essential feature of the monetarists model is its focus on the long-
run supply-side properties of the economy as opposed to short-run dynamics (Dornbush, et al, 1996[9]).
2.4.2 The Keynesian: The Keynesian opposed the monetarists view of direct and proportional relationship
between the quantity of money and prices. According to this school, the relationship between changes in the
quantity of money and prices is non-proportional and indirect, through the rate of interest. The strength of the
Keynesian theory is its integration of monetary theory on the one hand and the theory of output and employment
through the rate of interest on the other hand. Thus, when the quantity of money increase, the rate of interest
falls, leading to an increase in the volume of investment and aggregate demand, thereby raising output and
employment. In other words, the Keynesians see a link between the real and the monetary sectors of the
economy an economic phenomenon that describes equilibrium in the goods and money market (IS-LM). Equally
important about the Keynesian theory is that they examined the relationship between the quantity of money and
prices both under unemployment and full employment situations. According, so long as there is unemployment,
output and employment will change in the same proportion as the quantity of money, but there will be no
change in prices. At full employment, however, changes in the quantity of money will induce a proportional
change in price. Olofin (2001) thus, this approach has the virtue of emphasizing that the objectives of full
employment and price stability may be inherently irreconcilable.
2.4.3 The Neo-Keynesian: The neo-Keynesian theoretical exposition combines both aggregate demand and
aggregate supply. It assumes a Keynesian view on the short-run and a classical view in the long-run. The
simplistic approach is to consider changes in public expenditure or the nominal money supply and assume that
expected inflation is zero. As a result, aggregate demand increases with real money balances and, therefore,
decreases with the price level. The neo-Keynesian theory focuses on productivity, because, declining
productivity signals diminishing returns to scale and, consequently, induces inflationary pressures, resulting
mainly from over-heating of the economy and widening output gap.
2.5 Empirical Review

Hussain, Shabir and Kashif (2016[10]) explored the impact of macroeconomic indicators such as
inflation rate, exchange rate and interest rate on GDP of Pakistan covering a sample period of 32 years
from1980 to 2011. The research made use of secondary data sourced from website of the State Bank of Pakistan
and the World Bank. Descriptive statistics and multiple regressions were used for analysis. The variables
contained in the model consisted of GDP as dependent variable, while the explanatory variables were interest
rate, exchange rate and inflation rate. The study revealed that inflation rate and interest rate had a significant
negative impact on GDP, while exchange rate related significantly and positively with GDP. Based on the
results and analysis, it was recommended that the government should adopt tight monetary policy measures to
control inflation. Bakare, Kareem and Oyelekan (2015[11]) assessed the effects of inflation rate on economic
growth in Nigeria using annualized time series data for the period 1986 – 2014. The secondary data were
sourced from CBN Statistical Bulletin. The ADF econometric technique was used to determine the stationarity
of the series, while Granger causality test was employed to ascertain the causal direction of dependent and
independent variables. The study found out that inflation rate related negatively and significantly with economic
growth. Also, the finding test indicated that GDP granger caused inflation, and inflation did not granger cause
GDP. Regarding policy implication of the result, it was recommended that productive activity should be
intensified in the economy so as to reduce and stabilize prices of goods and services for the purpose of
promoting economic growth. Chughtai, Malik and Aftab (2015[12]) investigated the impact of major economic
variables like inflation rate, interest rate and exchange rate on economic growth of Pakistan. Secondary data
spanning the period 1981 – 2013 were utilized for this study. Findings from multiple linear regression revealed
that both inflation and interest rates related negatively with economic growth, whereas exchange rate had
significant positive effect on the economy.
Semuel and Nurina (2015[13]) analyzed the effect of inflation, interest rates and exchange rates on
GDP of Indonesia. There was a significant negative relationship of inflation and interest rates on GDP and a
significant positive relationship of the exchange rates on the GDP, while inflation had a non-significant
influence on GDP. Agwu (2015) explored the factors that contribute to economic growth in Nigeria. For the
purpose of realizing the research objectives, Vector Error Correction Mechanism (VECM) was applied in order
to ascertain the short-run and long-run dynamics of economic growth. The long-run estimate indicated that
government expenditure and oil revenue boosted economic growth, while interest rate and inflation rate had
significant negative effects on economic growth. The paper suggested stiffer measures to lessen incidences of
corrupt practices in the economy. Agalega, and Antwi (2013[14]) examined the impact of macroeconomic
variables on GDP in Ghana covering from 1980 – 2010. Annualized time series data were obtained from Bank
of Ghana publications and bulletins, Ghana Statistical Service, the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic
Research (ISSER). The study applied multiple linear regressions to prove that there existed a fairly significant
positive correlation between GDP, Interest rate and inflation, but inflation and interest rate could only achieve
causation in GDP by mere 44 percent. The paper also proved that there existed positive relationship between
inflation and GDP, while interest rate was negative. It was suggested among others that the government together
with the Bank of Ghana should develop and pursue prudent monetary policies that could target lowering and
stabilizing both the micro and selected macroeconomic indices in order to positively drive the economy. Kasidi
and Nwakanemela (2013[14]) studied the impact of inflation on economic growth in Tanzania. Annual time-
series data for the period 1990 - 2011 were employed for analysis. Correlation coefficient and co-integration
technique established the relationship between inflation and GDP and coefficient of elasticity were used to
measure the degree of responsiveness of change in GDP to changes in general price levels. Findings indicated
that inflation had a negative effect on economic growth. The study further established that there was no co-
integration (absence of long-run relationship) between inflation and economic growth in Tanzania within the
period studied.
Omoke and Ugwuanyi (2010[1]) tested the relationship between money, inflation and output by
employing cointegration and Granger-causality test analysis. The findings revealed no existence of a
cointegrating vector in the series used. Money supply was seen to Granger cause both output and inflation. The
result suggest that monetary stability can contribute towards price stability in Nigerian economy since the
variation in price level is mainly caused by money supply and also conclude that inflation in Nigeria is to much
extent a monetary phenomenon. They find empirical support in context of the money-price-output hypothesis
for Nigerian economy. M2 appears to have a strong causal effect on the real output as well as prices. Using
Okun’s law, “each percentage point of cyclical unemployment is associated with a loss equal to 2% of full-
employment output; if full-employment output is $10 trillion, each percentage point of unemployment sustained
for one year costs $200 billion”. Williams and Adedeji (2004[15]) examined price dynamics in the Dominican
Republic by exploring the joint effects of distortions in the money and traded-goods markets on inflation,
holding other potential influences constant. The study captured the remarkable macroeconomic stability and
growth for period 1991 to 2002. Using a parsimonious and empirically stable error-correction model, the paper
found that the major determinants of inflation were changes in monetary aggregates, real output, foreign
inflation, and the exchange rate. However, there was an incomplete pass-through of depreciation from the
exchange rate to inflation. The authors established a long-run relationship in the money and traded-goods
markets, observing that inflation was influenced only by disequilibrium in the money market.
Anidiobu, Okolie and Oleka (2018[16] examined the effect of inflation on economic growth in Nigeria
utilizing annualized data covering the period 1986 – 2015, which were obtained from the Central Bank of
Nigeria (CBN) Statistical Bulletin of various issues. This study employed ex-post research design because the
variables were based on events that had already taken place, which the researcher could neither control nor
manipulate. Some preliminary tests were performed to ensure data stationarity, and also ascertain how well the
series were distributed. While Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) was adopted for the former, descriptive
statistics explained the latter. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique was used to estimate the variables. Real
Gross Domestic Product (RGDP) formed the dependent variable, Inflation Rate (INFR), Interest Rate (Interest
Rate) and Exchange Rate (EXCHR) made up the independent variables. Statistical outcomes were interpreted
based on a 5 percent level of significance. The regression results indicated that INFR had a positive and non-
significant effect on economic growth (measured by RGDP) in Nigeria for the period studied. The study
recommended that government should adopt tight monetary policy measures to stabilize tide of inflationary
pressures on our economy. It also recommended that political leaders should minimize unjustified public
spending and promote fiscal prudence.
Aminu and Anono (2012[17] investigated the impact of inflation on economic growth and
development in Nigeria between 1970-2010 through the application of Augmented Dickey-Fuller technique in
testing the unit root property of the series and Granger causality test of causation between GDP and inflation.
The results of unit root suggested that all the variables in the model were stationary and the results of Causality
suggested that GDP causes inflation and not inflation causing GDP. The results also revealed that inflation
possessed a positive impact on economic growth through encouraging productivity and output level and on
evolution of total factor productivity. A good performance of an economy in terms of per capita growth may
therefore be attributed to the rate of inflation in the country.
III. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
This study adopts the ex-post facto research design as it deals with event that had taken place and
secondary data were readily available for collection. Real GDP was adopted as the effect variable, while
inflation rate was employed as the causal variable, while exchange rate was used as the control variable. The
model was estimated using the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method. Since we are making use of annualized
time-series data and the study cover a long sample period, we made sure our data set were not impaired by unit
root; hence we tested for stationarity of the series by employing the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF).
3.2 Source of Data Collection

Data for this study are elicited from Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin of 2018[18] under. The
study period covers 1981 through 2018.
3.3 Method of Data Analysis

This study used descriptive statistics, unit root test, correlation and ordinary least squares (OLS) linear
regression model in testing the hypothesis of the study. E-view 9.0 econometric statistical software package was
used for the analysis.
3.4 Model Specification

This research paper adapted the economic model previously used by Anidiobu, et al (2018[16]) that
researched on the Analysis of Inflation and Its Effect on Economic Growth in Nigeria. The study, which had
earlier been reviewed in the preceding section are specified below:
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + εi ……………………………………….……........................ (1)
The model is rewritten as:

RGDP = β0 + β1INTR + β2INFR + β3EXCH(R + εi .................................... ............................ (2)

Where RGDP is real gross domestic product, β0 = constant, β1, β2 and β3 are coefficients. INFR is inflation rate,
INTR is interest rate, EXCHR is official exchange rate and ε is error term. However, this study adapted the
scholars’ work by excluding interest rate as a controlled variable since exchange rate is already included as a
controlled variable. This was done to check for multi co-linearity and avoid over bloating the model. In that
regard, our regression model is specified thus:
LogRGDP= β0+ β1INFR + β2EXCHR + εi......................................................................... (3)
Where RGDP is real GDP and other acronyms in the model (INFR, EXCHR and ε) remain as explained above.
IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Descriptive Statistics
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics
EXR IFR RGDP
Mean 104.4552 19.33263 33737.67
Median 111.1675 12.55000 23068.85
Maximum 306.1000 72.84000 70333.00
Minimum 4.536700 5.380000 13779.26
Std. Dev. 78.39935 17.25014 19604.06
Observations 38 38 38
Source: Author’s analysis using e-view 9 output with data in Appendix
From the table of descriptive statistics above, the means of exchange rate, inflation rate and real gross domestic
product were N104.45, 19.33% and N33737.67 billion respectively. When their minimum stood at N4.544,
5.38& and N19604.06 billion, their maximum were N306.1, 72.84 and N70333 billion respectively. The number
of years covered by this study is 38 years, hence the number of observation being 38.
4.2 Correlation Matrix

Table 4.2 Correlation Matrix
EXR IFR RGDP
EXR 1.000000
IFR -0.445803 1.000000
RGDP 0.821999 -0.340353 1.000000
Correlation test to see the relationship that exists amongst variables; from the correlation matrix above, the
result shows that all the three variables are negatively or inversely correlated, which implies that an increase in
any of the variables, would bring about a decrease in the other variables and vice versa.
4.3 Diagnostic Test (Unit Root Test)

Table 4.3 Unit Root Test
Variables Augmented Dickey- Probability Value ADF Critical at Inference
Fuller test statistic 5%
EXR -3.537770 0.0125 -2.945842 I(1)
IFR -3.471794 0.0147 -2.945842 I(0)
RGDP -5.590692 0.0000 -2.951125 I(1)
The unit root test result shows that the order of integration of the variables comprises of a mixture of
1(0) and 1(1), as such the most appropriate model to be adopted in analyzing data remains Auto - Regressive
Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model.

4.4 Inferential Results

Results of ARDL Model
Table 4.4 Results of ARDL Model
Variable Coefficien Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.*
t
LOG(RGDP(-2)) -0.600931 0.134084 -4.481750 0.0001
LOG(IFR(-2)) -0.034801 0.009357 -3.719036 0.0009
LOG(EXR) -0.019654 0.013234 -1.485105 0.1487
C 0.126771 0.131182 0.966372 0.3421
R-squared 0.997752 Mean dependent var 10.30495
Adjusted R-squared 0.997190 S.D. dependent var 0.555135
S.E. of regression 0.029425 Akaike info criterion -
4.020808
Sum squared resid 0.024243 Schwarz criterion -
3.668915
Log likelihood 80.37454 Hannan-Quinn criter. -
3.897988
F-statistic 1775.641 Durbin-Watson stat 2.264983
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
The ARDL result as shown in the table above suggests that both inflation rate and exchange rate have
negative impacts on real gross domestic product. This result is in support or in tandem with the results elicited
from the correlation analysis earlier conducted. The result further revealed that a percentage increase in inflation
rate would bring about a 0.035 percent decrease in real gross domestic product. Also, a percentage increase in
exchange rate would bring about a 0.02 percent decrease in real gross domestic product, and vice versa.
A keen examination of the result shows that inflation rate had a negative significant impact on real gross
domestic product at 5% level of significance as supported by the corresponding probability value of 0.0009
which is < 5% significance level. Exchange rate can be said to have exerted a negative, yet insignificant impact
on real gross domestic product as shown by its corresponding probability value of 0.1487 which is > 5%
significance level.
The R-squared as well as the Adjusted R-squared of 0.99 showed that the explanatory variables
accounted for more than 99% variations in the explained variable.
F-statistic of 1775.6 showed that the model is a good fit as confirmed by its corresponding probability
value of 0.000000 which means that the model is significant both at 1% and 5% levels of significance.
Durbin-Watson stat. of 2.26 suggests that the variables are free from auto-correlation since it is very close to 2.
4.5 Test of Serial Correlation

Table 4.5 Test of Serial Correlation
Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:
F-statistic 1.499901 Prob. F(2,26) 0.2418

Obs*R-squared 3.723918 Prob. Chi-Square(2) 0.1554
In line with the rules, the Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test table above shows that the
probability values of 0.2418 and 0.1554 are statistically insignificant at 5% level of significance, the model is
said to be free from serial correlation.
4.6 Test of Heteroskedasticity

Table 4.6 Test of Heteroskedasticity
Heteroskedasticity Test: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey
Scaled explained SS 5.189151 Prob. Chi-Square(7) 0.6369

The Heteroskedasticity test above suggests the problem of Heteroskedasticity since the p-values of F-stat. and
Obs*R-squared are < 5% significance level. However, the Scaled explained SS suggest the absence of
Heteroskedasticity.
4.7 Test of Normality
This test is conducted to ensure that the data employed in this study are normally distributed. Observing from
the normality diagram (see appendix) as well as the Jaque Bera value of 1.65 which is >5% significant level
confirms that the data are normally distributed.
4.8 Correlogram Q-Statistic
This test is carried out to further test for auto correlation and to consolidate the result of Durbin Watson Stat.
which suggested that the variables are free from auto correlation. From the correlogram Q- Stat. table (see
appendix) indicates that all p-values were >5% hence the conclusion that the model was free from auto
correlation.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study empirically analysed the impact of inflation on economic growth of Nigeria using time
series data covering a period of 38 years, between 1981 and 2018. Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL)
model approach was employed to ascertain the impact of inflation of economic growth of Nigeria.
The result of the (ARDL) model suggested that inflation rate had a negative significant impact on
economic growth of Nigeria, agreeing with economic expectations that inflation maintains an inverse
relationship with economic growth proxied by real gross domestic product. This result is in consonance with the
empirical documentations of Hussain, Shabir and Kashif (2016), Chughtai, Malik and Aftab (2015) and Semuel
and Nurina (2015) who also recorded negative relationships between inflation and economic growth, but in
negation of the work of Aminu and Anono (2012) who recorded a positive impact of inflation on economic
growth. The controlled variable employed in this study (exchange rate) was found to have a negative and
insignificant impact on economic growth of Nigeria within the period under review. This study concludes that
inflation is dangerous to the growth of an economy, most especially to developing and fragile economy as that
of Nigeria.
This study therefore recommends that;

1. Government and key monetary authorities such as Central Bank of Nigeria and ministry of finance should
adopt a contractionary monetary policy in order to curb excess money supply in the economy which could in
turn lead to inflation.
2. Both monetary and fiscal policy instruments should be employed and harnessed so as to work in tandem in
regulating interest rates, government taxes and its spending activities all in a bit to control and regulate the
availability of money in the economy.
REFERENCES
[1]. Ademola, and A. Badiru, The impact of unemployment and inflation on economic growth in Nigeria.
International Journal of Business and Economic Sciences, 9(1), 2016, 47 – 55.
[2]. E. Agalega, and S. Antwi, The impact of macroeconomic variables on gross domestic product:
Empirical evidence from Ghana. International Business Research, 6(5), 2013, 108 – 116.
[3]. Anyanwaokoro. Theory and policy of money and banking, Enugu: Hosanna Publications, (1999).
[4]. H. Bakare, R. Kareem, and O. Oyelekan, Effects of inflation rate on economic growth in Nigeria.
Developing Country Studies, 5(8), 2015, 153 – 160.
[5]. R. Barro, Inflation and economic growth. Annals of Economics and Finance, 14(1), 2013, 85 – 109.
[6]. M. Bruno, and W. Easterly, Inflation crises and long-run growth. Journal of Monetary Economics,
14(1), 1998, 3 – 26.
[7]. Central Bank of Nigeria, CBN (2018). Statistical Bulletin, 2018.
[8]. M. Chughtai, M. Malik and R. Aftab, Impact of major economic variables on economic growth of
Pakistan. Deta Universitatis Danubius, 11(2), 2015, 94 – 106.
[9]. R. Dornbusch, et al, Macroeconomic. Sydney: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1996.
[10]. E. Hossain, B. Ghosh, and K. Islam, Inflation and economic growth in Bangladesh. International
Refereed Research Journal, 4(2), 2012.
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Pakistan. European Journal of Business and Innovation Research, 4(3), 2016,38 – 52.
[12]. L. Jones, and R. Manuelli, Growth and the effects of inflation. National Bureau of Economic Research,
Paper 4523, 2001.

[13]. K, Kasidi, and K., Mwakanemela, Impact of inflation on economic growth: A case of Tanzania. Asian
Journal of Empirical Research, 3(4), 2013, 363 – 380.
[14]. W. Munyeka, The relationship between economic growth and inflation in South African economy.
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(15), 2014,119 – 129.
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of Scientific Research ISSN 1456-223X, Issue 8, 2010, pp.78-87. Euro Journals Publishing, Inc.
[16]. ,H. Semuel and S. Nurina, Analysis of the effect of inflation, interest rates and exchange rates on gross
domestic product (GDP) in Indonesia., Proc. International Conf. on Global Business, Economics,
Finance and Social Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand,1- 13, 2015.
[17]. Umaru, and A. Zubairu, Effect of inflation on the growth and development of the Nigerian economy:
An empirical analysis. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(10), 2012,183 – 191.
[18]. O. Williams, and O. Adedeji, ‟Inflation Dynamics in the Dominican Republic” IMF Working Paper,
WP/04/29, 2004, Western Hemisphere Department: Washington, D.C.,February.
[19]. G. Anidiobu, P. Okolie and D. Oleka, Analysis of Inflation and Its Effect on Economic Growth in
Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) e-ISSN: 2321-5933, p-ISSN: 2321-
5925. 2018, Volume 9, Issue 1 Ver. IV (Jan.- Feb .2018), PP 28-36 www.iosrjournals.org
[20]. U. Aminu, A. Anono, Effect of Inflation on the Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economy
(An Empirical Analysis) International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 3 No. 10, 2012,
[Special Issue – May 2012]
APPENDICES
Data Employed for Analysis
YEAR EXR RGDP IFR
1981 110.39 15,258 20.81
1982 109.86 14,985.08 7.7
1983 109.84 13,849.73 23.21
1984 113.20 13,779.26 17.82
1985 99.90 14,953.91 7.44
1986 51.89 15,237.99 5.72
1987 14.72 15,263.93 11.29
1988 4.5367 16,215.37 54.51
1989 7.3916 17,294.68 50.47
1990 8.0378 19,305.63 7.36
1991 9.9095 19,199.06 13.01
1992 17.2984 19,620.19 44.59
1993 22.0511 19,927.99 57.17
1994 21.8861 19,979.12 57.03
1995 21.8861 20,353.20 72.84
1996 21.8861 21,177.92 29.27
1997 21.8861 21,789.10 8.53
1998 21.8861 22,332.87 10
1999 92.6934 22,449.41 6.62
2000 102.1052 23,688.28 6.93
2001 111.9433 25,267.54 18.87
2002 120.9702 28,957.71 12.88
2003 129.3565 31,709.43 14.03
2004 133.5004 35,020.55 15
2005 132.147 37,424.95 17.86
2006 128.6516 39,995.50 8.24

2007 125.8331 42,922.41 5.38

2008 118.5669 46,012.52 11.54
2009 148.8802 49,856.10 11.54
2010 150.298 54,612.26 13.72
2011 153.8616 57,511.04 10.84
2012 157.4994 59,929.89 12.22
2013 157.3112 63,218.72 8.84
2014 158.5526 67,152.79 8.06
2015 193.2792 69,023.93 9.01
2016 253.4923 67,931.24 15.68
2017 305.8000 68,490.98 16.52
2018 306.1000 70,333.00 12.09
Source: CBN Statistical Bulletin of 2018
Dependent Variable: LOG(RGDP)

Method: ARDL
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:26
Sample (adjusted): 1983 2018
Included observations: 36 after adjustments
Maximum dependent lags: 4 (Automatic selection)
Model selection method: Akaike info criterion (AIC)
Dynamic regressors (4 lags, automatic): LOG(IFR) LOG(EXR)
Fixed regressors: C
Number of models evalulated: 100
Selected Model: ARDL(2, 2, 1)
Note: final equation sample is larger than selection sample
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.*
LOG(RGDP(-1)) 1.594804 0.129397 12.32491 0.0000
LOG(RGDP(-2)) -0.600931 0.134084 -4.481750 0.0001
LOG(IFR) -0.028277 0.009987 -2.831283 0.0085
LOG(IFR(-1)) 0.046672 0.010609 4.399165 0.0001
LOG(IFR(-2)) -0.034801 0.009357 -3.719036 0.0009
LOG(EXR) -0.019654 0.013234 -1.485105 0.1487
LOG(EXR(-1)) 0.019435 0.012657 1.535452 0.1359
C 0.126771 0.131182 0.966372 0.3421
S.E. of regression 0.029425 Akaike info criterion -4.020808
Sum squared resid 0.024243 Schwarz criterion -3.668915
Log likelihood 80.37454 Hannan-Quinn criter. -3.897988
*Note: p-values and any subsequent tests do not account for model
selection.

UNIT ROOT TEST

Null Hypothesis: IFR has a unit root
Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 1 (Automatic - based on AIC, maxlag=10)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -3.471794 0.0147
Test critical values: 1% level -3.626784
5% level -2.945842
10% level -2.611531
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Augmented Dickey-Fuller Test Equation
Dependent Variable: D(IFR)
Method: Least Squares
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:33
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
IFR(-1) -0.502593 0.144765 -3.471794 0.0015
D(IFR(-1)) 0.302230 0.164287 1.839654 0.0748
C 9.954901 3.626141 2.745315 0.0097
S.E. of regression 13.59879 Akaike info criterion 8.137494
Sum squared resid 6102.591 Schwarz criterion 8.269453
Log likelihood -143.4749 Hannan-Quinn criter. 8.183551
Null Hypothesis: D(EXR) has a unit root

Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic - based on AIC, maxlag=10)
t-Statistic Prob.*
5% level -2.945842
10% level -2.611531
Dependent Variable: D(EXR,2)
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:35
D(EXR(-1)) -0.537859 0.152033 -3.537770 0.0012
C 2.942650 3.402118 0.864946 0.3931
Sum squared resid 13333.51 Schwarz criterion 8.951478

Null Hypothesis: D(RGDP,2) has a unit root

Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 1 (Automatic - based on SIC, maxlag=10)
t-Statistic Prob.*
5% level -2.951125
10% level -2.614300
Dependent Variable: D(RGDP,3)
Date: 01/18/20 Time: 00:22
D(RGDP(-1),2) -1.473531 0.263569 -5.590692 0.0000
D(RGDP(-1),3) 0.348110 0.175920 1.978795 0.0568
C 54.10941 185.8207 0.291191 0.7728
Sum squared resid 36309178 Schwarz criterion 17.03025
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:48
Sample: 1981 2018
Included observations: 36
Q-statistic probabilities adjusted for 2 dynamic regressors
Autocorrelation Partial AC PAC Q-Stat Prob
Correlation *
.*| . | .*| . | 1 -0.158 -0.158 0.9816 0.322
.|. | .|. | 2 -0.014 -0.040 0.9892 0.610
. |*. | . |*. | 3 0.154 0.150 1.9744 0.578
.|. | . |*. | 4 0.056 0.109 2.1064 0.716
.|. | .|. | 5 -0.004 0.030 2.1070 0.834
. |*. | . |*. | 6 0.118 0.106 2.7457 0.840
. |*. | . |*. | 7 0.101 0.122 3.2236 0.864
.*| . | .|. | 8 -0.066 -0.037 3.4377 0.904
**| . | **| . | 9 -0.226 -0.305 6.0298 0.737
. |** | . |*. | 10 0.271 0.144 9.8902 0.450
**| . | .*| . | 11 -0.223 -0.190 12.608 0.320
. |*. | . |*. | 12 0.099 0.136 13.163 0.357
.|. | .|. | 13 -0.013 -0.048 13.172 0.435
**| . | **| . | 14 -0.232 -0.224 16.512 0.283
.*| . | **| . | 15 -0.185 -0.241 18.743 0.226
.|. | .*| . | 16 -0.052 -0.171 18.931 0.272
*Probabilities may not be valid for this equation specification.

NORMALITY TEST
9
Series: Residuals
8 Sample 1983 2018
Observations 36
7
6 Mean 4.44e-15
Median -0.001279
5 Maximum 0.046828
Minimum -0.054195
4 Std. Dev. 0.026319
Skewness -0.119518
3
Kurtosis 1.978567
2
Jarque-Bera 1.650696
1 Probability 0.438083
0
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04
Heteroskedasticity Test: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey

Scaled explained SS 5.189151 Prob. Chi-Square(7) 0.6369
Test Equation:
Dependent Variable: RESID^2
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:50
Sample: 1983 2018
C 0.010537 0.002412 4.368400 0.0002
LOG(RGDP(-1)) -0.000227 0.002379 -0.095492 0.9246
LOG(RGDP(-2)) -0.000689 0.002465 -0.279631 0.7818
LOG(IFR) -0.000108 0.000184 -0.585764 0.5627
LOG(IFR(-1)) -0.000172 0.000195 -0.884233 0.3841
LOG(IFR(-2)) -0.000177 0.000172 -1.031443 0.3112
LOG(EXR) -0.000255 0.000243 -1.048166 0.3035
LOG(EXR(-1)) 0.000436 0.000233 1.873621 0.0715
12.01307
Sum squared resid 8.20E-06 Schwarz criterion -
11.66117
11.89025
Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:

Test Equation:
Dependent Variable: RESID
Method: ARDL
Date: 01/15/20 Time: 08:52
Sample: 1983 2018
Presample missing value lagged residuals set to zero.
LOG(RGDP(-1)) 0.327222 0.228417 1.432561 0.1639
LOG(RGDP(-2)) -0.344769 0.239445 -1.439865 0.1618
LOG(IFR) 0.001636 0.010003 0.163562 0.8713
LOG(IFR(-1)) 0.003626 0.010669 0.339826 0.7367
LOG(IFR(-2)) -0.003063 0.009367 -0.327026 0.7463
LOG(EXR) 0.018890 0.016973 1.112910 0.2759
LOG(EXR(-1)) -0.011831 0.014215 -0.832345 0.4128
C 0.130072 0.149511 0.869981 0.3923
RESID(-1) -0.631593 0.365038 -1.730210 0.0954
RESID(-2) -0.244371 0.237756 -1.027821 0.3135
R-squared 0.103442 Mean dependent var 4.44E-15
Adjusted R-squared -0.206905 S.D. dependent var 0.026319
4.018889
Sum squared resid 0.021736 Schwarz criterion -
3.579023
3.865364

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American International Journal of Business Management (AIJBM)

ISSN- 2379-106X, www.aijbm.com Volume 3, Issue 2 (February 2020), PP 10-24

Inflation and Nigeria’s Economic Growth, An Auto Regressive

Efanga, Udeme Okon1, Ugwuanyi, Georgina Obinne Ph.D2,

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 10 | Page

II. Review of Related Literature

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 11 | Page

2.1.2 Types of Inflation in Nigeria

2.2.1 Types of economic growth

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 12 | Page

2.2.2 Factors affecting economic growth

2.3 Implication of Inflation on Economic Growth

2.4 Theoretical Review

2.5 Empirical Review

3.2 Source of Data Collection

3.3 Method of Data Analysis

3.4 Model Specification

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 15 | Page

RGDP = β0 + β1INTR + β2INFR + β3EXCH(R + εi .................................... ............................ (2)

IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.2 Correlation Matrix

4.3 Diagnostic Test (Unit Root Test)

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 16 | Page

4.4 Inferential Results

4.5 Test of Serial Correlation

F-statistic 1.499901 Prob. F(2,26) 0.2418

Source: Author’s analysis using e-view 9 output with data in Appendix

4.6 Test of Heteroskedasticity

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 17 | Page

V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study therefore recommends that;

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 18 | Page

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 19 | Page

2007 125.8331 42,922.41 5.38

Dependent Variable: LOG(RGDP)

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 20 | Page

UNIT ROOT TEST

Null Hypothesis: D(EXR) has a unit root

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 21 | Page

Null Hypothesis: D(RGDP,2) has a unit root

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 22 | Page

Heteroskedasticity Test: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey

Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:

*Corresponding Author: Efanga, Udeme Okon www.aijbm.com 24 | Page

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