ASSIGNMENT

Vivek Chithambaram

B.Arch 3RD Year, SSAA

Roll No.2

1. (a) What do you understand by acoustics of buildings?

(b) Which are the requirements of best sound effects?

(c) Which are the factors to be considered in acoustics of buildings? 

Answer: 

1(a)     Architectural acoustics is the science of noise control within buildings. The first application of
architectural acoustics was in the design of opera houses and then concert halls. More widely, noise
suppression is critical in the design of multi-unit dwellings and business premises that generate significant
noise, including music venues like bars. The more mundane design of workplaces has implications for
noise health effects. Architectural acoustics includes room acoustics, the design of recording and broadcast
studios, home theaters, and listening rooms for media playback.  

(b) The requirement for the best sound effects are as follows

• There should be adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium, especially in remote seats.
• The sound energy should be uniformly distributed within the room.

• Optimum reverberation characteristics should be provided in the auditorium to facilitate whatever

function is required

• The room should be free from acoustical defects (echoes, flutter echoes, sound shadowing, room
resonance, sound concentrations and excessive reverberation).

• Background noise and vibration should be sufficiently excluded in order not to interfere in any way with
the function of the enclosure.

(c) Factors to be considered in building acoustics are:    

1) Building skin envelope: This factor analyses sound transfer from exterior of the building to the interior
and vice versa. The main noise paths are roofs, eaves, walls, windows, door and penetrations. Sufficient
control ensures space functionality and is often required based on building use and local municipal codes.
An example would be providing a suitable design for a home which is to be constructed close to a high
volume roadway, or under the flight path of a major airport, or of the airport itself.    

2)  Inter space noise control: The science of limiting and/or controlling noise transmission from one
building space to another to ensure space functionality and speech privacy. The typical sound paths are
room partitions, acoustic ceiling panels (such as wood dropped ceiling panels), doors, windows, flanking,
ducting and other penetrations. An example would be providing suitable party wall design in an apartment
complex to minimise the mutual disturbance due to noise by residents in adjacent apartments. 
 
 3)  Interior space acoustics: This is the science of controlling a room's surfaces based on sound absorbing
 and reflecting properties. Excessive reverberation time, which can be calculated, can lead to poor speech
intelligibility. 

Sound reflections create standing waves that produces natural resonances that can be heard as a pleasant
sensation or an annoying one.[1] Reflective surfaces can be angled and coordinated to provide good
coverage of sound for a listener in a concert hall or music recital space. To illustrate this concept consider
the difference between a modern large office meeting room or lecture theater and a traditional classroom
with all hard surfaces. 

Interior building surfaces can be constructed of many different materials and finishes. Ideal acoustical
panels are those without a face or finish material that interferes with the acoustical infill or substrate. Fabric
covered panels are one way to heighten acoustical absorption. Finish material is used to cover over the
acoustical substrate. Mineral fiber board, or Micore, is a commonly used acoustical substrate. Finish
materials often consist of fabric, wood or acoustical tile. 

4)   Mechanical equipment noise: Building services noise control is the science of controlling noise
produced by:

      i) ACMV (air conditioning and mechanical ventilation) systems in     buildings, termed HVAC in North
America

      ii)  Elevators

      iii) Electrical generators positioned within or attached to a building

Any other building service infrastructure component that emits sound. 

Inadequate control may lead to elevated sound levels within the space which can be annoying and reduce
speech intelligibility. Typical improvements are vibration isolation of mechanical equipment, and sound
traps in ductwork. Sound masking can also be created by adjusting HVAC noise to a predetermined level. 
  

2. (a) Name the different sound absorbing materials known to you?

(b) What are the requirements of a good sound insulating material?

(c) How the sound insulation is affected? 

Answer:

a. Different sound materials are wood, cork, rubber, cardboard, foam etc.

In buildings materials like wood panels, mineral fibre boards, micore, fabric and foam acoustical
tiles are used.

b. The requirements of a good sound insulating material is that firstly it should absorb sound waves
and not deflect them back in order to prevent echoes, the material should also not transmit sound
after absorbing, and should be able to keep the room free from acoustical defects (echoes, flutter
echoes, sound shadowing, room resonance, sound concentrations and excessive reverberation),
and thus due to these requirements, soft materials like heavy fabrics, foam etc are preferred as
sound insulating materials. While choosing sound insulating materials it is also important to
 consider the appearance, light reflection, fire resistance, workability, cost and durability of the
material.

c. Sound insulation is affected by the level and nature of noise which needs to be insulated as certain
materials can be used only to mask low decibel noises, whereas for insulating noises of higher
magnitude (like heavy machinery), other factors include, the size and shape of the room or
enclosure to be sound proofed, and methods of sound proofing (e.g. natural buffer, acoustical tiles,
drapes and heavy curtains etc.)
 

3.        What is meant by the term reverberation? Explain what do you understand by optimum time of reverberation?

Answer:  

Reverberation is the collection of reflected sounds from the surfaces in an enclosure like an auditorium.
It  is the persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is removed. A reverberation,
or reverb, is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space causing a large number of echoes to
build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air. This is most noticeable when
the sound source stops but the reflections continue, decreasing in amplitude, until they can no longer be
heard.

optimum time of reverberation -

In a room or auditorium designed for speech, the reverberation time that provides the highest speech
intelligibility consistent with other requirements is the optimum time of reverb. In a room or auditorium
designed for music, the reverberation time that provides optimum conditions for playing and listening to
music. These optimum values depend on the use of the room, its volume, and may depend on frequency.

(reverberation time - reverberation time is the time required for reflections of a direct sound to decay by
60 dB below the level of the direct sound.)

4. If you are consulted regarding the construction of a cinema hall, what will you consider essential in the
design and furnishing for getting good hearing effects?

 Answer:  

For designing of a cinema hall, the following points should be kept in mind at all times:

 There should be adequate loudness in every part of the hall, especially in remote seats.
    The sound energy should be uniformly distributed within the room.

    Optimum reverberation characteristics should be provided in the hall to facilitate whatever function is
required.

    The room should be free from acoustical defects (echoes, flutter  echoes, sound shadowing, room
resonance, sound  concentrations and  excessive reverberation).

    Background noise and vibration should be sufficiently excluded  in order not to interfere in any way with
the function of the  enclosure.

 The materials chosen for insulating the theatre should be resistant to fire and should not reflect light, along
with being visually pleasing.

 Other important factors which have to be kept while designing the cinema hall are: 
 1. The auditorium should be shaped so that the audience is as close to the sound source as possible. In larger
auditoria the use of a balcony brings more seats closer to the sound source.  

2. The sound source should be raised as much as is feasible in order to secure a free flow of direct sound to
every listener.

3. The floor on which the audience sits should be properly raked as sound is more readily absorbed when it
travels at grazing incidence over the audience. As a general rule, however, the gradient along aisles of
sloped auditoria should not be more than 1:8 in the interests of safety. The audience floor of theatres for
live performance, especially open or arena stages should be stepped.

4. Good quality speakers should be installed all around the inner periphery of the hall to ensure good sound
quality and equal distribution of sound throughout the hall.

5. Parallelism between opposite reflective walls, particularly those close to the source, should be avoided in
order to eliminate undesirable back reflection and flutter echo.

6. The audience should only be placed in areas which are advantageous to both viewing and listening -
generally the two are in agreement. Excessively wide seating areas should be avoided. In addition, aisles
should preferably be located at the sides of the auditoria where viewing is restricted, not down the centre
where viewing and listening is most favourable.

7. The volume of the auditorium should be in proportion to the intensity of the sound that is expected to be
generated in the hall. In deciding the volume of the hall, its height plays a significant role than its length or
breadth. The ratio of the height of ceiling to the width of the hall or room should be 2:3. This is on account
of the fact that a small increase in height increases the volume considerably

In Terms of volume, a cinema hall should preferably designed according to

Volume of 3.7 to 4.2 Cu.m. Per person. 

8. In addition, the furnishings and the audience contribute to a great extent to the absorption present in the
room. In fact the audience may be largest contributors to the absorption in any auditorium. With a view to
ensure optimum absorption from the audience, the seats in the hall are raked so that the heads in one row do
not intercept the passage of direct sound to the persons in the row immediately behind.

5.  Discuss the principles to be observed in acoustic design of an Auditorium? 

Answer:  

OUTLINE OF ACOUSTIC REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD SOUND:

 There should be adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium, especially in remote seats.
 The sound energy should be uniformly distributed within the room.
  Optimum reverberation characteristics should be provided in the auditorium to facilitate whatever function
is required.

 The room should be free from acoustical defects (echoes, flutter echoes, sound shadowing, room resonance,
sound concentrations and  excessive reverberation).

 Background noise and vibration should be sufficiently excluded in order not to interfere in any way with
the function of the enclosure.

 ADEQUATE LOUDNESS:
 The auditorium should be shaped so that the audience is as close to the sound source as possible. In larger
auditoria the use of a balcony brings more seats closer to the sound source.
 The sound source should be raised as much as is feasible in order to secure a free flow of direct sound to
every listener.

 The floor on which the audience sits should be properly raked as sound is more readily absorbed when it
travels at grazing incidence over the audience. As a general rule, however, the gradient along aisles of
sloped auditoria should not be more than 1:8 in the interests of safety. The audience floor of theatres for
live performance, especially open or arena stages should be stepped.

 The sound source should be closely and abundantly surrounded by large sound-reflective surfaces in order
to increase the sound energy received by the audience. 

 Parallelism between opposite reflective walls, particularly those close to the source, should be avoided in
order to eliminate undesirable back reflection and flutter echo.

 The audience should only be placed in areas which are advantageous to both viewing and listening -
generally the two are in agreement. Excessively wide seating areas should be avoided. In addition, aisles
should preferably be located at the sides of the auditoria where viewing is restricted, not down the centre
where viewing and listening is most favourable.

 In addition to reflectors directing sound towards the audience, additional reflectors are often needed to
reflect sound back at performers to enhance their ability to hear what is happening on stage.

 
5. (b)   Discuss acoustical correction? 

Answer:  

The defects are:

1. Echoes :

These are probably the most serious and most common defect.

SOLUTION: Either alter the geometry of the offending surface or apply absorber or diffusion.

2. Sound concentration:

Sometime referred to as 'hot-spots', these are caused by focused reflections off concave surfaces. The
intensity of the sound at the focus point is unnaturally high and always occurs at the expense of other
listening areas.
 SOULTION: Treat with absorber or diffusers, better still, redesign it to focus the sound outside or above
the enclosure.

3. Sound shadow:

Most noticeable under a balcony, it is basically the situation where a significant portion of the reflected
sound is blocked by a protrusion that itself doesn't contribute to the reflected component. In general, avoid
balconies with a depth exceeding twice their height as they will cause problems for the rear-most seats
beneath them.

SOLUTION: Redesign the protruding surface to provide reflected sound to the affected seats or get rid of
the protrusion.

4. Distortions:

These occur as a result of widely varying absorption coefficients at different frequencies. This applies an
undesirable change in the quality and tone coloration (of frequency distortions) to sound within the
enclosure.

SOLUTION: Balance the absorption coefficients of acoustical finishes over the whole audible range. 

5. Coupled spaces:

When an auditorium is connected to an adjacent space which has a substantially different RT, the two
rooms will form a coupled space. As long as the airflow is unrestricted between the two spaces, the decay
of the most reverberant space will be noticeable within the least reverberant. This will be particularly
disturbing to those closest to the interconnection.

SOLUTION: Add some form of acoustic separation (a screen or a door) or match the RT of both rooms.

6. Room resonance

Room resonance is similar to distortions in that it causes an undesirable tone coloration, however, room
resonance results from particularly emphasized standing waves, usually within smaller rooms. This is a
significant concern when designing control rooms and recording studios.

SOLUTION: Apply subtle changes in overall shape of the room or find out which surfaces are
contributing and use large sound diffusers.

6. Write a short essay on the acoustical design of auditorium?

Answer:  

The important factors which influence the acoustical design of an auditorium are the volume, the shape and
the sound absorption.

The volume of the auditorium should be in proportion to the intensity of the sound that is expected to be
generated in the hall. In deciding the volume of the hall, its height plays a significant role than its length or
breadth. The ratio of the height of ceiling to the width of the hall or room should be 2:3. This is on account
of the fact that a small increase in height increases the volume considerably. The volume required for
 musical concert halls is larger than that required for halls to be used for speech alone. In case, however, the
auditorium is to be used for both musical concerts as well as speech, the volume of the auditorium should
be chosen as to have a value intermediate between the two. The following data may be used as a rough
guide for deciding the volume of an auditorium:

For public lecture halls = 2.8 to 3.7 cu.m. per person

For cinema theatres  = 3.7 to 4.2 cu.m. per person

For concert halls  = 4.2 t 5.6 cu.m. per person

It has been recommended that the volume of an auditorium in cubic meters should not be greater than 5.7
times the number of seats provided in the hall.  

The shape of the auditorium is the governing factor in avoiding the defects like echoes or other types of
reflections of sound waves.  Since the behaviour of sound in a hall is different from that in the open. It is
rather easier to create desirable acoustical conditions in an auditorium rather than in an open air theatre.
Rectangular, horse shoe, circular or oval are the typical possible shapes of the floor plan of an auditorium.

The side walls and ceilings are advantageously used to provide favourable reflections. The walls of the hall
are so shaped and placed as to minimize the possibilities of echoes. Plain walls are normally found suitable.
Convex shaped walls are, however, considered best to reduce echoes to a great extent.

Ceiling plays a significant role in reflecting the sound to the rear areas of the auditorium. A noteworthy
point in the selection and installation of the ceiling is that it should be ensured that the sound waves get
reflected either directly or via the walls to the audience in such a manner that the waves do not concentrate
at certain spots. In general, the ceiling height of the hall should be about ½ to 2/3rd of the width.

Sound absorbing materials are also used to minimize objectionable reflection of sound. However, to ensure
effectiveness of the sound absorbing material, the zones of installations have to be decided very carefully.
The upper surface of side walls should be used for mounting sound absorbing materials. The materials of
high frequency should never be mounted behind pillars, balcony railing or other such projections, whereas
materials of low frequency range may be mounted in such situations with little projections. A variety of
acoustical materials are manufactured these days. While making a selection, due consideration should be
given to their appearance, light reflection, flame resistance, workability, durability and cost.

In addition, the furnishings and the audience contribute to a great extent to the absorption present in the
room. In fact the audience may be largest contributors to the absorption in any auditorium. With a view to
ensure optimum absorption from the audience, the seats in the hall are raked so that the heads in one row do
not intercept the passage of direct sound to the persons in the row immediately behind.

7. Show by sketches the method of insulation of a cavity wall and a wooden joist floor?

Answer:  

Cavity walls essentially consist of a chamber with a narrow opening (entrance) in which absorption takes
place by resonance of the air in the chamber which gives loss of sound energy. Such as arrangement can act
effectively over a single selected frequency.

When they consist of absorbent materials/on flooring, they consist of perforated panels mounted on studs /
joists so as to leave a cavity between panels and wall at the back. The panels may be of metal, wood
(plywood), hard board, plaster board, etc. The area of holes in the panel should vary between 10 to 20% of
the total area of the panel. When the sound strikes the panel, the sound waves pass through the holes and
 get damped by the resonance of the air in the cavity. The effectiveness can be increased by placing a porous
material like mineral wood etc in the cavity.

Sketches: don’t know

8. What do you mean by surround sound and stereophonic sound?

Answer:

Surround sound encompasses a range of techniques for enriching the sound reproduction quality of an
audio source with audio channels reproduced via additional, discrete speakers.

Surround sound technology is used in cinema and home theater systems, video game consoles, personal
computers and other platforms. Commercial surround sound media include videocassettes, Video DVDs,
and HDTV broadcasts encoded as Dolby Pro Logic, Dolby Digital, or DTS. Some AV receivers,
stereophonic systems, and computer soundcards contain integral digital signal processors and/or digital
audio processors to simulate surround sound from a stereophonic source.

Surround sound is created in several ways-

* Using a surround sound recording microphone technique, and/or mixing-in surround sound for playback
on an audio system using speakers encircling the listener to play audio from different directions.

* Processing the audio with psychoacoustic sound localization methods to simulate a two-dimensional (2-
D) sound field with headphones.

* Based on Huygens ‘Principle, attempts reconstructing the recorded sound field wave fronts within the
listening space; an "audio hologram" form.

Stereophonic sound, commonly called stereo, is the reproduction of sound using two or more independent
audio channels through a symmetrical configuration of loudspeakers in such a way as to create the
impression of sound heard from various directions, as in natural hearing. It is often contrasted with
monophonic, or "mono" sound, where audio is in the form of one channel, often centered in the sound field
(analogous to a visual field).

Stereo recordings are used in FM broadcasting and Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and in several
television systems. To record in stereo, sound engineers use various methods, including using two
directional microphones, two parallel omnidirectional microphones, or more complex techniques.

9. Write short notes on :

a. Air borne sound.

b. Reflection, transmission and absorption of sound.

c. Resonant absorbents.

d. Sound mitigation.

e. Sound baffle.

f. Speech intelligibility.

g. Noise reduction coefficient.

 h. Sound power and sound pressure.

Answer:

a) Air Borne Sound

The sound waves are pressure variations in the air and travel in every direction, spreading out as an
expanding sphere. Sound energy cannot travel in a vacuum.

All sound waves in air travel with a speed dependent on the temperature; under ordinary conditions, this is
about 330 m/1,080 ft per second. The pitch of the sound depends on the number of vibrations imposed on
the air per second (frequency), but the speed is unaffected. The loudness of a sound is dependent primarily
on the amplitude of the vibration of the air.

b) Reflection Transmission and Absorption of sound

Sound travels as a longitudinal wave; that is, its compressions and rarefactions are in the direction of
propagation. Like other waves – light waves and water waves – sound can be reflected, diffracted, and
refracted. Reflection of a sound wave is heard as an echo.

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression
waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal and transverse waves.
Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure,
causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of
alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.

Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by
the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of
longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic
energy of the oscillations of the medium.

When sound is refracted, sound is bent when it passes into a denser or less dense material because sound
travels faster in denser materials, such as solids and liquids. The lowest note audible to a human being has a
frequency of about 20 hertz (vibrations per second), and the highest one of about 20,000 hertz 

c) Resonant absorbents

In this system, the absorbent material is fixed on sound framing (usually timber) with an air space left out
between the framing and the wall at the back. Such an arrangement works most efficient for absorbing
sound waves at low frequency. The principle of sound absorption in this method is that sound waves of the
appropriate frequency cause sympathetic vibration in the panel which acts as a diaphragm. The absorption
of sound takes place by virtue of the dampening of the sympathetic vibration in the panel by means of the
air space behind the panel. Dampening effect of this system can be improved appreciably by placing a
porous material in the space.

d) Sound mitigation

Sound mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution. The main areas of noise mitigation or
abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, and occupational noise control. Roadway
noise and aircraft noise are the most pervasive sources of environmental noise worldwide.
 Multiple techniques have been developed to address interior sound levels. These techniques include design
of exterior walls, party walls and floor/ceiling assemblies; moreover, there are a host of specialized means
for dampening reverberation from special purpose rooms such as auditoria, concert halls, dining areas and
meeting rooms. Many of these techniques rely upon materials science applications of constructing sound
baffles or using sound absorbing liners for interior spaces. Industrial noise control is really a subset of
interior architectural control of noise, with emphasises upon specific methods of sound isolation from
industrial machinery and for protection of workers at their task stations. 
 

e) Sound Baffle 

A sound baffle is a construction or device which reduces the strength (level) of airborne sound. Sound
baffles are a fundamental tool of noise mitigation, the practice of minimizing noise pollution
or reverberation. An important type of sound baffle is the noise barrier constructed along highways to
reduce sound levels at properties in the vicinity. Sound baffles are also applied to walls and ceilings in
building interiors to absorb sound energy and thus lessen reverberation. 

f) Speech intelligibility 

The intelligibility of speech refers to the accuracy with which a normal listener can understand a spoken
word or phrase. Given the fact that some of the information communicated through speech is contained
within contextual, visual and gestural cues, it is still possible to understand meaning even if only a fraction
of the discrete speech units are heard correctly.

However, in large auditoria and places where reproduced speech is used, the listener has limited access to
these cues and must rely more heavily upon the sound actually produced by the mouth. 
 

g) Noise Reduction Coefficient  

The Noise Reduction Coefficient (commonly abbreviated NRC) is a scalar representation of the amount

of sound energy absorbed upon striking a particular surface. An NRC of 0 indicates perfect reflection; an
NRC of 1 indicates perfect absorption. 

hi) Sound power 

Sound power or acoustic power Pac is a measure of sonic energy E per time t unit. It is measured in watts,

or sound intensity I times area A:

The measure of a ratio of two sound powers is

where
 P1, P0 are the sound powers.

Hii) Sound pressure 

Sound pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average, or equilibrium) pressure
caused by a sound wave. Sound pressure can be measured using a microphone in air and
a hydrophone in water. The SI unit for sound pressure is the pascal (symbol: Pa). 

The sound pressure deviation (instantaneous acoustic pressure) p is

where
F = force,
A = area.

Vivek Chithambaram

B.Arch 3RD Year, SSAA

Roll No.2