tropical

coasts
Vol. 16 No. 2 ISSN 0117-9756 December 2010 23 - 27 November 2009

Good Practices in
Water Management and
Climate Change

• Saving the Global Commons, Charting Our Future

• Steering the Course towards Safer Shipping and

Cleaner Seas

• The Nexus of Water, Energy, Food and

Environment: Creating a Ripple Effect

• Weaving through the Pollution Conundrum:

Getting it Right
 Editorial

The quest for blue gold

Three centuries ago, Samuel Taylor Coleridge published The Rime of sustainable development in Monsoon Asia, fisheries production, and
the Ancient Mariner (1798). The line, “Water, water, everywhere, nor any shipping. The article further examines available options to address climate
drop to drink” from the poem captures the predicament that the world change in the East Asian context, through: mitigation measures to further
finds itself, particularly with respect to issues such as water supply and reduce emissions and rehabilitate ecosystems; adaptation measures,
management, water pollution and the impacts of climate change/ including scaling up the application of integrated coastal management
variation such as flooding and droughts. (ICM) as a process for systematically reducing risk and increasing
resiliency in the face of related hazardous events; and geoengineering or
The most indispensable commodity for human survival — water — is climate engineering measures aimed at reversing negative environmental
rapidly being recognized as a scarce resource around the world. For trends associated with global warming. In sum, the article concludes
example, in the Asia and Pacific region where more than 60 percent of that longer-term mitigation efforts and adaptation responses to climate
the world’s population live, only about 36 percent of the world’s water variability need to be coupled with shorter-term disaster risk reduction
resource is available (Asia Society’s Leadership Group on Water Security, responses to extreme events in order to ensure a comprehensive risk
2009). Limited access to water is predicted to be a source of increasing management approach, as well as to guarantee food and water security,
tensions in different regions, providing various environmental and biodiversity and ecosystem integrity, and community resiliency.
socioeconomic challenges to the respective governments at the national
and local levels. The implications of water shortages or limited access to The Nexus of Water, Energy, Food and Environment: Creating a
available water have earned water the ominous label of “blue gold”. Ripple Effect (page 46) delves into the issue of improvements in water
resource management. The article emphasizes the point that current
This issue of Tropical Coasts expounds on the challenges and good management practices tend to be fragmented, compartmentalizing each
practices in water supply and management. It features the discussions activity and water use. Water for drinking, irrigation, energy, industrial use,
held during the International Conference on Sustainable Coastal and sanitation, waste management, navigation, and protecting ecosystems
Ocean Development that were held during the East Asian Seas Congress have been treated separately, with distinct management, political and
in Manila, Philippines, on 23-27 November 2009. The third triennial EAS economic structures. Case studies on integrated coastal and river basin
Congress, hosted by the Government of the Philippines and co-organized management (ICARM) are presented to highlight experiences and
by the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources, good practices in different regions of the world. In addition, the article
attracted 1,480 participants, 100 exhibitors, 51 co-conveners and describes the state of innovative strategies and technologies that are
supporting organizations, and 12 sponsors. being demonstrated to harness the ocean energy and alternative water-
based energy systems for small-scale applications, as part of sustainable
Good practices covering three water-related issues were explored during development policies and programs in various countries.
the course of the International Conference, namely: (a) prevention
of marine pollution from sea-based activities; (b) water use and Weaving through the Pollution Conundrum: Getting it Right (page
management for food supply, energy production and ecosystem services; 78), focuses on best practices from the Northwest Pacific, East Asia,
and (c) innovative approaches and practices in freshwater/marine water Europe and North America. Lessons learned in the Danube River,
management, including pollution reduction. Amur and Tumen Rivers, Selangor and Klang River systems, Chesapeake
Bay, Singapore River and Pasig River provide invaluable case studies
The article entitled, Steering the Course towards Safer Shipping of pollution management through strategic partnerships, including
and Cleaner Seas (page 4), highlights international efforts in oil spill the applications of strategic integrated planning, regulatory/policy/
preparedness and response, marine biosafety and environment-friendly institutional framework, innovative approaches and technologies,
port development and management. Sources and causes of hazards and financing mechanisms for water supply, sanitation and pollution
associated with maritime activities, as well as case studies and best reduction. In addition, the importance of public-private partnerships in
practices that can be replicated and scaled up, are detailed. While a addressing pollution and other issues is emphasized. The situation of
combination of efforts by international organizations, governments, Manila Bay is presented, where the business sector has confirmed its
the private sector, scientific community and other stakeholders are commitments, set specific targets, and taken an active role in initiating
gaining ground, countries are being encouraged to ratify relevant programs to support the rehabilitation of the Bay and surrounding
international conventions, including MARPOL, OPRC, CLC, IOPC Funds, watershed areas.
the Ballast Water Convention, Anti-Fouling System Convention, etc., and
to adopt corresponding national laws and regulations that will allow for From the discussions, conclusions and recommendations among the
their implementation. NOWPAP and PEMSEA are identified as working various workshops during the EAS Congress 2009, a general agreement
examples of regional mechanisms that can be replicated in other regions was that water supply and management issues transcend administrative
where advocacy, technical cooperation and promotion of regional oil spill boundaries, necessitating the need for an integrated river basin and
preparedness, response and cooperation need to be enhanced. coastal area management approach, founded on concerted action
involving various stakeholders, from government leaders at the
Insights into climate change impacts and responses, as well as disaster national and local levels, to the business sector, to industry, and to local
management systems at the international, national and local levels, communities. Water supply and management is no longer considered
are featured in Saving the Global Commons, Charting Our Future to be a sectoral concern, but an essential component of sustainable
(page 25). The effects of climate change are discussed as they relate to development.
Contents Steering the
04 Course Towards
Safer Shipping and
Cleaner Seas

Continuing the
Innovation of Youth
Involvement
60

46
The Nexus of Water,
Energy, Food and
Environment: Creating a
Ripple Effect

Weaving through the

78 Pollution Conundrum:
Getting it Right

25 Saving the Global

Commons, Charting our 112 Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR)
Future Forum for Manila
Bay Rehabilitation:

116

tropical coasts
Finding Opportunities

Vol.16 No. 2 December 2010

Innovative Technologies
and Good Practices for Public-Private
at the SEAnergies Partnerships in the
Exhibition Manila Bay Area

Raphael P.M. Lotilla Vanessa Bautista Ki Dai Kim Vicente Tuddao

Executive Editor John Eric Dylan Saet Bjorn Kjerfve Won-Tae Shin
Research Chul-Hwan Koh Alexander Tkalin
S. Adrian Ross Gunnar Kullenberg Cherdsak Virapat
Editor Contributors Magda Lovei Kazumi Wakita
Carlos L. Agustin Jose Matheickal Rudolf Wu
Anna Rita Cano Danilo Bonga Hector E. Miole Zhou Qiulin
Assistant Editor Patricia Charlebois Cristine Ingrid Narcise
Choi Sang-Ki David Nemazie Editorial by
Jonel Dulay Edward Clarence-Smith Daisy Padayao Anna Rita Cano.
Ray Nonnato Leyesa Maria Corazon Ebarvia Rainier Requinala
w w w. p e m s e a . o r g

Design/Illustration/DTP Diane Factuar Alex S. W. Retraubun The next issue will cover the
Thematic Workshops on Ocean
Fredrik Haag S. Adrian Ross and Coastal Governance; Habitat
Rosemarie B. Razon Shigeko Haruyama Raul C. Sabularse Protection, Restoration and
Cover photo Anatoly Kachur Richard Sykes Management; and Food Security
and Livelihood Management.

The Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Global The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or
Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations policies of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations
Office for Project Services (UNOPS) publish Tropical Coasts Magazine biannually. This issue Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Office for Project
of Tropical Coasts is co-financed by the United Nations Environment Programme - Global Services (UNOPS), Partnerships in Environmental Management for the
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), UNEP/GPA, SENSA and other participating
(UNEP/GPA) and the Swedish International Environmental Secretariat for Asia (SENSA). organizations, or the editors, nor are they an official record. The designation
The publication is geared towards stimulating an exchange of information and sharing of employed and the presentation do not imply the expression of opinion
experiences and ideas with respect to environmental protection and the management of whatsoever on the part of GEF, UNDP, UNOPS, and PEMSEA concerning the
coastal and marine areas. Readers are strongly encouraged to send their contributions to: legal status of any country, territory or city or its authority, or concerning the
delimitation of its territory or boundaries.
Executive Editor
P.O. Box 2502, ISSN 0117-9756
Quezon City 1165,
Metro Manila, Philippines
4 December 2010

By Ms. Patricia Charlebois, Head, Pollution Response Section, Sub-division for Pollution Response and TC Coordination, Marine
Environment Division, International Maritime Organization (IMO);
Mr. Richard Sykes, Executive Secretary, International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association;
Dr. Jose Matheickal, Chief Technical Adviser, Globallast Partnership Programme, IMO;
Mr. Fredrik Haag, Technical Adviser, Globallast Partnerships, IMO;
Commo. Carlos L. Agustin, President, National Defense College of the Philippines and Maritime League – Philippines;
Mr. Hector E. Miole, Port District Manager - Southern Luzon, Philippine Ports Authority
Dr. Shigeko Haruyama, International Geographical Union (IGU);
Dr. Cherdsak Virapat, Executive Director, International Ocean Institute (IOI);
Ms. Diane Factuar, Training Specialist, PEMSEA;
Ms. Kazumi Wakita, Programme Officer - Partnership Programs, PEMSEA; and
Ms. Maria Corazon Ebarvia, Consultant, PEMSEA

STEERING COURSE
THE
SAFER SHIPPING
TOWARDS

AND
CLEANER SEAS
Ships that pass in the night, and speak each other in passing, only
ensuing discussions resulted in various
a signal shown, and a distant voice in the darkness; So on the
recommendations, aimed at further
ocean of life, we pass and speak one another, only a look and a strengthening global, regional, national
voice, then darkness again and a silence. and local actions towards safer shipping
- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and cleaner seas.

Oil and water don’t mix!

Sending out an S.O.S. based, ships also pollute waterways
and oceans in many ways (Figure 1). When it comes to mixing oil and water,
Eutrophication and dead zones, For example, oil spills – from either oceans suffer from far more than an
marine debris and oil spills, toxic and operational or accidental causes – can occasional devastating oil spill. Disasters
radioactive wastes, invasive species have devastating effects. Offshore oil make headlines, but hundreds of
and anti-biofouling, degraded habitats production can produce oil pollution — millions of liters of oil quietly end up
and extinction of endangered marine from spills, accidents and operational in the seas every year, mostly from
species, increasing temperatures and discharges. The recent catastrophe in non-accidental and operational sources,
acidity... the list goes on. Some of these the Gulf of Mexico gives ample evidence both land-based and sea-based.
issues have been around for awhile, of the devastation that can occur as a Operationally, every year, bilge cleaning
others are now just emerging. But consequence of sea-based accidents. and other ship and port operations
the implications of these hazards and result in the release of millions of liters
their associated risks to sustainable The East Asian Seas Congress 2009 of oil into coastal waters. While only
development of the region’s seas and tackled these and other issues during a small percentage of oil pollution in
coasts are becoming more apparent. the series of workshops and seminars oceans is due to major tanker accidents,
of the International Conference one large spill can disrupt sea and shore
While the majority of pollutant loadings on Sustainable Coastal and Ocean life for hundreds of kilometers, affecting
to the marine environment are land Development. The presentations and livelihoods, human health
 Tropical Coasts 5

Figure 1: Types of Ship Wastes. covered pollution by oil, chemicals,

harmful substances in packaged form,
sewage and garbage. The Protocol of
1978 relating to the 1973 International
Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (1978 MARPOL
Protocol) was adopted at a Conference
on Tanker Safety and Pollution
Prevention in February 1978 held in
response to a spate of tanker accidents
in 1976-1977.

The operational and construction

regulations introduced by MARPOL,
which entered into force in 1983, have
been a success, with statistics from
reputable industry and independent
bodies showing that these regulations,
along with other safety-related
regulations, such as the introduction of
Source: Uwe Breitling. Sustainable Port Development in the ASEAN Region.
mandatory traffic separation schemes
and international standards for seafarer
Table 1. Costs of Oil Spills.
training, have been instrumental in the
Incident Year Oil Spilt Total Cost Cost US$/ continuous decline of accidental oil
(tons) (US$) tonne
pollution that has taken place over the
Hebei Spirit (Korea) 2007 112,000 650,000,000(?) 55,000 last 30 years (IMO, 2009).
Prestige (Spain) 2002 63,000 1,443,000,000 22,904

Erika (France) 1999 19,800 247,500,000 12,500 In spite of best efforts, and the
Sea Empress (UK) 1996 73,000 55,200,000 756 technical, operational and preventive
Braer (UK) 1993 84,000 78,000,000 928 measures set in place, some spills
Exxon Valdez (USA) 1989 37,000 1,950,000,000 52,702
continue to occur. When this happens,
it is necessary to ensure that effective
Amoco Cadiz (France) 1978 223,000 225,000,000 1,009
and coordinated response mechanisms
Source: ITOPF are in place and an adequate liability
and compensation regime is available
and ecosystems. However, major oil sea turtles and birds, incapacitating and to compensate those affected. Effective
spills from ships and oil tankers create eventually killing them. and efficient spill response starts with
images of oiled birds and marine preparation, long before any incident.
mammals, damaged mangroves and Treaties treat pollution problems IMO’s International Convention on
beaches, affected fisherfolk — and huge Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response
environmental and economic impacts. The International Convention for the and Co-operation (OPRC Convention)
Prevention of Pollution from Ships was adopted in 1990 to minimize
Table 1 shows some of the large oil (MARPOL) is the main international the environmental and economic
spill incidents and the corresponding convention covering prevention of consequences of major oil pollution
cost of damages. Aside from being pollution of the marine environment incidents. Bilateral and multilateral
toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic by ships from operational or cooperation and promotion of regional
hydrocarbons (PAHs) found in crude accidental causes. It is a combination arrangements to prepare for and
oil are very difficult to clean up, and of two treaties adopted in 1973 and combat oil pollution incidents were
can last for many years in the sediment 1978, respectively, and updated by emphasized in the articles of the
and marine environment. Mangroves, amendments through the years. The Convention.
seagrass beds and coral reefs are MARPOL Convention was adopted on
sensitive to oil. In addition, the thick oil 2 November 1973 at the International In 2000, the Protocol on Preparedness,
sticks to the bodies of marine mammals, Maritime Organization (IMO) and Response and Co-operation to
6 December 2010

Pollution Incidents by Hazardous remains to be an important instrument The IPIECA Oil Spill Working Group
and Noxious Substances (OPRC- for strengthening government and (OSWG), established in 1987, serves
HNS Protocol 2000) was adopted in industry partnerships. Major oil as a key international oil industry
recognition of the increasing threat spill incidents provide evidence forum, which aims to improve the
of pollution incidents involving that response resources are more state of oil spill contingency planning
chemicals, and it entered into force on effectively used and deployed when and response around the world.
14 June 2007. Twenty-five countries these are operationally integrated. IPIECA operates globally and seeks
have ratified the HNS Protocol 2000. to achieve its vision through the
The Global Initiative (GI) is one following strategies: (a) developing,
Parties to the OPRC Convention example of a joint programme sharing and promoting sound
are required to establish a national between industry and government practices and solutions; (b) enhancing
system for responding to incidents of at the global level. In 1996, the knowledge management and
oil and HNS pollution. The national Global Initiative — a joint programme information exchange; (c) engaging
system should include: (a) a national between the International members and others in the industry
contingency plan; (b) designated Petroleum Industry Environmental and working in partnership with key
national authorities; and (c) an Conservation Association (IPIECA) stakeholders; (d) supporting joint
identified national operation focal and the International Maritime industry-government cooperation at
point (or focal points). Contracting Organization (IMO) — was formally all levels; (e) encouraging ratification
parties are also mandated to launched in South Africa. The Global of relevant international conventions;
enhance pollution preparedness and Initiative was organized on a regional and (f ) promoting the principle of ‘Net
response capacity, either individually basis with focal points established Environmental Benefit Analysis’ and the
or through bilateral/multilateral for West and Central Africa, the tiered response concept when
cooperation, through: (a) setting Mediterranean, Caspian and Black
up of pre-positioned equipment; Sea, and the Caribbean.
(b) implementation of a program of The programme
exercises and training of personnel; aims to improve and
(c) development and implementation sustain the capacity of
of plans and communication developing countries
capabilities; and (d) establishment to protect their marine
of a mechanism for coordinating the and coastal resources
response. Rules and provisions for at risk from an oil spill
international assistance are also dealt incident. Specifically,
with, emphasizing agreements among it encourages
countries to provide international and facilitates the
assistance to other State parties, and; development and
responsibility of requesting Parties to implementation of oil
facilitate the receipt of such assistance pollution response
in-country and to reimburse the costs capacity and support
incurred by the assisting Party. activities to assist
countries in ratifying
Advancing Cooperation between and implementing
Industry and Government the provisions of
related international
The ‘working together’ approach has conventions. A number
been the basic principle in promoting of brochures/profiles
cooperation involving government, have been produced
industry and other stakeholders, over the years to provide
thus increasing capacities for oil spill an introduction to the
preparedness and response. The IMO/IPIECA Global
OPRC Convention 1990 provided the Initiative partnership
effective framework for the significant and the various regional
advances in oil spill preparedness GI groups that promote
and response around the world and its aims. Oil tanker Hebei Spirit Photo: Whittington/ITOPF
 Tropical Coasts 7

Figure 2. Response Integration.

harness cooperation and maximize

the effectiveness of oil spill response
services worldwide.

Based on studies (IMO, 2009), it was

evident that the frequency of major
spills has declined due to prevention
efforts by government and industry
(Figure 3). However, the costs of oil
spills have increased — not only in
terms of the response and cleanup
costs, but also in terms of the economic
losses and damages to ecosystems,
which are already vulnerable due to
other human activities and climate
change (Table 1).
The figure above presents response integration based on a tiered preparedness and response concept.
It shows the entry points for industry and government integration and highlights the need for
consistency of plans, both horizontally (industry and government) and vertically (regional and local Reinforcing Regional/
level). Sub-regional Arrangements in Oil
Spill Preparedness and Response
Figure 3. Declining Frequency of Spills.

Underscoring the need for

cooperation, the OPRC Convention and
OPRC-HNS Protocol specifically call for
State parties to endeavour to adopt
bilateral or multilateral agreements
for oil pollution preparedness and
response. The establishment of
regional oil spill centers was cited as
an effective tool for strengthening and
backstopping national and regional
capabilities. Such centers also facilitate
cooperation and mutual assistance,
promote information exchange,
and serve as coordinating centers
Source: IOPCF, 2008 for the mobilization of regional and
international resources and for regional
designing response strategies (IPIECA, For the past eight years, Oil Spill capacity-building activities.
2009). One of the popular works of Response has implemented a pro-
IPIECA is the publication of technical active advocacy program, assisting The Marine Environmental Emergency
reports — the IPIECA Oil Spill Report relevant government agencies in Preparedness and Response Regional
Series, which provides a practical and building oil spill response capacities. Activity Centre (MERRAC) is one of
accessible overview of issues relevant Oil Spill Response operates on a four Regional Activities Centers of
to the preparation for and response to tiered preparedness and response the Northwest Pacific Action Plan
oil spills at sea. concept, which is considered as the (NOWPAP). MERRAC was established in
most efficient and effective way 2000 for the development of effective
At the regional level, Oil Spill to sustainably meet operational measures for regional cooperation
Response Limited, an oil industry tier challenges for oil spill response in marine pollution prevention and
3 response organization with a global (Figure 2). Oil Spill Response is part response in the NOWPAP Region.
scope, operates a regional base in of the Global Response Network, MERRAC was originally designated
Singapore for the Asia-Pacific region, a collaboration of seven major oil to deal with oil spill preparedness
and has been an active partner of industry-funded spill response and response. However, the scope
government entities in the region. organizations whose mission is to of MERRAC activities was expanded
8 December 2010

in 2005 to include HNS spills, marine can be used for external assistance, of oil spill preparedness and response
litter, ballast water, MARPOL, and national performance standards on from regional, national to provincial
Compensation and Liability (CLC, Fund, the application of non-mechanical levels; and (d) partnership with the
Bunker and HNS conventions). methods for managing oil spills and industry increases oil spill response
information relating to compensation capability within the region.
The NOWPAP Regional Oil Spill and liability. MERRAC also recognized
Contingency Plan was adopted in 2003, the need to further enhance its Enhancing National and Local
providing technical and operational capability for marine pollution Capacities in Oil Spill Contingency
guidelines for regional cooperation prevention, preparedness and Planning
in case of an oil spill incident in the response.
NOWPAP Region. The Plan provides Petroleum exploration and production
a framework under which NOWPAP Another sub-regional agreement, the activities are increasing in the region.
Members (China, Japan, RO Korea Joint Statement on Partnerships in Vietnam, in particular, ranks third in
and Russia) can cooperate at the Oil Spill Preparedness and Response terms of crude oil production after
operational level in responding to oil in the Gulf of Thailand (GOT), which Indonesia and Malaysia in Southeast
spill incidents. It is also referred to as was signed by the countries of Asia. The estimated oil production
an operational mechanism for mutual Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam in in Vietnam in 2009 was 23.8 million
assistance. HNS has been recently January 2006, provided an example of tonnes. This has made the country
added to the existing Plan and a intergovernmental cooperation that is vulnerable to oil spill incidents. In view
corresponding Resolution (guidelines) not covered by a regional convention. of this, a national plan to cope with oil
was adopted in 2008. With this The joint statement and framework spill incidents was approved by the
arrangement, the four member states programme provides a common Prime Minister in 2001. Specifically, the
are in a better state of preparedness to cooperative platform for enhancing plan established three regional centers
respond to oil and HNS spills, as each capacities and implementing an in the country for Oil Spill Response
of them may request assistance from effective response system for oil (Northern, Central, Southern), and
other NOWPAP members in cases of spills in the respective countries. It classified oil spill response into three
major oil and HNS spill incidents. also promotes mutual assistance levels: Grassroots or local level, regional
and international cooperation in level and national level. Vietnam
Some of the major oil spill incidents oil spill-related programmes and implemented a comprehensive
in the NOWPAP region were the Sea activities, particularly in training, capacity development
Prince incident in 1995, the Nakhodka research and exchange of
incident in 1997 and the Hebei Spirit information, among others.
incident in 2007. These incidents The GOT cooperation
resulted in damages to the marine resulted in increased oil
environment and huge economic spill preparedness and
losses, necessitating the need to response capability of the
strengthen regional cooperation. participating countries and a
better understanding of the
The Regional Oil Spill Contingency system of response in each
Plan was tested during the Hebei country. Some of the lessons
Spirit incident, and the importance learned from the sub-
of regional cooperation was thereby regional cooperation are: (a)
recognized. Lessons from this incident integration of government
highlighted the necessity of regularly and non-government
conducting communication and table- stakeholders into the overall
top exercises and organizing joint system of preparedness and
operational exercises with neighboring response is imperative; (b)
countries at least every two years. the need to recognize the
The importance of improving the role of local governments
regional contingency plan and in increasing the level of
making it a living document was also national preparedness and
Photo: Oil Spill Response
stressed, particularly on the need to response; (c) the need to
share information on equipment that strengthen interconnectivity
 Tropical Coasts 9

scale and involved cleanup contractors,

local people, the Korean military and
thousands of volunteers.

The Hebei Spirit incident challenged

both the national system for oil
spill preparedness and response
in RO Korea and the effectiveness
of the NOWPAP Regional Oil Spill
Contingency Plan. Some of the issues
identified during the incident included
the following: (a) failure of initial
emergency actions; (b) lack of policies
and guidelines for the selection of
response technologies; (c) command
and control was not unified; (d) lack
of a plan for the management of huge
deaths (Li). To establish and numbers of volunteers; (e) lack of
improve their marine disaster understanding of the international
warning system and emergency compensation and liability regime; and
management, the Chinese (f ) poor mass media relations.
government emphasized the
importance of: (a) setting up To address the problems faced during
the strategic concept of natural the incident, the Korean government
disaster reduction through carried out a series of comprehensive
science and technology; (b) post-spill follow-up measures,
reinforcing marine disasters including the revision of the national
Photos: Whittington/ITOPF

monitoring; (c) strengthening response function and capability,

marine hazard forecasting and through the establishment of three
warning; (d) strengthening national strike teams under the Korean
the studies on science and Coast Guard, an overhaul of oil spill
technology; (e) enhancing training programs and the construction
Part of the response for the shoreline contamination from the Hebei Spirit investigation, evaluation and of a specialized oil spill training
oil spill incident included rock and pebble wiping. analysis of marine disasters; and facility amounting to US$ 15 million
(f ) developing disaster-reduction for practical training, in conformance
program for oil spill preparedness technologies and equipment. to the requirements of the OPRC
and response, including: (a) setting Convention and OPRC-HNS Protocol.
up a comprehensive legal framework; When Disaster Strikes: Oil Spill In addition, a restoration program for
(b) building oil spill response teams; Response affected areas, based on outcomes of
(c) investment in vessels, oil spill post-oil spill research (i.e., oil pollution;
response bases and equipment; and In December 2007, the fully laden ecology monitoring; and ecology
(d) setting up a mechanism for oil spill tanker Hebei Spirit was involved in restoration), is being implemented,
compensation. In addition, Vietnam a collision off the coast of Taean, which covers the shorelines and
has initiated the development of oil Republic of Korea. The incident island areas of 12 cities in 2 provinces,
spill contingency plans in the coastal resulted in the largest oil spill in Korean covering a total area of 6,473 km2.
provinces of southern Vietnam. history, during which approximately
10,800 tonnes of crude oil In the Philippines, the oil tanker
In PR China in 2008, there were about contaminated significant proportions M/T Solar I, carrying more than two
134 cases of marine disasters due to of the country’s western coastline and million liters of bunker fuel, sank
storms, ocean waves, sea ice, red tide caused wide-scale economic losses, on 11 August 2006 in the Guimaras
and other causes, and these disasters particularly affecting the fisheries Strait, off the coast of the Guimaras
resulted in direct economic losses of and aquaculture industry. The oil spill and Negros Occidental provinces.
about 20.6 billion Yuan and led to 152 response was undertaken on a huge The sinking resulted in some 500,000
10 December 2010

Figure 4: Three Tiers of Compensation.

L of oil discharging into the strait,

affecting mangroves, beaches and the
fishing industry. The Solar 1 incident
presented various concerns relating
to the Philippine government’s
system for oil spill preparedness and
response, specifically those relating
to organizational arrangements,
appropriateness of the National Oil
Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCP),
preparedness of local governments
to handle oil spill incidents, and the
response capability of the Philippine
Coast Guard (PCG).

Post-spill measures were carried out

by the PCG, using their experience
with the SOLAR 1 incident, involving:
(a) revision of the NOSCP; (b)
establishment of additional oil spill
response centers; (c) empowerment The three levels of compensation established by the international conventions: the owner of the
of local governments; (d) upgrading tanker that causes the spill is legally liable for the payment of compensation under the first level; oil
receivers in Fund Member States contribute to the second and third level once the tanker owner’s
of oil spill response capability of the applicable limit of liability has been exceeded.
PCG; and (e) formulation/revision
Source: IPIECA, 2005. Action Against Oil Pollution.
of pertinent pollution prevention
regulations. was effective in removing spilled oil, by ship, through which the shipping
although the coagulant is not yet industry (in conjunction with oil
On the part of the scientific available commercially (Hotta). importers) provides automatic cover
community, an experimental research of up to US$ 1 billion for any single
on the development of inorganic Payback time: Compensation and incident, regardless of fault. There
coagulant for the removal of oil from claims recovery are two international conventions,
the surface of rocks, wood and sand which made compensation available
was conducted in Guimaras, following The oil and shipping companies believe to those who incurred clean up costs
the Solar 1 oil spill incident. The that those who have to conduct or suffered pollution damage as a
experiment examined the removal clean up operations or suffer damage result of a spill of persistent oil from
effects of inorganic coagulant on as a result of an oil spill need to be a tanker. These are the 1969 Civil
attached oil and the effects of bio- assured that they will receive prompt Liability Convention and the 1971
stimulation method in combination and adequate compensation. There Fund Convention, which are funded
with the coagulant. The cleanup is a complex interlocking scheme of by the shipping and oil industries,
effects of biostimulation on heavy oil liability insurance (obtained by ship respectively. Following the Prestige
after solidification showed that Total owners through mutual insurers called incident, a Protocol was adopted at
Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) were Protection and Indemnity Clubs) and the IMO creating the International Oil
decomposed up to 80 percent during levies (financed by oil companies) Pollution Compensation Supplementary
the first three weeks, demonstrating administered through various national Fund or ‘Supplementary Fund’ in May
that solidified heavy oil decomposes and intergovernmental regimes 2003. As with the 1992 Fund, the
as much as ordinary heavy oil. and administrations. Insurance by Supplementary Fund is financed by the
Solidification reduces the initial TPH ship owners against oil pollution is oil industry. Figure 4 shows the three
level by more than half. Therefore, the compulsory (IPIECA, 2005). levels of compensation established by
TPH level in solidified heavy oil goes the international conventions. Table
below 1,000 mg/kg a week earlier Over the years, the IMO has put in place 2 shows the types of claims filed, the
than in unsolidified heavy oil, thereby a comprehensive set of regulations claims that were processed and the
shortening the cleanup periods and covering liability and compensation amount of settlement in the cases of
lowering the cost. The coagulant for damage caused by oil transported Solar 1 and Hebei Spirit, under the
 Tropical Coasts 11

international regime for compensation State, both economically and from and 3D bathymetry), enables pre-
for oil pollution damage. the environmental point of view, and identification of places of refuge that
local authorities and populations may greatly enhances the saving of lives at
Rowing towards safety: Places of strongly object to the operation. sea and pollution prevention. Croatia is
refuge the first country to have an integrated
In order to make a decision-making system (Nenad).
In November 2003, the International process as efficient as possible, a GIS-
Maritime Organization (IMO) Assembly based decision support system (DSS) Nobody’s Cargo, Everyone’s
adopted two resolutions (guidelines) has been developed. In Croatia, such Headache
addressing the issue of places of refuge DSS contains all relevant data necessary
for ships in distress – an important step for environmentally- and socially-sound Marine bio-invasions (see Box 1)
in assisting those involved in incidents risk assessment. Multi-criteria analysis, and anti-biofouling agents cause
that may lead to the need for a place of with GIS-generated input data, would adverse environmental impacts on
refuge to make the right decisions at be used to establish worthiness of a marine biodiversity, public health
the right time. The guidelines recognize place of refuge for each ship, taking and certain marine economic sectors,
that, when a ship has suffered an into account the type of accidents. among others, as well as potential
incident, the best way of preventing Matrices of available intervention transboundary and long-term impacts.
damage or pollution from its resources would be made, as well International instruments on ballast
progressive deterioration is to transfer as analysis of their availability with water management and antifouling
its cargo and bunkers, and to repair the respect to response time as well as systems have been ratified by several
ship. Such an operation is best carried quantitative and qualitative sufficiency. IMO-member States, but there is a need
out in a place of refuge. However, to Integrated GIS support, with data about to build capacity, enact compatible
bring such a ship into a place of refuge both coastal and sea characteristics legislation and apply technology in
near a coast may endanger the coastal (including 3D model of the coast order to implement the provisions of
such instruments at national levels.
Table 2. Claims Recovery for Solar 1 and Hebei Spirit Oil Spill Incidents. Box 2 shows the current problems
that need to be addressed to mitigate
Solar 1 (Philippines) – as of October 2009 Hebei Spirit (RO Korea)
the potential damages that can be
• Mariculture damage claims • Fisheries and mariculture
ο 770 mariculture claims (seaweed farms/ ο 1 244 claims for a total of Won 685 billion
brought about by invasive alien species
fishpond operators) assessed at total of (£351 million) (IAS). Effective marine biosecurity
PHP 3.6 million (£45 728) ο 139 assessed at a total of Won 9.1 billion is the science-based protection
ο 200 paid a total of PHP 3.3 million (£41 (£4.7 million); 131 paid at a total of Won 8.4
907) billion (£4.3 million); 43 rejected of native marine biodiversity and
ο 462 claims rejected marine ecosystems that provide
ο 10 offers by Club/Fund; remain pending
environmental, economic, social, and
• Subsistence fisheries claims • Tourism and other economic damages cultural values to society through
ο 27 800 (subsistence) fishery claims ο 5,796 claims for a total of Won 159 billion
assessed at total of PHP 206 million (£2.62 (£81.6 million) effective management and control of
million) ο 626 assessed at a total of Won 6 billion (£ non-native species (Kaur).
ο 26 000 paid a total of PHP 191 million 3.08 million); 441 paid at a total of Won 4.5
(£2.43 million) billion (£ 2.3 million); 906 rejected
ο 598 rejected Dealing with unwanted stowaways
• Property damage: 3.260 claims assessed at • Clean-up and preventive measures
total of PHP 5.3 million (£67 305); 670 paid ο 251 claims for a total of Won 193 billion (£ The IMO’s Ballast Water Management
a total of PHP 4.96 million (£62 988); 2 465 99 million) (BWM) Convention (2004) regulates the
rejected ο 155 assessed at a total of Won 60.6 billion
(£31 million) introduction of invasive species via the
• Clean up & preventive measures: 27 claims ο 117 paid at a total of Won 50.9 billion (£26 ballast water and sediments from ships.
assessed at total of PHP 790 million (£10 million)
million); 14 paid a total of PHP 776 million ο 13 rejected
The objective is to prevent, minimize,
(£9.85 million); 11 rejected and eventually eliminate the risk to the
• Property damage; environmental damage environment, property, resources and
• Tourism: 415 claims assessed at total of PHP and studies; miscellaneous
5.5 million (£69 845); 75 paid a total of PHP 5.4 ο 19 claims for a total of Won 5 billion (£2.6 human health. To date, the convention
million (£68 575); 329 rejected million) has been ratified by 25 countries
ο 7 assessed at a total of Won 350 million
• Miscellaneous: 160 claims assessed at total of (£179 645); 5 paid at a total of Won 300 representing around 24.2 percent of the
PHP 3.7 million (£46 987); 3 paid a total of PHP million (£153981); 1 rejected world tonnage. Relevant articles of the
3.6 million (£45 717); 80 rejected
convention are shown in Box 3.
Source: Oosterveen. International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds.
12 December 2010

Box 1. Invasive Marine Species. The Convention emphasized obligations

of Flag States as follows:
Translocation of marine invasive aquatic species by ships can occur through ballast
water transfer and biofouling of ship hulls, as well as trading of exotic species • Enact domestic laws, including
(marine and estuarine). penalties and sanctions;
• Ensure that all vessels under their
All ships need to carry ballast water to keep them stable in the water. Taking on jurisdiction have a Ballast Water
ballast water and discharging it must be carefully controlled to ensure the safety Management Plan in place, and
of the vessel and the seafarers on board. But there is another challenge – ballast that they carry a Ballast Water
water taken up in one area and released in another is a major source of harmful Management Record of BWM
algae, microscopic planktons, invasive and pathogenic species, and other alien requirements and availability of
and unwanted exotic organisms (Figure 5). Invasive alien species (IAS) can overrun reception facilities;
natural local species and cause extremely severe environmental, economic and • Assign a designated officer on each
public health impacts. vessel for ensuring compliance
with the BWM Plan and for
Several regions, such as the Great Lakes, Caspian Sea and Black Sea, have been reporting to port authorities;
affected by invasive species causing havoc to native aquatic species and its environs • Ensure that the crew members
as well as economic losses to the local fishing industry and coastal tourism. It has are adequately trained in
been estimated that the economic impact of marine invasive species may well implementing the BWM Plan; and
exceed US$ 100 billion per year (McNeely, et al., 2001). • Establish appropriate procedures
for the issuing of the International
The seas of East Asia are one of the main sources of translocated species like the Ballast Water Management
mitten crab, Corbula (Asian clam) and Codium (seaweed). At the same time, this Certificate.
region – a centre of biological diversity (terrestrial and marine) – is also under threat
from bio-invasions due to increased trade and shipping activities. At present, On the other hand, obligations of
marine biosafety is an emerging concern in the region, particularly with respect to Port and Coastal States include the
ballast water management for international shipping. The harmful algal blooms – following:
which could be due to nutrient discharges or to translocation, are also a cause for
concern (Kaur). • Enact domestic laws;
• Establish a compliance monitoring
and enforcement (CME) system,
Figure 5. Cross section of a ship showing ballast tanks and ballast water cycle. including procedures for the
inspection of vessels; and
• Put in place adequate facilities for
sediment reception in ports and
terminals where ballast tanks are
cleaned or repaired.

The BWM Convention provides the

critically needed set of management
tools through which the maritime
industry can be regulated in a manner
that is predictable, transparent
and responsive with regard to
environmental benefits, technological
achievability and international
consistency. The Convention includes
three sets of management measures:
(a) Option 1 – mid-ocean ballast water
exchange; (b) Option 2 – ballast water
treatment using onboard treatment
technologies; and (c) any alternative
Source: GloBallast, International Maritime Organization management options that will provide
 Tropical Coasts 13

Box 2. Main Obstacles to Addressing

Invasive Alien Species (IAS). would need to be equipped with ballast
water treatment technologies to meet
• Inadequate policy and legal frameworks, at national, regional and global these discharge standards. According to
levels. While current trends in development of policies and enactment of the BWM Convention, all international
laws at national and international levels are good, a lot remains to be done vessels would need to be fitted with a
including in relation to further development of strategic frameworks that treatment technology by 2016, the year
incorporate all aspects of IAS as well as mainstreaming at the national level; when the ballast water exchange option
• Limitations in implementation and enforcement of existing policies and will be phased out. Thus, it is essential
laws for reducing IAS. Implementation effectiveness of many international that the current technology hurdles are
agreements varies, and national policies are not always adhered to fully; overcome, and effective management
• Insufficient institutional coordination at national, regional and international solutions have been scale tested and
levels. IAS is a problem with national, regional and global dimensions and installed.
prevention and management need coherent approaches;
• Lack of understanding of the severity of the threat posed by IAS at political The technology developers and
as well as technical levels, which is in part causative of policy and legal shipping industry have been rising
shortcomings; to this challenge and some steady
• Insufficient human, technical, institutional and logistical capacity for progress has been achieved over the
addressing IAS; last few years. It is crystal clear that
• Limited public awareness of IAS, their threats and potential impact; global environmental problems like
• Insufficient financial support to programmes addressing IAS, whether marine bio-invasions will be solved
through policy development, supporting enforcement and building only if the private sector, with its vast
compliance, or building capacity and awareness. technical, managerial and financial
resources and expertise, is actively
Source: Global Invasive Species Programme, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. involved. There are currently over 100
research-and-development (R&D)
projects around the world focusing
on development of cost-effective
Box 3. Highlights of the BWM Convention.
treatment technologies for shipboard
applications, and control of sediments
• Article 5 – Sediment Reception Facilities where cleaning and repair of BW
in ballast tanks. Several of these
tanks occurs, provides for the safe disposal of sediments (should not damage
treatment systems have received
the environment)
IMO approvals and also approvals
• Article 6 – Scientific and Technical Research Parties shall promote, facilitate
by national administrations, and are
and monitor research on BW Management (BWM)
therefore available in the market.
• Article 7 – Survey and Certification – Each party shall survey and certify its
Several ship owners are currently fitting
ships
these treatment systems on board the
• Article 9 – Inspections of Ships – Includes inspection of BW record book,
ships.
validity of Certificate and BW sampling; no undue delay; ships without valid
certificate; detailed inspection and no BW discharge until proven harmless
IMO, together with the Global
• Article 13 – Technical Assistance, Co-operation and Regional Co-operation-
Environment Facility (GEF), United
Train personnel, availability of technology, equipment and facilities, joint
Nations Development Programme
research, implementation of BWMC
(UNDP), member countries and the
• Article 14 – Communication of Information – Each Party shall report to IMO
shipping industry, is implementing
on BWM to ensure vessels flying their flag are in general compliance with the
the project on Building Partnerships
Convention.
to Assist Developing Countries to
Reduce the Transfer of Harmful Aquatic
the same level of protection as given by the constraints related to biological Organisms in Ships’ Ballast Water, simply
Options 1 and 2. effectiveness of such a process. The known as the GloBallast Partnerships
Convention therefore requires that (GBP). The overall goal of the GBP is
It is widely recognized that Option the ships will eventually have to meet to assist the developing countries to
1 – ballast water exchange – is only performance standards, which are reduce the risks and impacts of marine
a temporary management option basically ballast water discharge quality bio-invasions caused by international
due to the safety issues involved and standards. This also means that ships shipping. GloBallast Partnerships focus
14 December 2010

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of Ballast Water Risk Assessment.

structured approach and templates
for rapid status assessments and
serves as a tool in the development
of a national ballast water
management.
• Guidelines for Ballast Water
Economic Assessments (with IUCN)
— It illustrates the economic
benefits of implementing the
BWM Convention and provides
an approach (with templates) to
estimate the costs associated with
ratifying and implementing the
BWM Convention, as well as the
Source: Fredrik Haag/GloBallast
potential cost of dealing with a
on the legal, policy and institutional implement a National Ballast Water marine invasion. It will also serve
reform process at the national level. Management Strategy (NBWMS), as useful tool in the development
The project aims to spur global and to adopt legal, policy and of policies, strategies and
efforts to design and test technology institutional reforms (LPIR). implementation/ratification of the
solutions, and enhance knowledge BWM Convention.
management and marine electronic A series of tools and guidelines have • Guidelines for development of
communications to address the issue. been developed in collaboration with a National BWM Strategy (with
The implementation strategy for GBP partners: IUCN) — The National Ballast Water
uses a multi-component, multi-tiered Management Strategy (NBWMS) is
approach: • Risk Assessment Tool for Ports — an integral part of the national
The GloBallast Risk Assessment regulatory framework, along with
• A global component, managed methodology is supported by a GIS relevant policies, legislation and
through IMO London, providing interface. The database consists institutional arrangements, as well
international coordination and of port environmental data from as more specific work programmes
information dissemination, approximately 400 ports. Figure and action plans.
including the development of 6 shows the ballast water risk • GloBallast Toolkit for Legal Reform
toolkits and guidelines, and assessment methodology. (by the Global Task Team) — It
establishing a strong cooperation • GloBallast Guidelines for National consists of: (a) Guideline document
with industry and NGOs. Ballast Water Status Assessments and road map with an expanded
• A regional component, providing (with IOI) — It provides a legal review as background
regional coordination and
harmonization, information
sharing, training, and capacity
Box 4. Biofouling.
building in the application of
ballast water management tools
Biofouling is the undesirable growth of organisms on man-made structures. Marine
and guidelines. The regional
biofouling occurs on ships, port infrastructure, navigational instruments, oil platforms,
component and activities will be
seawater intake pipes (e.g., heat exchangers; cooling systems; desalination plants),
coordinated with the support
etc. Algae and molluscs attaching to the hulls of ships could slow down the ships and
of Regional Coordinating
increase fuel consumption (e.g., slime alone can cause a 4 percent drop in speed).
Organizations (RCOs).
Thus, anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships to prevent such marine
• A country component, that
organisms from attaching. These paints contain compounds that slowly “leach” into
establishes a fast track (Lead
the sea water, killing barnacles and other marine life that have attached to the ship.
Partner Country or LPC) and
However, studies have shown that these compounds persist in the water, killing marine
partner track (Partner Country
life, harming the environment and possibly entering the food chain. One of the most
or PC) process for GEF-eligible
effective anti-fouling paints developed in the 1960s contains organotins, in particular,
countries in the priority regions.
tributyltin (TBT), which has been proven to cause deformations in oysters and sex
LPCs are the countries who
changes in whelks.
have committed to develop and
 Tropical Coasts 15

document; (b) Model Ballast Water Box 5. Air pollution from ships and ports.
Management Act; and (c) a two-
day training course for maritime
lawyers. With the unprecedented economic growth in the East Asian region, there is increased
shipping and trade activities. The Straits of Malacca and South China Sea are among
The GBP has also established a the busiest shipping lanes in the world (Figure 7). Port and shipping security is critical
pioneering public-private sector to guarantee safety of the ships and their cargo, crew and passengers, as well as ensure
partnership called Global Industry that the coastal and marine habitats and resources are not unduly affected by shipping
Alliance for Marine Biosecurity activities and accidents. Ports therefore need to comply with relevant international
(GIA). The current GIA members safety, health and environmental codes, standards and conventions and improve their
include shipping giants, such as BP safety, health and environmental management systems.
Shipping, Vela Marine International,
Daewoo Ship Building and Marine Toxic emissions from ships and port operations represent a danger to public health and
Engineering Services, and APL. A GIA a long-term threat to the economy. While millions of people in the region live and work
Fund, established through annual in close proximity to port facilities, the direct exposure to harmful levels of shipping and
membership contribution by the GIA port-related emissions is causing increased concern for health impacts. Air pollution
industry partners, will provide the from ships and ports causes a cumulative effect that contributes to the overall air
necessary financial resources for the quality problems encountered by populations in many coastal areas, and also affects
GIA to implement selected projects the natural environment. Figure 8 shows the mortality cases of cardiopulmonary
(Globallast). This innovative public- diseases due to emissions of PM2.5 (particulate matter, 2.5μ) from ports and ships
private sector partnership model is (Corbett, et al., 2007).
expected to assist in creating solutions
for addressing the ballast water issues, Climate change is also a matter of concern in the shipping sector. According to the
including new technologies, along Second IMO Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Study 2009, exhaust gases are the primary source
with training and capacity-building of emissions from ships (IMO, 2009). Carbon dioxide is the most important GHG emitted
activities. by ships, both in terms of quantity and of global warming potential. Although the
GHG emissions by ships and ports are lower compared to other sectors*, the increased
To be or not to be: shipping and world trade activities will not lead to a reduction of GHG emissions by this
Handling the marine biofouling sector, unless technical and operational measures are implemented, and technologies
issue that would allow for fuel and energy efficiency are adopted.

* International shipping was estimated to have emitted 870 million tonnes, or about 2.7 percent of the global
Marine biofouling (Box 4) has direct emissions of CO2 in 2007 (IMO, 2009).
economic cost for shipping as well as
biodiversity and ecological impacts.
Direct economic costs include cost of However, dealing with these economy and engine performance.
anti-fouling application (US$150,000 – unwanted pests may cause more They do not specifically address
US$400,000); cleaning and maintenance harm than good. Anti-fouling paints biosecurity concerns.
costs (hull cleaning, approximately that contain harmful organotins have
US$35,000) – average about 10 adverse effects on marine organisms, The IMO’s International Convention
percent total cost of vessel, and fuel and could enter the food chain, on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling
costs which account for 50 percent of consequently affecting humans as Systems on Ships was adopted in
operational cost of a ship (Teo). In terms well. Therefore, it was recommended October 2001 to prohibit the use of
of biodiversity and ecological impacts, that the focus of marine biofouling harmful organotins in anti-fouling
the real cost is a large annual budget for prevention should be directed at: (a) paints used on ships, and establish a
pest management. For example, cost anti-fouling coatings and treatment mechanism to prevent the potential
of eradication of Mytilopsis sallei from systems; (b) environmental impacts future use of other harmful substances
Darwin Harbour amounted to US$ 1.6 from the use of toxic antifouling in anti-fouling systems (IMO,
million excluding manpower costs, and substances; and (c) management 2009). Under the terms of the new
the management of zebra mussels in practices to reduce fouling on Convention, Parties to the Convention
the Great Lakes costs US$ 100 million ships. Existing marine anti-fouling are required to prohibit and/or restrict
per year. The risks from hull-fouling may coatings were invented to improve the use of harmful anti-fouling systems
exceed the threats from ballast water ship performance, i.e., reduce fouling on ships flying their flag, as well as
(Teo; Drake and Lodge, 2007). so there is less drag and better fuel ships not entitled to fly their flag, but
16 December 2010

which operate under their authority, Technical interventions include (Box 5), solid waste, safety of port
and all ships that enter a port, shipyard promotion of alternatives, such as the operation and storage of goods, safety
or offshore terminal of a Party. use of copper-based anti-fouling paints, of industrial processes, ballast water and
tin-free anti-fouling paints, and non-stick marine biosafety, must be addressed.
Current challenges range from coatings; developing national standards;
information and technology gaps to and identification of manufacturers. The port industry in general has been
capacity gaps: Other initiatives include the conduct faced with sustainability issues —
of scientific research, establishment of compliance with international and
• Shortage of trained personnel national task force and prohibition of sale national regulations vis-à-vis demands
for monitoring programs: being of TBT in the market. for bigger port capacity and increased
able to identify species correctly productivity without compromising
is important for bio-invasion En route to safe and green environmental quality. While each
detection. ports port has developed knowledge on
• Poor knowledge leads to the use of environmental issues and initiated
excessively heavy-handed methods Ports are gateways that link goods measures specific to its setting,
which are invariably detrimental to transported by sea to markets. They cooperation and collaboration on
the environment. provide significant benefits to the environmental protection, reduction of
• National water quality guidelines host port cities as well as contribute greenhouse gas and other emissions,
and standards (in some countries) billions of dollars to the local and and protection of coastal and ocean
do not include the TBT parameter. national economies. Ports are places resources around ports will deliver
• Research and development where various economic activities are significant incremental benefits to the
initiatives in the future may focus performed, either by port authorities, entire region. ‘Green’ initiatives have been
on a combination of methods stevedores or industries located within taken by the ports sector on a voluntary
with synergistic properties that the port jurisdiction. basis and/or as a result of local/national
will deliver good performance at a policies and regulations and international
lower environmental cost. Maritime ports are situated at an conventions (Table 3). A combination
• Alternatives to TBT are not efficient. interface between land and sea. Some of regulatory framework, enforcement,
For example, switching from TBT of them are directly on the shore; some incentives and voluntary proactive
to copper paints has increased are set up on reclaimed land and on the approaches is an effective mechanism
incidence of biofouling and the surrounding seabed; others are located for advancing port sustainability and
frequency of dry docking (Teo). along the banks of estuaries or mouths environmental stewardship.
• R&D on antifouling coatings is of rivers. All of these sites are in one way
conservative as development costs or another connected to rich habitats Always on the safe side: Sustainable
are very high. (e.g., seabed; estuarine waters; mud ports
• The lack of international coating flats; wetlands; mangroves; seagrass
performance standards makes it beds; coral reefs). These habitats are The United States Environmental
difficult for new technologies to at risk from port operations as well Protection Agency (US-EPA) emphasized
enter a marketplace dominated by a as from accidental oil and chemical that the critical element to sustainability
few large players. spills. Numerous problems, such as soil is environmental stewardship —
• New R&D is needed to tackle ship contamination, water and air pollution where all parts of society actively take
fouling:
- Better ship design to reduce
Table 3. Green Initiatives.
fouling in niche areas;
- Better design to facilitate Voluntary Initiatives Local/National International
Regulations Conventions
maintenance activities; and (current and proposed)
- Better coatings and tools that • LNG and ULSD at ports • Fuel switch • IMO: MARPOL
allow regular maintenance. • Hybrid vehicles • Ferries Annex VI
• Electrical port equipment • Shoreside power • North America ECA
• Slower traffic • Parked vessels • GHG post-2012
In China, the anti-fouling system (AFS) • Emergency efficiency at ports • Modal shift
issue is addressed through legal, • Retrofitting ships
• Local tugboats: shoreside power
technical, scientific, and institutional
means. A national legislation adopting
Source: Booth
the AFS Convention is being developed.
 Tropical Coasts 17

Box 6. Port Safety, Health and Climate Change Impacts at US Ports” codes of practice and standards; and
Environmental Management was also developed. cooperation with other organizations
System (PSHEMS) Development and and programs. Activities lined up for
Implementation. A major initiative in the East Asian Seas 2010 include development of model
• Phase 1: Initial Status Review region is the Port Safety, Health and port SHE regulations, conduct of air
• Phase 2: Strategic Planning Environmental Management System emission inventory, conduct of study
• Phase 3: System Development (PSHEMS), which was developed on access control/traffic management
• Phase 4: Implementation and Monitoring by Partnerships in Environmental and implementation of the PSHEMS in
• Phase 5: PSHEMS Auditing Management for the Seas of East Asia collaboration with PEMSEA.
• Phase 6: Continual Improvement (PEMSEA) to provide the ports with
a methodology to improve ports’ Specific activities of ports towards
operational performance through environmental stewardship include
responsibility to improve environmental a comprehensive and coordinated environmental management for existing
quality and achieve sustainable results. approach to safety in port operations, and new facilities, measuring and
Such principle of environmental protection of human life, property reporting on continuous improvement
stewardship has been recognized by the and the environment. Two ports in the in environmental performance,
American Association of Port Authorities region have successfully implemented addressing community concerns, such
(AAPA), including its stakeholders. AAPA the system: Bangkok Port of Thailand as human health, environment and
has gained significant achievements and Port of Tanjung Pelepas of quality of life, and responding to climate
towards this goal. In the same way, the Malaysia. PEMSEA is providing technical change.
International Association of Ports and support to ports implementing the
Harbours (IAPH) has demonstrated its PSHEMS by way of training port Reducing emissions to ensure public
commitment to port sustainability by personnel on the six phases of PSHEMS health and contribute to climate
placing high priority on environmental development (Box 6); reviewing the change mitigation
considerations in managing its business. ports documented safety, health and
The environmental management environmental (SHE) management In October 2008, IMO adopted the
system (EMS) as a tool for improving system; as well as assessing its SHE revised MARPOL Annex VI and the
environmental performance and performance in accordance to the nitrogen oxide (NOx) Technical Code
advancing port sustainability was requirements of the PSHEM Code. This 2008, with an entry-into-force date of
initiated by US-EPA in partnership is the standard developed by PEMSEA 1 July 2010. The main changes are a
with the American Association of Port that enables an organization (port progressive reduction in emissions of
Authorities (AAPA). authority/port operator) to measure sulfur oxide (SOx), NOx and particulate
the performance of its operation with matter (pm), and the introduction of
An EMS Primer for Ports was developed regard to quality, safety and health of emission control areas (ECAs) where
in order to provide a general port workers and the protection of the the emission of NOx as well as SOx
introduction to environmental environment. and particulate matter are further
management systems and help restricted. Similar to measures being
ports develop these systems and The Sustainable Port Development taken to prevent marine pollution
understand how they can also advance in the ASEAN Region, a project of the and oil spills, it is also evident that
port efficiency, security, and other German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) governments and maritime industries
aspects of sustainability through in collaboration with the ASEAN Ports are developing interventions to protect
the use of the Plan-Do-Check-Act Association (APA), is aimed to assist public health (Box 6) in and around
(PDCA) framework. An EMS is a formal selected ports to comply with relevant ports by way of regulations, incentive
system for proactively managing the international SHE codes, standards programmes, award and recognition
environmental footprint of a port. and conventions and improve their schemes, comprehensive plans and
SHE management systems. The project policies, research and cross-interest
To address air quality issues, Current will cover the following components: collaborations.
Methodologies in Preparing Mobile capacity development through
Source Port-related Emission Inventories application of proven tools, systems and Based on a study conducted in Hong
was developed as a result of the study best available practices; development Kong, ships and ports are taking steps
conducted by US-EPA. In response to of modular training program on Port to reduce emissions, including sulphur
increasing focus on climate change, a SHE management; adapting national dioxide (SO2), NOx and PM, from their
technical paper entitled “Planning for legislation to international regulations, operations. Hong Kong and other
18 December 2010

ports in the Pearl River Delta region

have begun to implement initiatives to
reduce their impact on air pollution in
the region.

In a study conducted by Civic Exchange-

Hongkong entitled “Green Harbours:
Hongkong and Shenzen — Reducing
Marine and Port-Related Emissions,”
it was revealed that regulations that
demand cleaner operations are needed
for industries to implement green
practices. Without a clear regulatory
framework, it is difficult to implement
greener practices, as these may put
operators at a competitive disadvantage.
In addition, complementary measures
are needed to ensure compliance
with the regulations. These include: At sea response during the Hebei Spirit oil spill incident Photo: Whittington/ITOPF

availability of incentives to encourage

green practices, cost and availability of areas: • Provide a platform for the maritime
clean fuel, the need to do more research 1. Implementing the “Strategy for port sector for the exchange of
on green technologies, use of shoreside Sustainable Ports”; information thereon; and
(tidal/wave) power, and designating 2. Planning for climate change • Make available information on the
emission control areas. impacts at U.S. ports; effects of climate change on the
3. Documenting and imparting maritime port environment and
In response to the issues raised, information on best practices measures for its mitigation.
recommendations were put forward, for developing port emissions
such as: (1) developing a comprehensive inventories; and In support of this mission, the WPCI
strategy for reducing emissions from 4. Developing emission reduction has developed a website and formed
marine and port-related activities; incentives, and to promote subgroups focusing on “Themes” that
(2) developing clean fuels initiatives environmental management will provide guidance to ports looking to
supported by energy policy offering systems (EMS). monitor and reduce their GHG emissions.
clean fuel incentives and improved These themes currently include:
distribution networks for clean fuel; (3) The World Ports Climate Initiative
implementing training programmes for (WPCI), initiated by the International • Carbon Footprinting and Modeling
industry; and (4) conducting research Association of Ports and Harbours Tools
focusing on emissions inventory and (IAPH), is supported by 55 major ports in • On-shore Power Supply
health effects of pollutants. the world with the objective of reducing • Environmental Shipping Index
GHG emissions through developing • Cargo-handling Equipment
The U.S.-coordinated regulatory strategy a GHG emissions inventory and • Intermodal Transport
for vessel emissions applies the new developing a collaborative approach • Lease Agreement Template
international emission standards based toward collecting information,
on amendments to MARPOL Annex VI. estimating emissions and developing Clean Ports USA, an incentive-based,
More stringent limits for engines, fuel plans to reduce the footprint of port innovative program is designed to
sulphur for vessels that operate within operations. The mission of the WPCI is reduce emissions from existing diesel
the emission control area (ECA) are to: engines and non-road equipment at
applied. The US-EPA Sector Strategies ports. The engines and equipment
Program works with representatives of • Raise awareness in the port and used at ports, including cargo handling
the ports sector and other stakeholders maritime community of need for equipment, trucks, locomotives,
to assess opportunities to improve action; tugboats, ferries and ships, can
environmental performance while • Initiate studies, strategies and contribute significantly to the levels
reducing the regulatory burden. The actions to reduce GHG emissions of fine particulates (PM 2.5), SOx and
program’s work focuses on four priority and improve air quality; ozone-forming NOx in the air. Because
 Tropical Coasts 19

EPA’s regulations only apply to newly freight transport industry. It is designed the current situation of the marine
manufactured diesel engines, the Clean to improve energy efficiency, reduce environment are many, but the
Ports USA program was developed to greenhouse gas and air pollutant solutions are few. However, there are
help ports and fleet owners reduce emissions, and improve energy security. current initiatives and best practices
emissions from the older engines The SmartWay program provides that can be replicated and scaled up. A
that are currently in port operation. information or tools that quantify costs/ combination of efforts of international
Different emissions reduction strategies benefits of operational and technology organizations, governments, the private
include: switching to cleaner fuels; options, identifies clean and efficient sector, scientific community and other
retrofitting; replacement; rebuilding; vehicles/equipment, provide financial stakeholders is gaining ground. The
repowering; and operational strategies. programs for deployment of fuel- following are the recommendations
The significant progress made toward saving technologies and offers freight arising from the stakeholder dialogue
this goal is attributed to strategies, such transport performance evaluation, during the EAS Congress 2009.
as promoting partnerships, fostering tracking and recognition.
innovative technologies and providing Oil spill contingency plan and
funding assistance to accelerate Setting the agenda to task response mechanism
the introduction of clean diesel
technologies. Marine pollution is a diversified Over the years the amount of oil
term. Several factors have created produced and transported has greatly
SmartWaySM Transport is an innovative the present dilapidated condition increased as the world’s economy has
collaboration between US-EPA and the of the sea. Sources and causes of expanded. Actions need to be taken
by the oil and shipping industry, in
cooperation with the governments and
Figure 7. Ship Routes from Observed Ship Reporting Positions in East Asian Seas.
international community, to reduce
the risk of oil entering the marine
environment, ensure safe carriage of
oil by sea, and enhance the capacity
to respond in case an oil spill occurs.
Supporting policies, laws and guidelines
also have to be set in place, and proper
lines of communication and delineation
of roles and responsibilities are
essential.

1. National actions:

a. Countries that have not yet

developed national oil spill
contingency plans should
Source: GloBallast
consider developing their
plans, with clearly defined
Figure 8. Cardiopulmonary Mortality Cases due to PM 2.5 Emissions of Ships. institutional arrangements, roles
and responsibilities, and backed
by proper funding and skilled
personnel. Such plans should
also be tested through tabletop
and field exercises with various
concerned agencies and sectors;

b. Countries are encouraged to

ratify relevant international
conventions, such as MARPOL,
OPRC, CLC, IOPC Funds, etc., and
legislate corresponding national

Source: Corbett, et al., 2007.

20 December 2010

East Asian Countries Ratification of IMO Conventions and Protoco’s Relating to the Coastal and
Marine Environment.

London
Convention MARPOL COL- Intervention CLC FUND SUA
Convention
REG
Annex Conv Prot Conv Conv Prot Conv Prot Conv Prot Prot Conv Prot

COUNTRY 73/78
Annex III IV V VI 72 96 72 69 73 69 92 71 92 03 88 05
I/II
Brunei
86 87 D 02 D 02 03
Darussalam
Cambodia 94 94 94 94 94 94 01 01 06
China 83 94 06 88 06 85 06 80 90 90 D 99 D 99* 91
DPR Korea 85 85 85 85 85
Indonesia 86 79A 78 99 D
Japan 83 83 83 83 05 80 07 77 71 D 94 D 94 04 98
Lao PDR
Malaysia 97 97 80 D 04 95 04
Myanmar 88 03
Philippines 01 01 01 01 73 77A 97 97 04
Rep. of Korea 84 96 03 96 06 93 09 77 D 97 D 97 10 03
Singapore 90 94 05 99 00 79 D 97 97 04
Thailand 07
Timor-Leste
Vietnam 91 90 03 00
Numbers represent year of ratification/accession
D - Denounced; Conv - Convention; Prot - Protocol
*For application in Hongkong SAR only.
Sources: International Maritime Organization (IMO).
http://www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D28080/Status-2010.pdf
https://imo.amsa.gov.au/public/parties/solas88protocol.html
https://imo.amsa.gov.au/public/parties/solas78protocol.html
https://imo.amsa.gov.au/public/parties/ll88protocol.html

laws and regulations that would public and raise awareness of the the Maritime Transport Working
allow for their implementation actual reality of oil spill threats, Group) as a policy framework to
(Table 4); which could be introduced at operate and hold its first official
school level, as well as through meeting;
c. There is a need to recognize and national campaigns that could
adddress constraints currently be extended region-wide; c. Identify organizations, such
faced by some countries, e.g., as industry, funding and
lack equipment, training and f. Political will of national development agencies (The
capability to effectively respond governments is essential to World Bank, Asian Development
to marine pollution incidents; paving the way for regional Bank, UNDP, GEF, donors), which
cooperation. can provide technical assistance
d. Appropriate mechanisms should and support to countries at
be established by countries 2. International actions: each level (national, regional,
in the region to facilitate, international);
as a priority, the transport a. International organizations
and movement of response need to catalyze OPRC activities/ d. Different elements needed
equipment and personnel across systems at national and regional locally, nationally and regionally
international borders (address levels; should be identified for oil spill
customs issues). b. The revitalization of ASEAN- preparedness, response and
OSRAP will require a legal cooperation, to ensure effective
e. There is a need to educate the statement from ASEAN (through communication and operational
 Tropical Coasts 21

the Convention should be

supported through regional
SOLAS LL cooperation efforts and regional
OPRC- Bunker Anti- Ballast
Salvage OPRC HNS agreements.
HNS Oil Fouling Water
Conv Prot Prot Prot
c. To remove barriers for early and
74 78 88 88 89 90 96 00 01 01 04
effective implementation of
existing instruments, capacity
building will be of outmost
87 87
importance. This should also
95 95 01 01 include Compliance Monitoring
80 83 00app 00 94 98 09 08 and Enforcement related
85 85 01 01 09
capacity-building aspects.
81 88
d. The regional efforts to address
80 81 00 00 95 07 03
biosafety issues should be
assisted by the development
84 84 97 08 of a (regional) database on
88 88 invasive species, distribution
82 and prior invasion history,
81 83 00 00 99 08 09 08 09 environmental and ecological
81 84 00 00 99 03 06 09 requirements.
85 00
e. Countries and key stakeholders
are encouraged to make use of
91 93 02 02
existing tools and guidelines
developed by programmes such
as GEF-UNDP-IMO GloBallast.

f. It is strongly recommended to
re-establish the Regional Task
Force which was initiated during
response integration; environmental instruments, adoption the first phase of GloBallast.
e. NOWPAP can serve as an and application of standards, research,
excellent working model, which technology and the promotion of 2. Anti-fouling system
can be adapted by other sub- public awareness and capacity building
regions of East Asia; are critical. a. There is an urgent need for
governments to ratify the AFS
f. PEMSEA’s important role 1. Ballast water and invasive alien Convention, in order to drive
in advocacy, technical species management technology development to
cooperation, promoting and address fouling in non-hull
assisting in regional oil spill a. It is imperative to recognize areas of vessels. New R&D is
preparedness, response and and address the economic needed to prevent fouling
cooperation needs to be and societal costs of marine under low flow/static conditions
stressed. bio-invasions in the EAS region, (e.g. when vessels are moored,
due to the potential impact on at berth or at anchor).
Marine biosafety biodiversity and the intensity of
shipping activities. b. There is a need for coating
International efforts to address the standards (e.g., ISO standard),
translocation of invasive species and b. Countries are encouraged to which would be useful to
use of toxic anti-fouling substances as ratify the International BWM enhance development and
well as to mitigate the environmental Convention on an urgent business competition on
impacts through the promulgation of basis. Implementation of antifouling technology and
22 December 2010

products, including market achieve regulatory compliance on Governance is not just about what
entry into an otherwise very safety, security and environmental governments do, but how they involve
conservative market. protection. While many perceive that private sector, civil society and other
these requirements are added costs stakeholders in what they should do.
c. Biofouling should be addressed and hamper port productivity and Public awareness is crucial to increase
from a perspective of biosafety, competitiveness, some have considered their understanding of the causes
and countries should be “green” and “sustainability” issues as and effects of marine pollution, oil
encouraged to contribute to business attributes that enhance port spills, GHG emissions, bio-invasions
the ongoing discussion on competitiveness. Today, the pressure is and biosafety. While IMO adopts
the development of a global mounting for every potential polluter, international regulations, providing a
framework for biofouling. every user of energy and every single, universal framework governing
conspicuous contributor to climate maritime operations, it is National
3. Scientific support change and global warming to clean up Governments that must implement
their act and adopt greener practices these rules by incorporating them into
a. Regional and port-specific (IMO, 2009). The port and shipping their own, national laws.
risk assessment (qualitative) sector is definitely not exempted.
should be carried out, using Moreover, experience shows that
existing information on shipping 1. Considering that East Asia is a the best environment for pollution
patterns and port environmental market place for shipping, it is prevention comes from good
conditions. recognized that ports provide a legislation and enforcement coupled
significant economic contribution with good and responsible industry
b. Regional and national efforts to national GDP. Therefore, the performance (IPIECA). Market-
should be supported with the need for sustainable port planning, based mechanisms should also be
establishment of a regional development and operation is considered, and would serve two
network (correspondence group) imperative. main purposes: off-setting of growing
of biosafety experts, from the ship emissions and providing a fiscal
various organizations active in 2. Encourage the port sector to be incentive for the maritime industry to
the biosafety field. pro-active and engage in voluntary invest in more fuel-efficient ships and
approaches to greener ports. technologies and to operate ships in a
4. Stakeholder awareness and low-carbon and more energy efficient
support 3. There are existing models, manner. R&D to make alternative
practices, guidelines and programs technologies available and accessible
a. It is critical to raise public that can be accessed within and is also critical to allow switching to
awareness on the biosafety issues outside the region to promote port environmentally-sound practices.
in the region. sustainability and environmental
stewardship. The solutions we will opt for need to
5. International support be realistic, pragmatic, doable, cost-
4. There is a need to develop green effective and should be implemented
a. Regional financial institutions policies supported by incentives through mechanisms that are clear,
(e.g., ADB) and NGOs are to encourage ports to implement practical, transparent, and easy to
encouraged to participate in and green practices. administer. There are difficult and
support capacity building efforts, complex issues involved, not just from
to ensure long-term sustainability 5. Green practices in the marine the technical viewpoint, but from a
of the management efforts. and port sector would need political perspective as well. We need
collaboration with other sectors to make some tough decisions and
b. Existing regional networks (e.g. (e.g., air quality concerns, etc.). we need to act on them. We have to
PEMSEA, COBSEA, ASEAN) are consider our priorities and accept
encouraged to actively address Summing up that there are costs involved and we
the biosafety issues. have to make certain sacrifices. We
A critical facet of an efficient and all have a responsibility to take bold,
Greener and sustainable ports sustainable shipping and port system comprehensive and coordinated
is good governance, which preserves action. Finally, we need to start putting
The port industry has been faced public assets and ensures adequate life ahead of lifestyle.
with government regulations to social and environmental safeguards.
 Tropical Coasts 23

Conclusions and Recommendations for workshops under Theme 2: Natural and Man-made
Hazard Prevention and Management
Presented by Theme Chair: Dr. Cherdsak Virapat

Workshop 1 - Government/Industry Partnership for Effective and Consistent Preparedness and Response
to Marine Pollution in East Asia

The workshop reviewed major issues on preparedness, response and co-operation for combating pollution from oil spills with a
particular emphasis on regional arrangement, cooperation, partnerships and stakeholder involvement in oil spill preparedness and
response including lessons learned from past incidents.

Conclusions and Recommendations

• Ensure essential elements in oil spill preparedness and response are present in national oil spill contingency plan;
• Encourage countries to ratify relevant international conventions;
• International Maritime Organization: should play a catalytic role in Oil Spill Preparedness Response and Cooperation activities/
systems at national and regional levels;
• Establish a legal basis for operating a regional arrangement and establish a mechanism for extending assistance to other
countries;
• Recognize the important role of international and regional organizations in providing advocacy, technical cooperation,
promoting and assisting in development of regional OPRC; and
• Implement a twin track approach for identifying gaps and developing action plans for improving oil spill preparedness and
response.

Workshop 4 - Development and Advances on Marine Bio-safety in the Context of the Conventions on Biodiversity

The Workshop focused on translocation of invasive species arising from ballast water and biofouling associated with shipping,
highlighting the adverse environmental impacts on marine biodiversity, public health and certain marine economic sectors, the
potential transboundary and long-term impacts. It also highlighted international efforts to address the translocation of invasive
species as well as to mitigate the environmental impacts.

Conclusions and Recommendations

• There is an urgent need to recognize and address the economic and societal costs of marine bio-invasions in the EAS region;
• Regional financial institutions and NGOs should be encouraged to participate in and support capacity building efforts;
• Countries should be encouraged to ratify relevant conventions;
• Capacity building should be increased on compliance monitoring and enforcement;
• Countries and key stakeholders should be encouraged to make use of existing tools and guidelines developed by relevant
programs;
• Existing regional networks should be encouraged to actively address the biosafety issues;
• Development of a database on invasive species, distribution and prior invasion history, environmental and ecological
requirements should be undertaken;
• Regional and port-specific risk assessment should be carried out; and
• A regional network of biosafety experts should be established.

Seminar on Greener Ports

The seminar focused on various efforts and examples of policies, strategies, good practices and initiatives relating to green and
sustainable port planning, development and operation. Port management systems relating to safety, health and environment were
also reviewed including the drivers for investments in environmental initiatives.

Conclusions and Recommendations

• Considering that East Asia is the market place for shipping, it is recognized that ports provide significant economic contribution
to national GDP. Therefore, the need for sustainable port planning, development and operation is imperative.
• There are existing models, practices, guidelines and programs that can be accessed to promote sustainable port planning and
operation.
• There is a need to develop green policies supported by incentives for ports implementing green initiatives.
• Encourage the port sector to be pro-active and engage in voluntary approaches to greener ports.
24 December 2010

Acknowledgements: Whittington, M. Case Study – The Hebei Suppiah, R. “Designating the Straits of
Spirit Incident.” Malacca as a PSSA.”
Co-convenors:
Theme 2 Workshop 1: International Theme 2 Workshop 4 - Workshop on References:
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Maritime Organization; International
Marine Bio-safety in the Context of Biosecurity Council. 2003. Tiakina Aotearia
Petroleum Industry Environmental
the Convention on Biodiversity – Protect New Zealand: The Biosecurity
Conservation Association; and Oil Spill
Strategy for New Zealand. Ministry of
Response
Awad, A. “Overview on Marine Biosafety Agriculture and Forestry, Wellington, New
and Related International Instruments.” Zealand.
Theme 2 Workshop 4: International
Maritime Organization Haag, F. “The GEF/UNDP/IMO GloBallast Corbett, J., J.J. Winebrake, E.H. Green, P.
Partnership Programme.” Kasibhatla, V. Eyring and A. Lauer. 2007.
Special Session on Disaster “Mortality from Ship Emissions: A Global
Management: International Kaur, C. R. “Marine Biosafety in Domestic Assessment.” Environmental Science and
Geographical Union Shipping in Coastal and Insular East Technology. 41: (24) 8512-8518.
Asia.”
Drake, J.M. and D.M. Lodge. 2007. Hull fouling
Matheickal, J. “The International Convention is a risk factor for intercontinental species
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Ship’s Ballast Water and Sediments.” Invasions (2007) Volume 2, Issue 2: 121-
Theme 2 Workshop 1 - Workshop on 131. DOI 10.3391/ai.2007.2.2.7. Regional
Government/Industry Partnerships for Teo, S. L.-M. “Prospects for Research and Euro-Asian Biological Invasions Centre
Effective and Consistent, Preparedness Technology Development in Marine (REABIC). Available at http://www.reabic.
and Response to Marine Pollution in East Biofouling Prevention.” net)
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Xu, X. “Marine Biofouling and Its Impact McNeely, J.A., H.A. Mooney, L.E. Neville, P.
Charlebois, P. “Implementation of the OPRC on Marine Biodiversity with Special Schei, and J.K.Waage (eds.) 2001. A Global
Convention and the OPRC-HNS Protocol Reference to China.” Strategy on Invasive Alien Species. IUCN
through Regional Agreements.” Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK,
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Factuar, D. and P. Prasertwong. “Partnerships Programme (GISP), x + 50 pp.
in Oil Spill Preparedness and Response in Bailey, K. “Case study: EMS as a Tool for
the Gulf of Thailand: Achievements and Improving Environmental Performance GloBallast Partnerships. 2000-2010. http://
Challenges.” in US Ports.” globallast.imo.org.

Oh, J.-H. “Lessons Learned and Challenges Bailey, K. “The Business Case for Sustainable IMO. 2009. IMO and the Environment.
in Implementing a Regional Oil Spill Port Communities.” International Maritime Organization. 6 pp.
Contingency Plan: NOWPAP-MERRAC
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(NDCC) Philippines. Case Study: Working the ASEAN Region.” IPIECA. 2005. Action Against Oil Pollution
in the Aftermath of the SOLAR 1 Incident - A guide to the intergovernmental and
in the Philippines.” Cardinal, R. and S.A. Ross. “Implementation industry organizations involved in the
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Organization.” Accident: Oil Removal Examination at NOWPAP - The Action Plan for the Protection,
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Suh, W.-R. “Post-Oil Spill Response of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the
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 Tropical Coasts 25

By Dr. Bj rn Kjerfve, President, World Maritime University, Sweden;

Prof. Chul-Hwan Koh, Seoul National University, RO Korea;
Dr. Gunnar Kullenberg, Professor Emeritus, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Senior Fellow, United Nations Institute for
Training and Research (UNITAR);
Dr. Shigeko Haruyama, Professor, Graduate School of Bio-Resource, Mie University, and International Geographical
Union (IGU);
Dr. Cherdsak Virapat, Executive Director, International Ocean Institute (IOI);
Ms. Cristine Ingrid Narcise, Country Programme Manager, PEMSEA;
Mr. Danilo Bonga, Country Programme Assistant, PEMSEA;
Ms. Kazumi Wakita, Programme Officer - Partnership Programs, PEMSEA; and
Ms. Maria Corazon Ebarvia, Consultant, PEMSEA

Saving the Global Commons,

CHARTING OUR FUTURE

“There is still time to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, if we take strong action now.”
Sir Nicholas Stern

Setting the Context: Climate individual actions is a situation where expanding the total area of forest cover
Change and the Global the commons can no longer sustain and other ecosystems.
Commons overall consumption.
The pasture is already over-grazed, with
We have, from time to time, been Extending the premise, our global well-recognized cases of continued
reminded of the ‘tragedy of the commons includes the entire biosphere. deforestation and depleted world
commons,’ a conflict in public resource In the case of global warming, the fisheries. In coastal regions, the
exploitation between individual benefit sustainable resource is an atmosphere evidence of environmental change
and group benefit. In his seminal paper, actually capable of absorbing the attributable to the growth of human
Garrett Hardin argued in 1968 that users infrared radiation of the sun without too populations and their consumption and
of a commons (e.g., pastures, fishing much warming of the lower atmosphere production patterns is demonstrated
grounds) are caught in a predictable and oceans. The consumption involves in terms of reduced water quality;
process that leads to the destruction of the release of greenhouse gases destruction and degradation of such
the resources on which they depend. (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, critical habitats as estuaries, coastal
The ‘tragedy of the commons’ arises chlorofluorocarbons, etc.), especially wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, and
when a collectively-owned sustainable through the burning of fossil fuels, and beds of macrophytes and seagrass; the
resource is wasted through individual also the destruction of carbon ‘sinks’ — collapse of stocks of important fish and
overuse and failure to limit their forests, coastal habitats and vegetation. shellfish; deforestation; land subsidence;
consumption. While no single act of Collective action will require using seawater intrusion into groundwater
consumption contributes much to the less fossil fuels or using them more aquifers; erosion of topsoil; ocean
problem, the consequence of all these efficiently as well as maintaining or even acidification; and even the spread
26 December 2010

of the dead zones (Chen). These and poverty reduction priorities. Not warming will be, we should do little
threats will grow in the future due all developing countries, however, or nothing. The prospect of curbing
to population growth and migration view climate change in the same way. fossil fuel consumption has already
to coastal areas, rapid urbanization, Countries with vast floodplains (like sparked intense policy conflicts within
and uncontrolled development and Bangladesh) and low-lying, small major carbon dioxide-emitting nations.
resource use. island states view their situation from Significant reduction of GHG emissions
the perspective of a potential victim and arresting rainforest conversion
The problem is that this is no longer a of sea level rise. Other developing may not be currently achievable given
tragedy of the commons in a certain countries with large populations are that some national leaders insist upon
locality. The tragedy is now global in under international pressure to curb protecting only national economic
scope. We are facing a warming of their total GHG emissions, as they are interests instead of considering the
the global climate system and there making a major contribution to global long-term environmental and economic
is a clear linkage to human activities emissions, despite relatively low per interests of the planet as a whole.
(IPCC, 2007). Climate changes are not capita emissions. Most countries fall Countries might mean no harm to
new — cycles of tremendous climatic in between these scenarios. Some disappearing island states, but the
changes have happened throughout developed and developing countries effects of their GHG emissions are just
Earth’s history; but in those times, the are looking at climate change as devastating as a war. We need to
contributions from humans were nil mitigation and adaptation as an ensure that climate change continues
or very insignificant. During the last opportunity. With the melting of the to be a priority in the global policy
100 years, human activities related to Himalayan glaciers, Bhutan is making agenda, integrated into sustainable
the burning of fossil fuels, clearing of plans to climate-proof infrastructure development and poverty alleviation
forests and agriculture have resulted and, at the same time, harness goals, and both global and local
in a 35 percent increase in carbon potential water supply and hydropower solutions are found and implemented.
dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere, energy (as an alternative energy source One part of the research needed is to
causing increased trapping of heat and and as a climate change mitigation get evidence of physical and social
warming of the earth’s atmosphere. measure) and be a major provider of impacts, including climate-sensitive
energy in South Asia. Opportunities health risks, effects on food and water
In addition to greenhouse gas (GHG) for shipping and trade are also being security, livelihood and infrastructure,
emissions, destruction of important studied. With the melting of the polar and psychosocial concerns due to
habitats contributes to global warming cap, states along the Arctic Ocean are displacement. The other part entails
and climate change. Deforestation and viewing cheaper or shorter shipping finding innovative solutions and
poor land use, which have reduced the routes and new energy sources effective policy interventions in order
absorptive capacity of plants, forests, (Kitagawa). to make reluctant groups more aware
and soils for CO2, have made things of the real costs and benefits, especially
worse. Degradation and loss of marine If there is such diversity in how if they are operating under flawed
habitats also contribute directly to countries view the global phenomenon assumptions, and/or change their
increasing CO2 levels in the atmosphere of climate change, then there is assessment of the respective costs and
and ocean. The carbon stocks in coastal equal or greater diversity among benefits.
habitats, such as mangroves, seagrass different stakeholders within each
meadows, kelp forests and tidal salt country, ranging from ignorance or However, time is of the essence. A
marshes, are similar to many terrestrial scepticism to significant concern and degree of urgency in efforts to research
ecosystems (forests). Not yet accounted voluntary action. Different interest and implement potential solutions is
for is the carbon sequestration in groups structure their outlook on based on the historic failure to control
sediments by coastal habitats. climate change according to their own emissions, and the possibility that
perceived costs and benefits of action tipping points in the Earth’s climate
Understanding the debate or inaction. Some policymakers and system are just around the corner. If we
decisionmakers want more research, wait for every single study to be done,
Until recently, climate change has more data and definitive proof before and fail to do something now, we will
been given relatively low priority taking any action, especially when leave the future generations with an
on the policy agendas of most actions call for changes in lifestyles. irreversibly changed environment and
developing countries, partly due to Others suggest that because we are a permanently altered earth. To avoid
more pressing economic development not certain about how bad global the worst predicted impacts of climate
 Tropical Coasts 27

change, institutions and individuals capacity to absorb CO2 has started to Coastal areas are at the frontlines of
around the world must act now. diminish as much as 10 percent since climate change, and will suffer most
Uncertainty should make us act more 2000 which implies that more emissions the full force of climate change. The
resolutely today, not less. Applying the will remain in the atmosphere (Khatiwala, coasts, oceans and islands (and their
precautionary principle would allow et al., 2009). The summer sea ice extent inhabitants) are particularly affected
policymakers to make discretionary in the Arctic reached its minimum in by phenomena linked to climate
decisions in situations where there is 2007 indicating that global warming change, which include: the warming
high risk and evidence of potential and sea level rise is indeed happening of ocean surface water, rising sea
harm, and there is a social responsibility (Kitagawa). Complex and dynamic level (average rate of 1.8 mm per
to protect the public from exposure to social, economic and environmental year from 1961 to 2003), and oceans
harm, even in the absence of complete processes influence the vulnerability of becoming acidic (IPCC, 2007). In turn,
scientific proof. coastal nations to global environmental ecosystems and their capacity to
change, and the ability of those affected deliver goods and services, including
The bad news and why it to cope, recover and adapt (Goh). The carbon sequestration, are threatened.
matters Stern report (Stern, 2007) estimated Coral reefs are destroyed by bleaching
the economic costs and highlighted whereas the slowly decreasing pH of
Several new climate stressors are being that sea level rise and climate change the oceans affects the basic structure
heralded: (1) the rate of decline of Arctic will affect agriculture, water resources, of calcium-dependent organisms; the
summer sea ice extent was 40 percent forest and other ecosystems, human implications of which are detrimental
greater than what was forecasted, which health and infrastructure of megacities to coral reefs and associated coral reef
alerted scientists to revise their estimates (Figure 1). Developing countries will productivity. Changing wind patterns
upwards (Allison, 2009); (2) sea level rise require substantially increased financial and sea temperatures affect various
is more likely between 100 to 144 cm, resources and technical support for oceanographic processes, including
way above the forecasts made by IPCC measures to ensure their continued upwellings and surface currents,
of between 18 and 59 cm by year 2100 economic growth in the face of climate resulting in changes in population
(Hamilton, 2009); and (3) the oceans change. abundance and distribution for many
marine species, further affecting ocean
productivity. Destructive typhoons,
which disrupt fishing patterns and
seasons, formation of fish schools, and
primary and secondary productions,
and damage fishing vessels and
aquaculture facilities, affect the
livelihoods and food security of millions
of people dependent on subsistence
and artisanal fisheries (Kim and Low).

Moreover, destruction of coastal

habitats makes communities more
vulnerable to natural hazards. Studies
have also shown that coral reefs,
seagrasses and mangroves, provide
protection as they naturally buffer
against high energy waves, even under
scenario of sea level rise (David, et al;
see Figure 2). This functional service
has been reduced due to coastal habitat
degradation and compounded by
climate change effects. For instance,
the destruction of the mangrove forests
Source: ADB. 2009. The Economics of Climate Change
Figure 1. Potential Impacts of in Myanmar left coastal areas exposed
in Southeast Asia: A Regional Review;
Climate Change on Key Sectors.
modified from Stern (2007) to the devastating force of Tropical
28 December 2010

Reef system dampens the Reef system continues to

energy of incoming waves protect most of Bacacay

Note waves moving But the coast in front of

through the channel channel receives more
between offshore reefs wave energy

Figure 2. Natural Shoreline Protection Under a sea-level rise scenario

Provided by Coastal Habitats. Even if sea level was increased by 1 m and wind velocity raised by several
orders of magnitude, healthy coral reefs were found to be still effective in
dissipating the energy of storm-generated waves.
Source: David, et al.

Cyclone Nargis in 2008. The final death of the total population, contributing the Bangkok region of Thailand, and
toll was at least 146,000, and some 2.4 significantly to consumption and West Sumatra, South Sumatra, Western
million people were severely affected by international trade of products. Java and Eastern Java in Indonesia
the cyclone (Maung Maung Aye). Clustered around these coastal cities (EEPSEA, 2009). The assessment defined
are traditional resource-based activities, vulnerability as a function of exposure to
Climate change and unsustainable such as coastal fisheries, aquaculture, five climate hazards (tropical cyclones,
development are adversely impacting forestry and agriculture, side-by-side floods, landslides, droughts, and sea
marine and coastal ecosystems and with industry, shipping and tourism. level rise), sensitivity, and adaptive
biodiversity, affecting their ability to capacity. Population density and
provide critical services such as food, The Southeast Asian region is the extent of protected areas were used
energy, medicines, natural shoreline most vulnerable to climate. Keeping as proxies for human sensitivity and
protection against storms and floods, “business-as-usual” could leave the ecological sensitivity, respectively; and
water quality maintenance, carbon region to suffer damages equivalent to adaptive capacity was measured based
sequestration, etc. The seas of East Asia more than six percent of GDP by 2100, on selected socioeconomic variables,
sustain 30 percent of the world’s coral more than two times higher than the technology, and infrastructure. Indices
reefs and mangroves; produce about global average (ADB, 2009). Vulnerability of vulnerability to climate change were
40 percent of the world’s fish catch mapping covering 530 subnational then generated and illustrated through
and 84 percent of world aquaculture; areas in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, maps (Figure 3).
and represent one of the world’s Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and
centers for tropical marine biodiversity. Vietnam showed that the hotspots or As the Stern report points out, as usual,
The countries of Asia and the Pacific most vulnerable areas in Southeast the poor are the most vulnerable.
are home to over half the world’s Asia include all the regions of the The IPCC suggests that by 2080, sea
population, and about two thirds of Philippines, the Mekong River Delta level rise could convert as much as 33
the world’s poor. East Asia’s coastal in Vietnam, almost all the regions of percent of the world’s coastal wetlands
cities also host an estimated 77 percent Cambodia, North and East Lao PDR, to open water (IPCC, 2007). A third of
 Tropical Coasts 29

Bangladesh will be underwater by the Water, food and seafood security for to housing and/or forced migration and
end of this century while the Maldives the region is in question with ever- displacement (WHO, 2009).
and a host of Pacific Island states will changing weather patterns. Thus, there
disappear: our 21st century Atlantis. is mounting pressure to expand our These climate change impacts and
While it is conceivable that entire understanding of how to better manage socioeconomic losses erode the
populations of small islands in the the socioeconomic risks associated with efforts spent in alleviating poverty
Pacific might be relocated, there will climate change. Adequate attention to and improving the quality of life of
be no easy international response to the needs and participation of women, the people in the region. Gains made
the human misery in poor countries children, the poor, indigenous groups, in achieving the MDGs may come to
that will be reduced to even greater cultural minorities and other at-risk naught.
poverty by more violent storms, coastal populations will be important.
flooding, droughts, poor harvests The good news: Unlocking
and disrupted fishing activities. The Lost in the discussion are the direct solutions
poor — with limited adaptive capacity impacts on human health and emerging
due to low income and poor access climate change-related health risks. Higher benefits compared to cost
to infrastructure, basic services, and Climate change is expected to increase
education — are often most vulnerable endemic morbidity and mortality Rapidly decreasing forests, constant
to climate change. They generally live from communicable diseases in Asia. threats to the world water supply
in geographically vulnerable areas that Increases in coastal air and water and higher CO2 levels are reversible
are prone to natural hazards. They are temperature, and increased flooding and trends, but only if we act NOW. Some
often dependent on climate-sensitive resulting contaminated water supplies politicians, economists, scientists and
sectors, particularly agriculture, forestry, will lead to increased occurrence of heat other concerned stakeholders see
and fisheries, with practically no stress, water-, food- and vector-borne solutions in climate change mitigation
chance of moving towards alternative diseases, and more virulent strains of and adaptation policies and actions
sources of income. In extreme cases, cholera, malaria, and dengue fever; integrated into the sustainable
climate change may cause people aeroallergens; respiratory diseases development framework, combined
to abandon their homelands and due to air pollution; malnutrition, food with public awareness, research,
migrate within countries or across and water security issues; and psycho- technological innovation, and financing
international borders for their survival. sociological concerns due to damages schemes. Such efforts involve significant
amount of resources and changes in
policies, institutional arrangements, and
consumption and production patterns.
This would indeed cost a lot, however,
it would cost more not to do anything.
It is estimated that adaptation for the
agriculture and coastal zones of the four
countries in Southeast Asia (Indonesia,
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam)
would cost about US$ 5 billion per year
on average, but that benefits would
exceed the cost by 2060, and by 2100,
the benefits could be 1.9 percent of GDP
compared to the cost at 0.2 percent of
the GDP (ADB, 2009). Thus, disaster risk
reduction and adaptation measures
should be seen as an investment (with
future returns), not a cost.

National strategies in place

Figure 3. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for Southeast Asia. Practically every country has
Source: EEPSEA, 2009.
prepared a national strategy or plan
30 December 2010

for addressing climate change in an on reducing vulnerability

effort both to arrest further increases and increasing adaptability
in GHG emissions and to cope with of marine ecosystems
already inevitable adverse impacts of to climate change using
climate change (Table 1). Supporting ecosystem-based approaches.
institutional and policy reforms Primary implementation
include mainstreaming adaptation into measures in the coastal
sustainable development; integrating areas include: (1) enhancing
shorter term disaster risk reduction and legislation and establishing
longer term climate risk management; integrated management
and utilizing climate change models demonstration sites; (2)
and vulnerability assessments in developing technologies
formulating mitigation and adaptation on ecosystem restoration,
measures. Actions on climate change biodiversity conservation
adaptation complemented by and vulnerability reduction
mitigation efforts take into account and transferring these
GHG emission reduction through to local communities; (3)
reforestation and coastal habitat capacity building for marine
restoration, reducing deforestation environmental monitoring
rates, applying clean technologies and and early warning; (4)
energy conservation measures, using enhancing adaptive measures
alternative energy sources, exploring to sea level rise including
mitigation potentials of agriculture, and engineering and biological
climate-proofing of investments and strategies, such as shelter belt; Inundation and flooding in Danang (top).
After the Xangsane typhoon (bottom).
infrastructure. and (5) undertaking mangrove Photos: Danang Department of Natural Resources and Environment
and coral transplantation
For example, RO Korea announced a activities in various areas in order to scope for integrating such knowledge
comprehensive plan for adaptation to reduce the vulnerability of coastal areas in local adaptation plans; however,
climate change in 2008 and a five-year from impacts of natural disasters and capacity development covering
green growth plan in 2009, and has sea level rise. new and innovative approaches to
come up with a list of short- and long- adaptation in local areas must also
term actions that include prediction of Available indigenous knowledge be considered. Technical, financial,
and response to the marine impact of and practices infrastructure, and other measures
climate change and climate-friendly and forms of support from national
ocean management. RO Korea will Development of national policy government and other organizations
also create adaptation guidelines for frameworks for adaptation is imperative, are needed.
local governments. In the Philippines, but there is considerable opportunity
the Climate Change Act 2009 was to build on existing institutional Initiatives of local governments and
signed into law last October 2009. It frameworks. A good reservoir of communities
mainstreams climate change into a indigenous knowledge and local coping
broader government policy through strategies to deal with climate change While local governments implementing
a National Framework Strategy and exist in Asian developing countries. In coastal resource management (CRM)
Programme on Climate Change; sets up Bacacay, a poor fishing area in Albay, and integrated coastal management
a Commission that will coordinate the Philippines, the communities have (ICM) programs have undertaken
country’s climate change initiatives; and developed several autonomous (self- coastal habitat restoration activities,
emphasizes the very important role of organizing) adaptation practices in the alternative/supplemental livelihood
local governments. face of recurring threats and infrequent projects and the establishment of
but extreme events. These include protected areas, these have been
In PR China, the central government diversification into supplementary and previously carried out without direct
issued the Framework for Adaptation to alternative activities, which have helped linkage to disaster management and
Climate Change in June 2007. It aims to to spread the risk across more than one climate change response. However,
eliminate management gaps and focus income source (Uy). There is a broad such activities have actually increased
 Tropical Coasts 31

local communities’ resiliency, and scientists and policymakers include As an example, the Pilot Project on
contributed to climate change research in global change issues and Monsoon Onset Monitoring and its
mitigation and adaptation efforts. providing scientific information for the Social and Ecosystem Impact (MOMSEI)
formulation of on-the-ground strategies aims to improve the understanding and
At the local level, projects that and actions (Peñafiel; Perez, et al.). forecasting of the Asian Monsoon by
involve vulnerable communities in strengthening the monsoon monitoring
participatory impact assessments and Developments in science and capability in the Andaman Sea. The pilot
risk management are among the most technology — modelling and project supports the existing efforts of
successful in adaptation capacity- forecasting tools, which can the Indian Ocean Observing System
building efforts. These initiatives identify now generate climate scenarios (IndGOOS). This IOC WESTPAC project is
specific “downscaled” climate impacts at finer resolutions, including also aimed at demonstrating the value
and associated sectors or ecosystem subnational levels; environmental of ocean observation in ecosystem
risks, help reduce vulnerability to and meteorological monitoring; GIS conservation by analyzing the possible
localized impacts, and increase the mapping; and nuclear and isotopic link between the Monsoon onset and
adaptive resilience of vulnerable techniques, which can be used to coral reef bleaching in the Andaman
populations exposed to climate hazards. understand natural processes and Sea (Yu).
In Demak, Indonesia, using a impacts of storm surges and tsunamis
participatory approach, key issues were — can provide useful inputs in Bridging science, policy and
identified (extensive conversion of assessing the impacts of future climate actions to address climate
mangroves to shrimp and fish ponds change and setting up adaptation and change
and coastal infrastructure, saltwater mitigation measures. Decision-support
intrusion, coastal erosion, sea level systems also provide options and The available options to address climate
rise), and a corresponding village information for planning and strategy change are: mitigation to reduce
management plan and adaptation formulation. Early warning systems further emissions and rehabilitate
strategy were developed. Short-term enhance disaster preparedness and ecosystems; adaptation to reduce
and long-term countermeasures response. the damage caused by warming
were subsequently implemented and increase resiliency in the face of
(e.g., community awareness raising,
mangrove planting, use of bamboo as
a breakwater, retrofitting of houses by Table 1: Selected Climate Change Policies and Related Sector Plans in Southeast Asia.
placing them on stilts, and rehabilitation
Country Policies/Plans/Strategies
of village infrastructure, such as roads
and schools. Harmonization with Cambodiaa • National Adaptation Programme of Action 2006
• Strategic National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction 2009
district and national programs was
also undertaken. Other communities Indonesiab • National Climate Change Action Plan 2007
• Decree No. 206/2005 Afforestation and Reforestation (A/R) CDM projects
have expressed interest to replicate the • Decree No. 14/2004 Afforestation and Reforestation (A/R) CDM projects
climate change adaptation efforts in • National Energy Law/Presidential Decree No. 5/2006 (Perpes)
• Law 27/2007 on Coastal Zone and Small Island Management Conduct
Demak (Diposaptono). • Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programme
Philippinesb • Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010*
Research and interdisciplinary • Climate Change Act of 2009
scientific and technical expertise • National Framework Strategy and Programme on Climate Change
• Philippines Energy Plan 2004–2014
• Biofuels Act of 2006
At the same time as practical adaptation • Clean Water Act of 2004
• Clean Air Act of 1999
measures are being implemented at
Singaporeb • National Climate Change Strategy 2008, part of Singapore Green Plan 2012
the local level in collaboration with
various stakeholders, research and Thailandb • National Strategic Plan on Climate Change, 2008–2012
technical analysis in support of longer- • National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), chaired by the Prime Minister

term adaptation efforts are also being Vietnamb • National Target Program in Response to Climate Change
• National Steering Committee for implementing the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol
undertaken. Initiatives planned and
conducted by the Asia-Pacific Network
for Global Change Research or APN, Sources: a
SIDA, 2009.
b
an intergovernmental network of ADB, 2009.
*Signed into law on 27 May 2010. (www.philstar.com)
32 December 2010

receive as much attention as mitigation

because several countries in the region
are already facing the impacts of climate
change. Perez and Lee, et al., noted
that the focus of interventions must
now shift to adaptation measures — to
complement mitigation — because
of a prediction that global mean
temperature and sea level will continue
to rise even if we succeed in stabilizing
atmospheric GHG concentrations at
present levels. A combination of both
top-down support and bottom-up
engagement approaches is crucial
to advance the adaptation agenda
in the region. Different approaches
to climate adaptation have been
suggested, including risk-based,
Top: Coral reef rehabilitation in Bali. resiliency-focused, ecosystem-based,
Bottom Right: Seagrass planting in Chonburi, Thailand. Photo: Kanchanopas-Barnette
Bottom left: Mangrove planting in Bataan, Philippines. Photo: Bataan ICM Program
and no-regrets approaches, as well as
integrated management frameworks,
related hazardous events; and, more reforms in the water, energy and such as integrated coastal management
recently, geoengineering or climate transport sectors and changes in (ICM), integrated water resource
engineering to reverse global warming agricultural and urban development management (IWRM), integrated river
(e.g., ocean iron fertilization). Within strategies. basin management (IRBM) and large
these options are tools ranging from marine ecosystem (LME) management
science-based (modelling, monitoring, Carbon capture and storage (through to deal with transboundary issues,
vulnerability mapping, comprehensive restoration of ‘carbon sinks’), bridge science, policy and action,
risk assessment, economic valuation, promotion of clean technology and low improve governance, build functional
etc.) to community-based (information, carbon technology, methane capture integration across sectors and enhance
education, communication or IEC in waste management, and ocean- partnership synergies.
campaign, participatory planning, risk based alternative energy development
communication, livelihood programs, (e.g., wind power, currents, tides, and The key features of risk-based
etc.). Capacity development, knowledge ocean thermal energy conversion) approaches to climate adaptation
management, technology exchange, are considered the most promising. include: (a) assessment of baseline
and financing are also necessary To make these happen, technology conditions; the likelihood of climate
to equip coastal communities to transfer, capacity development, events based on historic trends and
implement adaptation measures and innovative financing mechanisms predictions of climate variability and
implement and monitor appropriate and private sector participation are extremes; and potential consequences
mitigation measures. essential. of climate events for physical, social,
and natural systems; (b) hazard
Reversing the tide: Climate change Recognizing the necessity: Climate risk assessment and management
mitigation change adaptation processes; (c) risk-based land- and sea-
use planning; (d) cost-benefit analysis
Mitigation measures are needed to Adaptation refers to the policies and of climate adaptation options in terms
prevent GHG concentrations in the actions designed and implemented of reducing unacceptable risks; and
atmosphere from reaching dangerous to make adjustments in natural or (e) development of polices and action
levels, as well as to stabilize their human systems in response to actual plans to reduce risks. The following
atmospheric concentration within a or expected climatic changes and are some of the monitoring and
range of 450–550 parts per million their effects and impacts in order to vulnerability assessment projects, which
(ppm) (IPCC, 2007). There is a need reduce harm and/or take advantage of provide adaptation options:
to promote policies for low-carbon, beneficial opportunities (IPCC).
climate resilient growth, and undertake Climate change adaptation should • A modelling tool — the DINAS-
 Tropical Coasts 33

COAST DIVA (Dynamic Interactive provincial area) permanently under analysis (SLA) framework, which
Vulnerability Assessment) water and about 56 percent of took into account nearly 50-year
Model was used to assess the the settlement areas flooded. In regional climate trends (temperature,
vulnerability of coastal areas addition to the profound damage rainfall, and tracks and frequency of
in Southeast Asia to sea level to the coastal ecosystem and cyclones), typhoon disaster events as
rise (Goh). The DIVA model also economies, potential economic well as existing livelihood assets and
showed that adaptation to loss from damage of infrastructure alternative/supplemental livelihood
impacts of sea level rise requires has been estimated at US$ 21 activities, was applied to determine
engineering measures to limit million. how the fishing communities have
damage to human population responded to and coped with
and coastal resources. Full Resiliency-focused adaptation the disaster events and climate
nourishment (incorporating approaches include: (a) identification disturbances through the years (Uy).
coastal cover rehabilitation) of the resilience capacities of physical,
was the most cost-effective social, economic, and environmental At the national level, a proposed
option for minimizing loss of systems and their interdependencies; strategy for prioritizing sites for
wetland areas, sand and land (b) identification and implementation protection and enhancing resiliency of
(with consequent reduction in of processes to assess and track coastal communities in the Philippines
migration of populations). Dike community capability to withstand was developed using various remote
protection was a better option climate variability and extremes; and (c) sensing and numerical model
to mitigate the number of community-based resilience assessment simulations, which considered: the
people flooded, land loss due to processes to facilitate coordination presence/absence of reefs and related
submergence, and other damages and cooperation among different habitats; entrainment; connectivity
due to flooding from the sea. sectors (public, private, and nonprofit/ features; variability of environmental
Results from the DIVA model non-State), and across numerous exposure; and perceived threats
were combined with a geospatial disciplines and tools, such as land use and vulnerability (Figure 4). The
clustering tool, LOICZ-DISCO planning, economic
(Deluxe Integrated System for development, natural
Clustering) to highlight similarities resource management,
and disparities between countries. integrated
Beach nourishment effectively environmental
mitigated land and wetland losses impact assessment,
in Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, sustainable livelihood
the Philippines and Cambodia, analysis, education,
while dike protection was and emergency
recommended for Singapore. management. Fisheries
management plans
• At the local level, a vulnerability must be made or
and adaptation assessment to revised to consider
climate change was done in Koh both changes in
Kong Province, Cambodia, using climate and in social
CCSR and CSIRO GCM (CCSR, systems since lower
2009) models and emission ocean productivity
scenarios. Results showed that and more frequent
there would be a 1.35-2.5oC super-typhoons and
increase in temperature in 2100, heavy rains will have
and 3–35 percent increase in significant impacts on
annual rainfall. The rainfall in four capture fisheries and
main river basins is predicted aquaculture production
to increase between 2 and 15 (Kim and Low).
percent, thereby increasing water
flow by 2-10 m3/s, and a 1-m rise In Bacacay, Albay,
in sea level would put 44 km2 of Philippines, a
the province (0.4 percent of total sustainable livelihood Many Pacific Islands now experience flooding of coastal areas due to sea level rise.
Photos: Jennifer Henman, The Nature Conservancy
34 December 2010

recommendations include prioritizing • A network of marine protected areas The no-regrets approach involves
coastal habitats that have withstood (MPAs) under an ICM governance climate-related decisions or actions
climate fluctuations through decades; framework is expected to increase that make sense in development terms,
prioritizing series of reef areas to ecological resiliency, protect whether or not a specific future climate
ensure sustainability of connectivity biodiversity and decrease social change threat actually materializes.
corridors; and elimination of specific vulnerabilities. In addition, an MPA While operating under conditions of
anthropogenic activities that further network is a strategy for accelerated uncertainty regarding future climate
exacerbates the vulnerability of the and synergistic effects, and in the impacts and trends, near-term
coast to climate change impacts. long run is more cost-effective development outcomes are maximized.
(David, et al.). The existing functional In Hawaii, USA, government responses
Ecosystem-based approaches involve: networks that have been established focused primarily on beach erosion and
(a) protection and restoration of in the Philippines, such as the MPAs the conventional designation of hazard
natural ecosystems that can provide Support Network (MSN) and inter- zones. Current adaptation efforts
cost-effective protection against local government unit alliances include: beach nourishment; setting
the effects of climate change (e.g., showed that the cost of enforcement of shoreline setback to at least 40 ft
forests, wetlands, mangroves, coral has been reduced by 50 percent as (12.9 m); designation of special coastal
reefs, beaches) in addition to many well as increased the area of effective zone management area extending to a
other environmental services, enforcement by 100 percent. minimum of 300 ft (91.44 m) landward
including carbon sequestration; (b) from the shoreline and where land
preservation of biodiversity and • Conservation of wetlands is critical use requires county permits subject
making ecosystems more resilient in Amur River, an international river to coastal management policies and
to climate change; (c) protection of that crosses China, Mongolia and conditions; mandated designation of
populations and infrastructure from Russia. Remote sensing data and tsunami zones, flood hazard zones and
the threats of climate change through numerical analysis of precipitation, more rigorous building codes; and
climate-proofing of infrastructure and river flows, flooding and wetland flood insurance in designated flood
implementing ICM programs, including area showed correlation between zones.
comprehensive risk assessment and precipitation and wetland area,
management, risk-based integrated and estimated the distribution and Countering a ‘culture’ of
land- and sea-use plan, coastal habitat probability of maximum monthly disasters
rehabilitation, pollution reduction and precipitation (Murooka, et al.). A
water resource management. Some of regional plan among the concerned An increase in global temperature will
the key actions taken in the region are countries was deemed essential also change the amount and pattern of
the following: since the wetlands on the floodplain precipitation (Box 1). A drastic change
serve as a buffer zone and as a flood in the occurrence of natural hazards
• Bali (Indonesia), Bataan and control basin. in the Asia-Pacific region will render
Batangas (Philippines), Chonburi
(Thailand) and Danang (Vietnam) Figure 4. Priority Sites for Protection Based on Reef Features.
have institutionalized the
integrated coastal management Recommendations:
(ICM) program, which includes the • offshore reefs that are less
establishment of an interagency vulnerable to thermal stress and
and multi-sector coordinating storms
mechanism, conduct of public
• reefs that have withstood thermal
awareness, and mobilization
fluctuations through decades
of different stakeholders in
carrying out various habitat and • food security
resource protection projects
(e.g., mangrove planting, coral • prioritizing series of reef areas to
and seagrass transplantation, sea ensure a sustainable exchange of
turtle and wildbird sanctuaries, larval supply through connectivity
beach restoration, greening and corridors
reforestation, fishery reserves, etc.).
Source: David, et al
 Tropical Coasts 35

Box 1. Changes in Precipitation Volume and Patterns. these seemed inadequate given the
increasing frequency and severity
A drastic change in the occurrence of natural hazards has been observed, rendering
of disaster events in recent years.
coastal areas and islands prone to destructive storm surges, erosion, riverine flooding
and inundation, resulting in huge economic losses. In the eastern Asian region, Countries are facing several major
20 storms were recorded entering the Philippine area of responsibility during the challenges to address disasters in the
2009 typhoon season; 10 of which were typhoons and three were considered super immediate and short terms, while
typhoons (Figure 5). More than 2,000 people died and losses of about USD 5.6 combating climate change in the
billion were estimated.Some experts considered these numbers to be severe under-
long run: lack of institutional capacity
estimates (Kim and Low).
to prepare and implement disaster
Figure 5. Storm Tracks in East Asia in 2009. preparedness, response and recovery
plans; weak collaboration among key
agencies/sectors and communication
gaps between governments and
communities for effective early
warning, mitigation and preparedness;
inadequate resources and equipment
to prevent disasters from occurring
as well as to effectively deal with
the hazards and disasters at hand;
and lack of common understanding
of preparedness and prevention
arrangements and respective roles and
responsibilities. The threat of climate
change and its consequences also put
a global perspective on an otherwise
In Taiwan, although the average amount of precipitation has shown no real change local concern.
in trends over time, the number of raining hours is decreasing but the events with
significantly heavy rains are increasing, e.g., in three days, 3 m of rain was estimated
In order to address the priorities of the
in Xiaolin Village, causing extreme flooding (Chen). In the Philippines, in September
2009, Typhoon Ondoy (or Ketsana) dumped 341 mm of rain in only six hours — Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015,
almost equal to the average monthly rainfall in Metro Manila of 392 mm (Perez). many countries have undertaken wide-
ranging institutional and policy changes
to strengthen disaster risk reduction
(DRR) and to develop national early
coastal areas and islands prone to natural disasters that resulted in warning systems to tsunamis and other
destructive typhoons/cyclones, storm damages in the region. Importance coastal hazards. New ways of addressing
surges, erosion, landslides, riverine of knowing how to prepare and disasters have taken advantage of
flooding and inundation; and cycles respond to disasters has also led to the advances in computer models
of drought and frequent heavy rains, the evolution of disaster management and information and communication
resulting in destruction of natural from an almost ad-hoc response to technology, involve the integration of
resources, disruption of agriculture, nature’s disturbances to a holistic various disciplines, and highlight the
damages to vital infrastructure, system of adaptation and preventing importance of stakeholder awareness
settlements, and facilities that support and mitigating risks. Disaster risk and participation, scientific inputs,
the livelihood of coastal communities, management and disaster risk reduction coordination, governance and policy
and loss of human life. Some countries approaches are areas for immediate reforms at the local and national levels.
have technological solutions like adaptation intervention to ensure Focus has been made on developing
barrages to deal with such events as resilience against extreme weather a comprehensive climate policy
super typhoons, heavy precipitation events and anticipated climate impacts. within the sustainable development
and flooding, but most poor countries framework, which includes: (a)
do not have these capacities (Chen). Although international, national science-to-action strategies; and
and local efforts to mitigate the (b) a major rethink in governance
Disaster management is becoming effects of natural hazards, including for local government development
more important in light of the recent infrastructure, were set up before, and continued economic growth
36 December 2010

notwithstanding the impacts of natural ICM can be utilized by local governments into the other programs of the city
disasters and climate change. The to optimize responses to climate change including those on population, food
challenge is for local governments at the local level. security and poverty alleviation.
to localize the Hyogo Framework for
Action, change mindsets from disaster • Within the National ICM • In Bali, Indonesia, key actions have
response to disaster risk reduction Demonstration Project in Danang been implemented to manage the
and preparedness, and bring disaster City, Vietnam, many activities coastal area, address risks from
risk reduction to a higher level of relating to disaster prevention and natural hazards and climate change,
significance. mitigation were implemented, and ensure sustainable tourism
including public awareness development: a shared vision and
Disaster management and programs on disaster prevention long-term coastal management
climate change response and mitigation, identification strategy based on ICM principles
within the sustainable of areas vulnerable to erosion were adopted, an integrated land-
development framework and flooding and relocation of and sea-use plan was developed
settlers to safer areas, intensifying and integrated into the Regional
Sustainable development can reduce urban greening and reforestation Land Use Plan, a Strategic Plan for
vulnerability to natural hazards and efforts, enhancing meteorological Coastal Disaster Impact Mitigation
climate change by enhancing mitigation capacity for typhoon, water level was developed, and a Disaster
and adaptive capacity and increasing and flood forecasting, improving Management Board was created.
resilience (IPCC, 2007). The practical communication systems for
experience in the application of ICM in fishing boats, strengthening and • In Bataan, Philippines, private-
the East Asian region over the past 15 developing infrastructures such as public partnership (PPP) is an
years has led to the development of dykes, shelter houses and shelters integral and significant aspect of
a common framework for sustainable for boats, promoting energy ICM implementation. The various
development of coastal areas conservation and use of alternative stakeholders have adopted a
(Figure 6), which covers a system of energy, and passing priority policies sustainable development strategy
governance as well as several issue- on waste recycling and reuse and and integrated land- and sea-use
specific management systems critical to cleaner production. Climate change plan. The Bataan Coastal Care
achieving the overall goals of sustainable concerns have also been integrated Foundation, Inc. (BCCFI), composed
development, including climate
change adaptation. ICM is an
Figure 6. Framework for Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas through ICM
accepted framework in the
Implementation (PEMSEA).
coastal area, with demonstrated
ability to generate and
support development. The
ICM approach can also meet
the requirements to address
climate change adaptation and
disaster risk reduction, including
mainstreaming these into local
government development plans.
It is the local government that
is the first responder, and the
one responsible for community
development and sustainable
disaster risk reduction. ICM tools
and methodologies can be
enhanced further to improve local
governments’ ability to support
climate change adaptation and
disaster risk reduction. Figures 7a
and 7b provide examples of how

Source: PEMSEA
 Tropical Coasts 37

Figure 7a. Governance: Some Key Considerations.

of 17 companies, provides
technical support, management
expertise and counterpart funding
to the Bataan ICM Program to
build better coastal governance,
increase awareness and promote
community participation in coastal
and marine environmental and
resource management. As part of
its corporate social responsibility
(CSR) objective, BCCFI and its
member companies also are
implementing various programs
on: habitat restoration, emission
and effluent reduction, solid waste
reduction and recycling, water Source: PEMSEA.

management, energy efficiency and Figure 7b. Sustainable Aspects.

environmental compliance.

• In Batangas, Philippines, the

management interventions initiated
to improve the sustainability and
strengthen coastal resilience to the
impacts of climate change include:
(1) declaration and establishment
of marine protected areas
(coral reef/mangrove); (2) water
quality monitoring (surface and
groundwater); (3) advocacy for the
prohibition of use of plastic bags
on dry goods and regulation of
their utilization on wet goods, and Source: PEMSEA.
prohibition on the use of Styrofoam;
and (4) enforcement of fishery and environmental standards. A number precipitation and occurrence of tropical
environmental laws. of tools, frameworks, guidelines, cyclones and storm surges. Downscaling
templates and other useful resources of these models has been applied in
• Chonburi, Thailand, is strengthening already exists and only needs to be various countries to provide more
the implementation of its coastal adapted or updated for specific use realistic climate simulations as shown in
strategy, particularly the action by local government authorities and the following examples:
plans related to control of flooding, local communities. In some cases, there
disaster preparedness and response are information from and practices by • To simulate future climate change
and other specific actions that communities and indigenous groups under various emission scenarios,
tackle climate change-related that can be tapped to contribute to coupled atmosphere-ocean global
issues. policies and plans and can be replicated climate models (GCMs) are usually
and scaled up. used (MacGregor, et al.). However,
Disaster risk reduction at the local level the grid resolution of the GCMs
depends on good local governance, Utilizing forecasting and simulation is typically around 200 km, which
particularly in the formulation of modelling of climate change is too coarse for most islands, or
policy, political decisionmaking and regions with steep orography or
enforcement relating to land- and Global and regional climate models complex land use. For the last ten
sea-use planning, regulatory controls, are being used to simulate and years, downscaling at the CSIRO
zoning, construction standards and forecast changes in temperature and has been performed with a variable
38 December 2010

global atmospheric model, the multiple-stress environment (Perez). barangay (village) councils. Targeted
Conformal-Cubic Atmospheric Because interconnections between public awareness campaigns facilitated
Model (CCAM). A 60-km simulation socioeconomic, environmental and greater appreciation for the economic
can provide guidance on tropical climatic stresses exist, it is essential and ecological importance of coastal
cyclones and be used to drive to mainstream disaster management ecosystems by the people. Local
other models (e.g., storm surge, and climate change adaptation and government involvement in physical
hydrological, etc.). The 60-km mitigation measures in development assessment and site selection, training
simulations of present-day rainfall in processes. Moreover, it is critical to on the importance and strengthening
Indonesia and changes predicted in increase scientific understanding and of disaster preparedness, appropriate
2080-2100 showed the tendency to develop the tools and methodologies planning and legislations, and coastal
become drier over Java and wetter (e.g., modelling and forecasting environment protection and fisheries
over Sumatra. The University of climate change impacts, monitoring, management in relation to climate
Hanoi has also started using CCAM vulnerability assessment, remote change adaptation were critical in
for regional climate simulations. It is sensing, GIS mapping, nuclear and obtaining support for the study and its
likely that PAGASA in the Philippines isotopic techniques, etc.) necessary recommendations.
will soon use CCAM for regional for incorporating climate change into
climate simulation. risk assessments and risk mitigation Adopting risk-based integrated
decisions. Efforts are being made at the land- and sea-use plan
• Future changes in temperature and national, city and village levels.
precipitation in the Philippines were Various management interventions in
simulated using the global climate In the Philippines, GIS-based maps, the form of action programs, projects,
model developed by the United which integrated several layers of and contingency plans have been
Kingdom Meteorological Office - information, have been developed developed and undertaken by various
Hadley Climate Centre for Climate (Perez). The maps illustrate risks to national and local governments in
Prediction and Research known projected rainfall change, typhoons, response to their priority concerns
as HadCM3. PRECIS, a regional El Niño, projected temperature with respect to natural and manmade
climate modelling system was increase and floods, and show areas hazards. These need to be strengthened
used to downscale the HadCM3 for where climate-related risks are most given predictions of severe events. For
1971-2000 as baseline and for future pronounced. Local governments can example, comprehensive land use plans
climate change responses (Hilario, utilize such maps for their economic of local governments in the Philippines
et al.). The model results indicate development plans and strategies on have to be updated, incorporating
that significant warming will occur disaster risk reduction and preparedness water- and coastal/sea-use plans.
in the middle of the next century and climate change adaptation. Moreover, an overall disaster response
in the Philippines, with the largest plan can be incorporated within an
warming occurring in June-July- To assess vulnerability of coastal cities, integrated land- and sea-use plan
August and March-April-May over data on socioeconomic factors, physical (Figure 8). Such plans provide direction
Mindanao. For the annual rainfall, and geological environmental factors, for future developments, reduce multiple
the model projections showed and policies were combined with climate use conflicts, enhance conservation of
large seasonal variation. Climate change scenarios (Lee, et al.). The pre- critical habitats, and provide guidance
change projections of rainfall over screening of Mokpo City in southern RO for disaster risk reduction and climate
the country indicate that June-July- Korea served as a test case to highlight change adaptation measures. To
August and September-October- the city’s exposure and its sensitivity to be more effective, these should be
November seasonal rainfall in 2020 sea level rise. combined with market-based incentives
and 2050 will exhibit increasing (e.g., user fees, tax incentives, etc.)
trends. In the municipality of Gubat in Sorsogon and enforcement of zoning and other
Province, Philippines, a scientific regulations.
Integrating disaster risk reduction study on vulnerability of specific sites
(DRR) and climate risk management to impacts of climate change was Applying the integrated
and adaptation adopted as a guide to designing and environmental impact assessment
implementing programs and activities
In a comprehensive risk assessment, on disaster risk reduction and climate An integrated environmental
climate is just one factor in a change adaptation by the concerned impact assessment (IEIA) is also
 Tropical Coasts 39

now more relevant, given that Harnessing the participatory of their regions by means of their
knowledge of cumulative impacts of approach and community-based own efforts, so that each region can
development and proper land- and disaster risk management respond autonomously in case of a
coastal use planning contribute to risk major disaster. In 2008, the National
reduction. Natural hazard thinking, Most disasters occur due to lack of Research Institute for Earth Science
which incorporates geo-hazard, understanding of the risks, no access to and Disaster Prevention (NIED) in Japan
hydro-meteorological and structural information, failure of communication, developed a participatory approach of
engineering evaluation into IEIA for weak contingency plans, and lack of scenario-based risk communication.
new coastal development projects capacity and resources for effective This approach allows the integration of
and human settlements is increasingly response and post-event recovery hazards and disaster risk data that are
gaining importance. This strategy helps efforts. Most of the plans have been scattered in multitudes of regulatory or
in: (1) improving our understanding done at the national level with little research institutions. The residents and
of vulnerability (and resilience) of participation of the stakeholders at the other stakeholders can: (i) identify and
existing infrastructure, settlement and local level. improve their awareness of risk profile
ecosystems; and (2) ensuring that new and management issues of the disaster
coastal development and infrastructure To improve disaster risk reduction and risks in terms of risk scenarios; (ii)
are not placed in vulnerable areas, and response, especially at the local or organize a variety of self-governance
will not result in further damages to community level, stakeholders need to and collaborative networks among
ecosystems, which provide important cooperatively identify the various risks, stakeholders in ordinary times; (iii)
environmental services, including understand those risks, and improve build a multi-layered network of
protection from natural hazards. the disaster prevention capabilities disaster prevention systems to make
full use of various types of regional
resources for disaster governance; and
(iv) link these efforts to specific disaster
Figure 8. Disaster Risk Reduction within an Integrated Land and Sea-Use Plan. prevention activities tailored to their
Protection communities (Tsubokawa, et al.).
As a result of the massive earthquake
Avoidance

Relocation
in Sumatra in 2004 and the tsunami
Hard
Engineering
that followed in the Indian Ocean area,
Accommodation
it was found that the early warning
Marine
Protection -
system was not effective, and disaster
Soft Engineering
prevention and response needed
to be strengthened. The Adaptive
Learning in Disaster Management for
Community Awareness and Resilience
Project (ALDC) under UNESCO/IOC
was initiated to focus on enhancing
people’s learning and participation
in the planning and coordination
of disaster warning, preparedness,
response, mitigation, and recovery
in order to build up capacity and
resilience at the community level.
• Protection — of the watershed for freshwater source The project has provided strategic
• Avoidance — future structures should not be built where the coast is highly varying integrated models and approaches
(intermittent erosion/accretion) for interagency coordination
• Relocation — there should be provisions for relocating existing structures in highly hazardous
areas and participation of all relevant
• Accommodation — disaster resistant structures are recommended for essential facilities & stakeholders for implementation at the
habitation community level in 24 schools/villages
• Soft and Hard Engineering — management of coastal integrity necessitates ensuring existence
of healthy coastal habitat that attenuate the incoming wave energy. As necessary, hard in six Andaman coastal provinces
engineering structures may also be employed. affected by the 2004 tsunami. These 24
schools/villages have developed their
Source: David, et al.
40 December 2010

mechanism. Lack of monitoring and

transparency also created the risk of
unethical outcomes and exacerbation
of underlying vulnerabilities.

b. Importance of integrating national

and local policies, development of
local capacity, and mainstreaming
informal and local initiatives

The case studies in Tien Hai, Northen

Vietnam (Powell, et al.) and Nakhon Si
The Garbage Bank project in Chonburi, Thailand promotes youth participation in solid waste management. Thammarat, Thailand (Osbeck, et al.)
argued that although conservation
policies can complement and can have
adaptive community-based disaster a. Importance of integrating formal cross-purposes with development
management practices which can be and informal governance to address policies, implementing them can create
expanded to other 490 villages in the underlying hazard vulnerabilities conflicts between policy actors (i.e.,
tsunami-affected areas of Thailand those recipients of policy interventions,
(Cherdsak). Despite the radically improved those formulating policies and
institutions and policies expected to those implementing them). This
In Ormoc City, Leyte Province, improve the disaster risk reduction observation is particularly shown
Philippines, after an extreme rainfall (DRR) and early warning system after whenever a policy is transmitted from
and flashflood event (Tropical Storm the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the national level to the local levels.
Thelma; Philippine name: Uring) in 1991 the underlying socioeconomic Powell, et al., cited several reasons
left 8,000 people dead (20 percent of vulnerabilities to natural hazards why discordance occurs, namely: (1)
the city population), a Flood Mitigation still persist. In Thailand’s tourism- poor coherence of a national policy
Committee, composed of the mayor dependent coastal communities, prescription with that of guidelines
and representatives from the national the most prominent source of post- to effect local implementation; (2) the
government, local government, tsunami resilience of communities has lack of stakeholder participation in the
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) been innovative modes of stakeholder policy development process; and (3)
and communities, was established. agency or informal governance the absence of feedback mechanisms
Structural measures were put in place, mechanisms throughout the public, between the policy actors.
and risk management interventions private and civil society sectors. These
were introduced with community include tourism bodies, enterprises, Closing the gaps:
participation, e.g., a land use plan, family-oriented business groups, What the East Asian Seas
which identifies hazard-prone areas; NGOs, elite groups, influential families Region can do
watershed management; river and others. However, such forms of
monitoring; solid waste management, collective action have largely remained Recognizing the daunting climate
etc. (Hipolito). informal and are often undermined change challenge that faces the region,
by the formal governance system. a concerted effort to mainstream climate
Mainstreaming informal On the other hand, while an informal risk management and adaptation
governance and initiatives stakeholder agency can be a positive measures into development plans
driving force in building resilience, it will have to be made internationally,
While some national policies and can also undermine formal governance regionally, and at the country and
action programs in the region systems and cause their collapse local levels — without losing focus
have started with good intentions, at the local level. In this case, a lack on sustainable development and
the implementation at the local of trust and absence of a shared poverty alleviation goals. A number of
community level has oftentimes been vision of desirable resilience among recommendations were given at the
weak or done informally. The following competing stakeholders from the conclusion of the workshops on climate
cases show key issues and lessons government, private and civil society change and disaster management
learned: sectors weakened the governance during the EAS Congress 2009.
 Tropical Coasts 41

a. Policy and enabling environment • In addressing global change issues, • Capacity-building activities and
including climate change, it is technology exchange are essential
Allowing for ‘business-as-usual’ and imperative to develop national to equip coastal communities
‘science-as-usual’ are no longer framework and strategies and to with the capacity for adaptation
acceptable, as the cost to human strengthen local implementation to climate change, for deploying
societies and ecosystems is too high. and enforcement. Mechanisms for and monitoring appropriate
co-management by governments mitigation measures, and to use
• ICM is a good approach to address and local communities for disaster new technologies.
rapid environmental change, risk reduction and climate change
climate change adaptation, and adaptation should be explored/ • Development of capability to
sustainable development goals. strengthened. generate and interpret computer
modelling results, GIS maps
• Disaster risk reduction and climate • Poverty alleviation measures and vulnerability assessments is
change response strategies contribute to climate change needed for formulation of policies
must simultaneously consider all adaptation by reducing and action programs, and dialogue
components of the ecosystems vulnerabilities and enhancing with users and other stakeholders.
and socioeconomic system rather resiliency. International and Capacities of stakeholders to use
than specific functions in isolation. national commitments and efforts information and communication
to meet the MDGs must be given technology (ICT) for disaster
• Local adaptation using ICM tools, top priority and continuously risk reduction need to be
such as integrated land- and pursued. strengthened.
sea-use planning, setback and
hazard zones and permits, should b. Capacity development and • In order to strengthen the
be implemented using climate technology transfer initiatives at the local, national and
change science. regional levels and share good
Capacity development for institutions practices and lessons learned, a
• The longer-term mitigation involved in the planning and regional training course on disaster
efforts and adaptation responses management of responses in vulnerable management should be designed
to climate variability need to sectors and regions is one of the most and developed, especially for
be coupled with shorter-term pressing climate change needs in the middle-level management.
disaster risk reduction responses region. Integration of climate change
to extreme events to ensure a impact and adaptation considerations • Local communities need to
comprehensive risk management into development planning is a be empowered to become
approach as well as guarantee relatively new policy area. responsible stewards of their
food and water security, resources to prevent the
biodiversity and ecosystem
integrity, and community
resiliency as well as reduce losses
and damage costs.

• Institutional arrangements that

would allow more effective
collaboration and coordination
among different government
agencies, non-State organizations,
academic and scientific
community and local stakeholders,
and mainstreaming of informal
initiatives are essential for early
warning, disaster prevention and
response, and climate change
Radio drama (play) recording is used as a participatory disaster risk communication tool in Japan.
adaptation. Photo: National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention
42 December 2010

• Information, education and

communication (IEC) campaigns
will help the public understand
how to limit the causes and deal
with the consequences of climate
change.

e. Partnership synergies

Enhancing mitigation efforts and

adaptive capacity of Asian populations
and ecosystems will require multiple
actions at various levels. Given that
Sihanoukville in Cambodia practices community-based waste management. climate change is a cross-cutting issue,
coordination among international
marginalization of local people, • Innovative financing mechanisms and development agencies and
establish robust local institutions, are needed by developing governments, and engagement of
ensure the sustainability of countries to: undertake research, different sectors and stakeholders as
marine resource conservation for climate change modelling, partners are needed to work towards
climate adaptation, diversify local vulnerability assessment, and global and local solutions.
economies and livelihoods, and comprehensive risk assessment;
enhance resiliency in the face of deploy green, environment- • Local governments: Given
disasters and climate change. friendly and climate-friendly the ‘front line’ status of local
technologies; shift to clean governments, they can provide
c. Financing power generation; climate-proof the political leadership, work with
infrastructure; and carry out local stakeholders, make available
A sufficient level of financing needs other mitigation and adaptation data that reflect realities from
to be mobilized to meet the climate measures. the ground, and give feedback
change adaptation and mitigation from a local perspective on
requirements. However, an assessment d. Knowledge management how disaster risk reduction, and
of the current financial instruments climate change mitigation and
available to support adaptation in Asia • A regional platform to support adaptation actions are being
suggests that the amount of resources adaptation efforts through integrated in the local sustainable
flowing through such instruments the creation of a regional development processes.
is inadequate. Nonetheless, existing clearinghouse for databases and a
funding sources can provide initial compendium of good adaptation • Private sector: Mobilization of
support and can be used to catalyze practices should be explored. and partnership with the private
additional financing and investments: sector to address environmental
• Scientists need to be trained and climate issues, initiate
• National and local governments in communication in order to investments in clean technologies
and their constituents should effectively raise public awareness and waste management, and
work together in planning the and work with local governments contribute to habitat and
allocation of funds and budget and communities in formulating resource conservation efforts is
specifications. local adaptation plans and essential.
actions.
• Impediments to access to • Academe, research and
international fund mechanisms, • Good practices have been scientific sector: Engagement
such as the clean development developed and implemented, of academicians and scientists is
mechanism, climate investment and need to be shared, replicated increasingly becoming important
funds, carbon markets, etc., by and scaled up to cover more to predict and explain climate
developing countries and local communities, and expanded to changes and impacts, and
governments, must be addressed. cover multi-hazard frameworks. provide inputs to disaster risk
 Tropical Coasts 43

Selected Conclusions and Recommendations for some workshops under Theme 2: Natural and
Man-made Hazard Prevention and Management
Presented by Theme Chair: Dr. Cherdsak Virapat

Workshop 2 - Meeting Challenges of Climate Change at the Local Level through ICM

Conclusions:
• Adaptation occurs at local to regional scales. Improved scientific information is needed at the local level.
• Adaptation requires anticipation, investment in information, data, equipment, and warning systems, through international,
regional cooperation and networking.
• Adaptation measures need to be included in national economic development and strategic plans.
• Mainstreaming of disaster and risk management.
• Decision-making, plans, strategies need to have a science-base and common sense, and need traditional knowledge of local
communities.
• Perception and attitude change is required among stakeholders with respect to integrated management and human security.
• Tourism and insurance sectors are highly motivated to be associated with ICM and climate change adaptation measures.
• ICM is a good approach to address climate change adaptation measures and development.

Recommendations
• Local adaptation, using existing ICM tools such as zoning schemes with setbacks, hazard zones and permit systems should be
implemented based on existing climate change science.
• Local governments and their constituencies need to work together in planning the allocation of funds and budget
specifications.
• Scientists need better communication with local communities and local governments, as adaptation is site specific.
• Awareness creation and capacity building are required at the local level, including capacity to generate and interpret high
resolution data and computer modeling results, as well as other new and innovative technologies.

Workshop 3 - Impacts of Climate Change at the Coastal and Ocean Areas of the East Asian Seas Region

• Active discussion and sharing of experiences between natural and social scientists and policymakers facilitates reaching a
common understanding of climate change issues as they affect vulnerability and adaptation in coastal settings.
• East Asia’s very rapid environmental change emphasizes the need for integrated coastal management approaches.
• Disaster risk reduction strategies must simultaneously consider all components of the ecosystems rather than specific
functions in isolation.
• In addressing global change issues, including climate change, as they affect coastal environments in East Asia, it is imperative
to consider national frameworks but local implementation and enforcement.
• Allowing for “business-as-usual” and “science-as-usual” scenarios is no longer acceptable as the cost to ecosystems and human
societies is too high.
• Disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation must be integrated into development planning.
• A re-commitment to the achievement of the MDG goals to reduce poverty is of paramount importance in reducing
vulnerability of coastal communities to climate change.

Special Session on Disaster Management

• Immediate attention for countries and governments is to co-manage disaster management with local communities focusing
on an adaptive management approach, and sharing of knowledge and lessons learned, planning and implementation of
community-based disaster management.
• Civil society and academic institutions have important roles to play in early warning, mitigation and preparedness at the
national and local levels.
• A sustainable regional training course on multi-hazards disaster management cycle is needed for middle-level management
government officials.
• Major challenges remains, such as communication gaps among interagency departments and between governments and
communities for effective early warning, mitigation, preparedness and response.
• Good practices have been developed and need to be shared, scaled up and expanded to cover multi-hazard frameworks and
communities.
44 December 2010

management plans and climate upon us. Political and public debate changes in practices of households
change strategies. — regarding global warming and and communities when replicated
its causes, degree of likely impacts, by hundreds of millions of people
• Civil society: Cooperation of civil irreversibility, and policies and actions can make an enormous difference
society groups is particularly to be taken in response — rages on. — making it possible to reverse the
critical to identify community It has been argued that regardless of tragedy of the global commons.
vulnerabilities, evaluate and the economic, scientific and technical
implement adaptation and options, the difficulty of achieving Acknowledgements:
mitigation measures, and to help concerted political action on climate
ensure bottom-up ownership of change, particularly on the significant Co-convenors:
disaster risk management actions. reduction of GHG emissions and
Theme 2 Workshop 2: United Nations
arresting rainforest conversion, Development Programme, Manila
• Media: Partnership with the requires a mix of approaches and
media is vital to raise awareness actions at different levels and of Theme 2 Workshop 3: World Maritime
on the causes, dynamics and various sectors. University; Ministry of Land,
adverse impacts of climate Transportation and Maritime Affairs,
RO Korea; Swedish Environmental
change as well as solution The question is no longer whether Secretariat for Asia
options. From print to multimedia we can afford to do anything about
campaign, information on the global warming, but whether we can Special Session on Disaster Management:
latest developments in policy, afford not to. Climate change, if not International Geographical Union
science, and technology need to addressed adequately, could seriously
be disseminated, and stories of hinder the region’s sustainable Presentations
good practices in climate change development efforts, jeopardize the
Theme 2 Workshop 2: Meeting Challnges
mitigation and adaptation need gains made on poverty alleviation, and of Climate Change at the Local Level
to be told. worse, irreversibly change the planet. Through ICM
As climate change effects continue
• Communities: National strategies and increase over the short-to- Baylon, A. ”Addressing Climate change
concerns in Bataan and Manila Bay
for addressing climate change medium term, and threaten increasing
through Public-Private Partnerships:
can succeed only with the full numbers of people, infrastructure, and The Bataan Coastal Care Foundation
participation of the general public ecosystems, we need to collectively Experience.”
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Areas: A Community-based Adaptation
activities in a way that reduces politically achievable. Moreover,
Approach.”
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water and energy, and protects challenges and needs to prepare Dieu, N. “Effectiveness of ICM towards
the environment. and act accordingly, commitment Climate Change Adaptation in Danang.”
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Diposaptono. “Climate Change Adaptation
Looking ahead — among countries and among
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“Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping in
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the MDGs is still a daunting task. workable. Efforts of national and
Kanchanopas-Barnette, Chatchai Thimkrajang
Compounding this problem is the local governments, scientists, NGOs,
and Kashane Chalermwat. “Enhancing
fact that climate change is clearly development agencies and even small Multi-sectoral Coordination and

*
Indicators of non-income poverty (or wellbeing) include education, health, nutrition, child mortality, housing, and access to water and
sanitation.
 Tropical Coasts 45

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Ho, J. and J. Ng. “The Arctic Meltdown and its Southern Ayeyarwady River Delta of Cooperation Agency (SIDA). 2009.
Implications on Shipping.” Myanmar in Early May 2008.” Cambodia Environmental and Climate
Change Policy Brief.
Kim, S. and Loh-Lee Low. “Emerging Issues Minoru Kamoto. “Flood and Sediment
of East Asian Fisheries Production in Management in Philippines, in View of World Health Organization. 2009. Regional
conjunction with Changes in Climate and Cooperation.” Framework for Action to Protect Human
Social Systems in the 21st Century.” Health from Effects of Climate Change in
Murooka, Mizue, et al. Numerical Analyses the Asia-Pacific Region.
Kitagawa, H.. “Shipping and Climate Change of Flood Control Basin Capability in the
in East Asia: The Impacts of the Opening of Middle Part of the Amur River.”
the North-East Passage.”
46 December 2010

Authors
Dr. Ki Dai Kim, Principal Research Scientist, Korea Ocean Research Development Institute (KORDI)
Mr. Alex S. W. Retraubun, Director General for Marine Coasts and Small Islands, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries,
Indonesia (MOMAF)
Engr. Raul C. Sabularse, Deputy Director, Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research and Development (PCIERD)
Dr. Choi Sang-Ki, Vice President, Korea Environmental Institute (KEI)
Dr. Vicente Tuddao, Executive Director, River Basin Control Office
Dr. Won Tae-Shin, Programme Specialist, PEMSEA
Ms. Kazumi Wakita, Programme Officer for Partnership Programs, PEMSEA
Ms. Maria Corazon Ebarvia, Consultant, PEMSEA

The Nexus of Water, Energy,

Food and Environment:
CREATING
The picture of a ‘Blue Planet’ from
space forever changed our perspective
of the world we live in. It highlights

A RIPPLE
our uniqueness and exposes our
vulnerability at the same time.
When you look at so many of the
world’s environmental problems,

EFFECT
and socioeconomic and political
issues, we can find a link; we can link
it back to water. Water is the thread
that links the web of food, energy,
environment, climate, biodiversity,
economic development and human
Water is our lifeblood, covering our security challenges (Box 1). As the
oceans, flowing through our most indispensable commodity of
landscapes, rivers and lakes, spanning human life, water becomes the central
theme of the world’s environment
our atmosphere, and fuelling the and development instruments. This is
processes that sustain all living things. because there are no alternatives to
water. This is our predicament: there is
no way of maintaining life and achieving
sustainable development without
securing water. As water becomes
 Tropical Coasts 47

Changes in demands, priorities, and helping cool the planet involves a

and environmental conditions all difficult balancing act and tough choices
pose considerable challenges to the to make. Water must be addressed in
government policy- and decision- its entirety, in relation to agriculture,
makers, planners, scientists, engineers, food production, industrial use, and in
economists, and other professionals ecosystem preservation (Sachs, 2009).
responsible for managing our water
resources and our watershed, river and Inextricably Linked by
coastal systems. Adding to the challenge Water
is climate change, which affects the
hydrological cycle. With anticipated We forget that the water cycle and
Weather variability, climate change, population growth put a
lot of pressure on water resources to meet ever increasing and increase in climatic uncertainties, the the life cycle are one.
competing demands for municipal water supply, irrigation and
hydropower.
problem of water scarcity is expected to - Jacques Cousteau
be exacerbated in years to come. How
scarce, water security also develops into to achieve growth and development Despite the vast amount of water on
an increasing and serious concern in and alleviate poverty while saving the planet, decades of unsustainable
most of the countries, and could even our water resources and environment management mean that water
lead to geopolitical instability within and shortages have reached a crisis point
between countries. in many regions (Figure 1). Globally,
humans appropriate more than 50
The causes of water scarcity are plentiful: percent of all renewable and accessible
population growth, pollution, oscillation freshwater, while billions still lack
between El Niño and La Niña, and failure the most basic water services (Pacific
in policy and management, such as Institute, 2009). Water security can
disparities between water supply and be defined as the ability to access
demand, weak water use regulation sufficient quantities of clean water to
and enforcement, over-allocation of maintain adequate standards of food
water permits or licenses, overextraction and goods production, sanitation and
of groundwater resources as well as health as well as maintain ecosystems.
There is a need to improve irrigation efficiency to conserve
inefficient water use stimulated by surface and groundwater - producing more crop per drop and Water, in absolute terms, is not in short
inadequate water pricing, among others. more value per drop.
supply in the world. The earth is a
48 December 2010

Box 1. Our Water Insecure World.

• 2003: According to United Nations Secretary-General world. Does access to water lie at the centre of the food-
Ban Ki-Moon, the fighting in Darfur, Sudan, resulted from energy-trade nexus?
water shortage: Fighting broke out between farmers and
herders after the rains failed and water became scarce.” • 2015: The target year for achieving the millennium
Will water become a consistent flash point for conflict? development goals, but over 40 percent of the planet’s
population still does not have adequate access to
• 2008: Barcelona begins to import drinking water; Istanbul sanitation facilities. Is a world system that fails to deliver
and Atlanta came close to dry out. Are these patterns the on this most basic water service to upwards of 2 billion
future of water scarcity for richer cities? people living on borrowed time with regards to political
stability?
• 2008: Due to domestic water constraints, Saudi Arabia
makes a policy decision to stop being food self-sufficient. • 2020: As predicted by the IPCC in 2007, there are now up
It becomes a cash-rich, water poor state, searching for to 250 million climate change refugees in Africa, as water
water and food outside its borders. Is this the future of insecurity causes a 50 percent drop in yields from rain-
water geopolitics? fed agriculture in less than a generation. Will cash-poor,
water-poor states simply start failing?
• 2008: The rising costs of oil-based and food stuff
commodities start to threaten social stability around the Source: World Economic Forum. 2009. Managing our Future Water Needs

Figure 1. Status of water scarcity.

Source: International Water Management Institute - 2007. Comprehensive Assessement of Water Management in Agriculture. National Research Council, 2009.
 Tropical Coasts 49

Figure 2. Water availability vs. water quality in Asia.

Source: UNESCAP, 2006.

water-rich planet, with annual human increased by 60 percent in 2025, but impacts of water shortages, quantity-
and animal consumption that is less Asia accounts for only 36 percent of the and quality-wise. Waterborne diseases
than one percent of the world’s total world’s water (Asia Society’s Leadership account for roughly 80 percent of
water supply. What is in short supply Group on Water Security, 2009). infections in the developing world.
is clean and safe water that people Moreover, around 477 million people Increased competition from different
can afford to buy. Some countries face in this region have no access to safe users has been a source of tension in
actual physical water scarcity wherein water supplies, and 1.8 billion people many places around the world.
water resource development exceeds have no access to improved sanitation
sustainable limits or where more than (UNICEF-WHO Joint Monitoring Yet, the way we manage our water
75 percent of river flows have already Programme, 2010). Most of the Asian resources is still fragmented,
been withdrawn for agricultural, cities discharge their wastewater compartmentalizing each activity
industrial and domestic uses. However, untreated – polluting groundwater, and water use, and forgetting the
some countries face only economic rivers and coasts. Between 30 percent fundamental linkages and the ripple
water scarcity – human, institutional and 70 percent of drinking water in the effects that can be created both
and financial capacities limit access region is unaccounted for, partly due to upstream and downstream. Water for
to water supplies even though water leaking pipes (McIntosh, 2003). In this drinking, irrigation, energy, industrial
resources are available to meet local setting, Asia and Pacific is facing serious use, sanitation, waste management,
water demands. water challenges to sustain population navigation, and protecting ecosystems
and economic growth as water is has been treated separately, with
What is the water situation in Asia? needed for basic needs, growing cities, distinct management, political and
Very serious. The water challenge in food and energy (Jønch Clausen). economic structures.
Asia stems mainly from the growth in Many Asian and Pacific countries are
population and economy. More than already using too much of their water Water and Energy Security: Yin and
60 percent of the world’s population resources, and suffer from both the Yang
live in Asia and Pacific, two-thirds of least available water and the worst
the global population growth occurs water quality (Figure 2) (UNESCAP, Limits to energy are beginning to affect
in this region, urban population will be 2005; 2006). There are significant health water systems and limits to water are
50 December 2010

beginning to affect energy systems.

Figure 3. Water for Energy, Energy for Water
Yet energy issues and water issues
are rarely integrated in policymaking.
The decisions being made today
regarding the management of
water and energy resources will
deeply affect our socioeconomic
and environmental future. Moreover,
climate change and other stresses
are limiting the availability of clean
water and affordable energy. Drastic
changes in rainfall patterns and severe
droughts affect water reservoirs and
hydropower systems. Even thermal
power plants, which use water for
cooling, are affected by drought.

It takes a considerable amount of Source: Paul Reiter / International Water Association

water to produce energy (hydropower
generation, thermal and nuclear
cooling, cultivating biofuel crops), for more energy will drive demand for shows the amount of water needed
and it requires a significant amount more water; demand for more water to produce energy, by type. Water
of energy to deliver water (to collect, will drive demand for more energy is needed by industry and power
convey, treat water and wastewater; (Figure 3). plants for cooling processes. Even if
distribute water; pump groundwater; most of the water withdrawn is not
and desalinate sea water). Both water Energy production accounts for about consumed, it is returned to the water
and energy are used to produce crops 39 percent of all water withdrawals body after a rise in temperature,
– crops for food and crops that can in the United States (and 3 percent thereby creating thermal pollution,
be used to generate energy through consumption) and 31 percent of all which affects fisheries and aquatic
biofuels. In a situation of increasing water withdrawals in the EU (World ecosystems. Energy conservation
urbanization and incomes, demand Economic Forum, 2009). Box 2 measures can therefore help reduce

Box 2. Water Required to Deliver Energy. Box 3. Energy Required to Produce Water.

Water consumed to produce 1 MWh of electricity:

Wind turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 m3/MWh

Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 m3/MWh
Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 m3/MWh
Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7-3.0 m3/MWh
Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9-3.3 m3/MWh
Oil/petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.1-6.5 m3/MWh
Hydropower (from evaporation) . . . . . . . . . 17.0 m3/MWh
First generation biofuels*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3-360.0 m3/MWh

* The water intensity of biofuel feedstocks depends on the

feedstock used and where and how it is grown. Irrigated crops
are much more water intensive than non-irrigated ones. The
higher numbers shown represent crops that are irrigated, while
Source: Scientific American, 2008, with amended data from GHD.
the lower numbers represent non-irrigated crops.

Source: World Economic Forum, 2009.

 Tropical Coasts 51

Figure 4. Selected impacts by climate change in the Asia-Pacific region.

Source: UNESCAP, 2006.

water consumption, and consequently, Water and Food Security: Glimpses the pressure on existing water resources,
conserve water resources. of the Future and consequently on food production.
To meet increasing demand for food
On the other hand, a large amount The volatility in food prices in 2008 and water, there is a need to increase
of energy is expended to collect should be treated as an early warning the productivity of water already in use,
water at source, convey, treat, sign of what is to come. Projected producing more crops per drop and
distribute and use water as well population increases require additional more value per drop — for food, for jobs,
as to treat wastewater (Box 3). food production, and growing wealth for health, and for the environment.
Energy needs will increase in the in countries, such as China and India, This requires: (a) policy reforms in water
areas where groundwater levels further increases per capita food management and institutional change
are decreasing. This indicates that consumption. However, food security — solutions that are not expensive,
water-oriented strategies can result does not depend on total food but tough to achieve; and (b) adoption
in significant reductions in energy production alone, but rather on access of innovative technologies (e.g., drip
use and greenhouse gas emissions. to food, and food that is affordable. irrigation systems) — solutions that
Understanding the energy and carbon often require capital investments,
implications of water use can inform Moreover, growing competition which may be beyond the reach of
resource management and policy between agricultural and urban uses small farmers, as well as capacity
decisions, and influence the actions of of high-quality freshwater supplies, development. Both solution options
people in important ways. particularly in arid, semi-arid, and require time. Adding another facet to
densely populated areas, will increase food security is energy security. Some
52 December 2010

actions taken in response to finding

alternative sources of energy, such as the
recent expansion of crop production for
biofuels, have placed greater demand
on valuable water supplies, posing a
threat to food security. Food crops now
have to compete with energy crops for
scarce water.

We also have to consider the

environmental impacts of increased
food production. Agricultural crops,
livestock, and fisheries are completely
dependent on predictable supply
and good quality of fresh or marine Figure 5. Principles and structure of IWRM (UNESCO, 2009).
water. Approximately 80 percent of all
freshwater consumed on the planet Global warming will hit through water, Debates regarding the proper balance
is devoted to agricultural production, for example, by changes in hydrological between using river systems and
often in irrigated systems that are cycle (evaporation, runoff and water coastal areas to support economic
inefficient and environmentally temperature), increased variability activities and growth, and ensuring
unsustainable. More land is needed in extremes (floods, droughts and ecological preservation, date back
for crop and livestock production, cyclones), and accelerated sea level rise. to more than one hundred years,
and so more forest and watershed As a consequence, the mega-deltas of perhaps since the time of the
areas have been cleared. Living Asia, the small island states, and mega- Industrial Revolution, although the
aquatic resources harvested from both coastal cities will be hotspots of impacts concept of sustainable development
freshwater and marine ecosystems, of climate change. Figure 4 shows the came to the fore only in the past two
including aquaculture systems, supply potential impacts in different countries decades. These issues have grown
15-20 percent of the animal protein in the Asia-Pacific region. in importance over time, as growing
consumed worldwide. However, the population, rapid urbanization and
increase in aquaculture farms has When water is the conveyor of negative industrialization, shifting economic
been accompanied by destruction of impacts of climate change, water values and social preferences, and
mangroves and degradation of coastal should be at the center of climate important traditional uses all place
aquifers due to overextraction of change mitigation and adaptation. demands on the planet’s freshwater
groundwater in many areas. Livestock Without water as part of the equation, resources.
wastes, agricultural runoff and feeds there can be no long-term solution to
from aquaculture farms are also climate change. Adaptation to climate Rivers play a central role in the lives
affecting the quality of water bodies. change involves both hard and soft of millions of people, especially in
solutions. Hard solutions include dams, Asia. Ancient civilizations prospered
Water and Climate Change: Parts of dikes, levees, sewer networks, drainage along the banks and delta of
a Single Equation canals, and desalination whereas soft Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus
solutions include demand management and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow
As atmospheric concentration of carbon through the 3Rs (Recharge, Retention Rivers. Up until the present, rivers
dioxide is increasing, global warming and Recycle), enhanced efficiency, reuse, provide fish, fresh water, fertile
will also continue for some considerable watershed management, flood proofing, silt, transportation, recreation, and
time in the future. Global warming flood retention measures, insurance, and many other essential functions.
causes serious problems in food, water, global trade/virtual water. Ecosystems, such as well-managed
ecosystems, extreme weather events, river basins and forests, control runoff
and irreversible changes and these Making Ends Meet and siltation and provide natural
negative consequences are already purification processes and regulate
happening across the world (Stern, We all end in the ocean water flows. However, rivers and their
2007). IPCC report suggests that five key We all start in the streams catchments — the lifeblood of the
impacts of global warming, i.e., water, We’re all carried along region — are increasingly threatened
ecosystems, food, coasts and health, By the river of dreams. by ill-conceived development
are all linked to water (IPCC, 2007). - Billy Joel schemes. Industrial, agricultural,
 Tropical Coasts 53

domestic water and energy uses can Working towards an integrated management (ICM) as one of the
have adverse impacts on ecosystems, agenda sustainable development aspects
including loss of habitat, pollution (Figure 6). The two management
and changes in biological processes. As an internationally promoted frameworks, IWRM and ICM, share
Such ecosystem impacts also affect management framework, integrated common characteristics including
the amount of water supplies, and the water reasources management (IWRM) intersectoral and functional integration,
ability of water resources to sustain is usually adopted for freshwater stakeholder participation, conflict
ecosystem functions and support management. It is also widely accepted resolution, adaptive management
socioeconomic benefits. that IWRM is considered as the best and systematic approach, and
approach to address the impacts of ecosystem-based management. The
Impacts of climate change will also climate change in the water sector (5th two approaches are also equally
materialize through our rivers. We World Water Forum, 2009). IWRM is recommended by a number of
may not be able to avoid the worst founded on three pillars of principles, international instruments, such as
impacts of climate change, but namely: economic efficiency; equity; WSSD, Agenda 21 and UNFCCC.
a sustained effort to implement and environmental sustainability
mitigation measures (e.g., water and (Figure 5). IWRM is a process which Being the major water resources in
energy conservation, rehabilitation promotes the coordinated development Asia, rivers affect coastal areas through
of forest and watershed areas, use of and management of water, land and sediment transport and water quality
renewable energy) and “no regrets” related resources in order to maximize and quantity. Hence, river basin and
adaptation measures, such as disaster the resulting economic and social coastal area should be considered as
risk management, better flood welfare in an equitable manner without one continuum and as one system. For
warning and evacuation systems, and compromising the sustainability of vital example, building dams in the upper
improved groundwater management ecosystems (Global Water Partnership, Mekong River will severely affect the
could enable even the poorest 2000). On the other hand, water in ecosystems of the downstream areas,
countries to avoid the worst flood and the coastal area is managed within the delta of the river and eventually
drought disasters. the framework of integrated coastal the coast. Also, in Bangladesh, the

Figure 6. Framework for Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas through ICM Implementation
(PEMSEA, 2007).
54 December 2010

Figure 7. Various management frameworks for upstream-downstream and coastal areas.

Source: Clausen, 2009.

changes in snowmelt caused by climate DPR Korea. In 2009, DPR Korea began Realizing that the successful
change will affect the flood pattern, focusing on the development of a implementation of the long-term plan is
which will in turn affect the downstream long-term plan for Taedong River as highly dependent on the solidity of the
development plans, such as hydropower a government priority. Taedong River management platform and the capacity
construction, irrigation plan and zoning flows through Pyongyang, the capital of human resources, the government
scheme. of the country, and reaches the West decided to include the Taedong River
Sea at Nampho City. Management as a part of the ICM scaling
Given this situation, ICM is expanding its up program (Ri). The implementation
management boundaries to upstream Providing valuable water resources of the Taedong River management
areas, which is called functional to the country’s populous cities, plan is expected to contribute to
expansion linking upstream and the Taedong River is facing various the achievement of the goals of the
downstream. Scaling up of ICM to threats, such as: variability of water Sustainable Development Strategy for
include river basins has been attempted resources induced by climate change; the Seas of East Asia (SDS-SEA).
in ICM sites like Xiamen, PR China and overexploitation of forests; and
Nampho, DPR Korea. There is a need to deterioration of water quality due to Improving River Basin Management
link the two management frameworks residential and industrial activities. through Lessons Learned from ICM
for better coordination between To reverse the deteriorating quality
upstream and downstream. One such of the river, the long-term Taedong The ICARM approach is gaining interest
linkage can be illustrated through the River Management Plan covers five in PR China due to its holistic view on
application of integrated coastal area strategic areas: constructing reservoirs environment, economic and social
and river basin management (ICARM) for maximizing the water storing aspects of a sustainable society. For this
programme (Figure 7). capacity; developing programme reason, many integrated watershed or
of water re-use; developing regular river basin and coastal management
Securing Water Resources through environmental monitoring system programmes are now in place in this
ICM Scaling up and control; developing programme country.
for modernization of sewage
Since 2000, DPR Korea has been purification facility; and developing In Fujian Province, China, the Jiulong
implementing the ICM program and plan for arrangement of ports. River provides water to 5 million
projects. The designation of Nampho Various preliminary studies, including residents of Xiamen, Zhangzhou, and
as one of PEMSEA ICM demonstration river profiling and framework plan Lonyan City and accounts for 25 percent
sites in 2001 has been the fuel for the development have been conducted. of GDP of the province (Peng). However,
development of ICM policy within with the rapid economic growth of the
 Tropical Coasts 55

province, the river is facing numerous Such problems have been addressed in for water storage and multi-purpose
environmental problems, including Xiamen through ICM. The second cycle use. As a consequence, annual river
discharge of polluted water that causes ICM plan in Xiamen includes the scaling discharges were reduced significantly
eutrophication and red tides (harmful up of ICM to incorporate Jiulong River causing decreased nutrients and
algal blooms), reduction of fish species, Basin Management. freshwater flows into the seas, which
and degradation of ecosystems. Hence, resulted in declining coastal fisheries
the Fujian Province initiated the Jiulong The conclusion of the evaluation study and seaweed production. Dams have
River Water Management Plan (JLRWMP), is that the most important consideration been blamed to be the main cause of
an integrated watershed management for a successful implementation of a diminishing stock of migratory fish
plan. watershed programme is the political species. Hence, the concept of “Water for
and institutional will of the local the Sea” was introduced, and a law (the
After ten years of implementation, government which is very dependent Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas Restoration
the evaluation of the JLRWMP and on the economic situation of the local Act in 2002) has been enacted to resolve
the gap analysis on the plan revealed setting. Hence, it was recommended that the conflict between fisheries and other
that it is only partially successful, designing a watershed management sectors related to water use. This law
and showed various implementation programme should consider the local aims to address water for transboundary
gaps. Although the plan succeeded in and site-specific social, economic and use, fisheries, and river and coastal
COD discharge reduction, policy and political background. environment.
institutional problems remain, such
as: (a) lack of integrated watershed From Conflict to Cooperation: In Okayama prefecture in western
management approach to address Balancing Freshwater and Coastal Japan, several consultations among
transboundary pollution issues; (b) no Water Uses the concerned sectors were conducted
established coordinating mechanism to resolve the conflict between the
at the watershed scale; (c) the lack of As a water-scarce country, Japan has operation of the dam and fisheries.
public participation; (d) ambitious goal a long history of managing water as a Discharges from dams of Takahashi
setting which is not science-based; (e) valuable resource with sophisticated River and Yoshii River were increased
improper institutional arrangements; laws and regulations in place. Almost all to support the seaweed culture
(f) low rank of responsible authority; rivers in the country have several dams during winter season in 2006. The
and (g) and limited resources (Peng). constructed along their path to the sea national administrator of the dams

Protected Punggol-
Unprotected Catchment Serangoon
Urban
Catchment Stormwater
Collection
Marina System
Basin

Unprotected Water Catchment

Protected Water Catchment

Proposed Water Catchment

Figure 8. Singapore – A city built on water catchment.

Source: Yeo/PUB Singapore
56 December 2010

Figure 9. Comparison of bottled water and oil in various countries.

Source: Kim

and rivers took this action as an territory as water catchment and will Barrage became a center of lifestyle
emergency measure. As shown in the be increasing the catchment area to destination and tourist attraction of
case of Okayama prefecture, public two-thirds of its territory in 2011 (Figure Singapore. As a project of then Prime
consultations and citizens’ participation 8). Through the building of the Marina Minister Lee Kuan Yew in 1987, the
are considered essential in conflict Barrage, the country is able to secure Marina Barrage is also a demonstration
resolution in water use between sectors. more than 90 percent of water needs of how important the political will
It is also critical to re-optimize the within the country, importing only 10 of a leader is for securing water
operations of major dams by improving percent (Yeo). The Barrage provides resource. To share water solutions
environmental flows while maintaining three benefits, namely: water supply, based on Singapore’s experience, PUB,
water supply, hydropower and flood flood control and lifestyle attraction in the national water agency, annually
control benefits. downtown Singapore. Also, Singapore organizes the Singapore International
is utilizing advanced membrane Water Week.
Confronting Water Scarcity: Progress technologies for desalinating seawater
and Initiatives to increase water security. More than 97 percent of water on earth
is saltwater. As the population grows
Water security is being addressed in Considering the high population and freshwater resources are limited,
many countries through a combination around the barrage, maintaining water the world is turning their eyes to the
of technical solutions (dams and quality is also a challenge. Therefore, sea. Long considered as the Holy Grail
reservoirs, diversion of river flows the government set out the integrated of water supply, desalination offers
and desalination) and market-based catchment management programme the promise of an unlimited source
solutions, involving water allocation which comprises four main strategies: of freshwater purified from the vast
rights, water licenses, tradable rights, source control; applying mitigation oceans that surround us. Singapore is
pricing, and other demand-side measure; water quality monitoring the exemplary case for using innovative
management instruments. and prediction using modeling; and technology for securing water. Today,
As a small island country, securing stakeholder participation. water from desalination and wastewater
water in Singapore is treated equally reuse through membrane technology
as securing its independence. In this Completed in 2009 and employing the is one of the main sources of drinking
situation, Singapore uses half of its state-of-art technologies, the Marina water in Singapore.
 Tropical Coasts 57

The potential benefits of seawater recycling and reuse, and implementing relatively underdeveloped compared
desalination are great and it is already smart land use planning (Global Water to the large cities in the country. It is
vital for economic development in Partnership, 2000). expected that the project will provide
many arid and water-short areas of comprehensive solutions to drought
the world, but the economic, cultural, In RO Korea, the government is and flooding, improve water quality,
and environmental costs of wide embarking on the restoration of major and boost the local economy. The
commercialization remain high, rivers to address water security issues. project, costing more than US$22 billion
e.g., high capital cost, high energy Having one-eighth of the global over four years, is a good example of
consumption, and environmental issues average for available water per capita demonstrating how important water
related to the rejects. Many plants per year, RO Korea is considered as a security is in RO Korea. As a leading
are overly expensive, inaccurately water-scarce country (Lee). Confronted research institute in water management
promoted, poorly designed, with unequal seasonal distribution of and policies in RO Korea, the Korea
inappropriately sited, and ultimately precipitation, increasing water demand Environment Institute is providing
useless (Cooley, Gleick and Wolff, 2006). and deteriorating surface water research support and solution options
quality, RO Korea is facing challenges for the project.
The public, politicians, and water of securing water for economic growth
managers continue to hope that and meeting high standards of living. In The municipality of Bani in Pangasinan
cost-effective and environmentally addition, climatic variability is causing Province, Philippines, is implementing
safe ocean desalination will come to frequent droughts and floods. Lack of the Water for Life program for securing
the rescue of water-short regions. overarching authority and fragmented its water resources from various threats,
Many research institutions, including responsibilities in water management such as crowded fish traps in the river
the Gwangju Institute of Science and within the government is also a that impede ingress and egress of water,
Technology (GIST) in RO Korea, are problem. the planned operation of a quarry plant
devoted to developing technologies in adjacent municipalities, and natural
to make the desalination with low To resolve the water challenges, hazards like floods. The dismantling of
energy consumption, low fouling the government set out a holistic fish traps and nullification of the plan
rate, and efficient scaling up to large- project entitled “the Four Major River for the quarry plant operation took
scale desalination plants (Kim Joon Restoration Project” which aims to several years to resolve as they were
Ha). It is expected that desalination address water supply, flood control, brought to the court for a hearing and
will become an affordable option for water quality improvement and decision (Navarro).
meeting water needs in some areas. ecosystem restoration (Figure 10). The
For example, California Tap water costs project also intends to develop the land One of the Water for Life program
about US$0.5/m3 which is similar to areas along the four major rivers (Han components is the scientific survey
the price of desalinated water from River, Nakdong River, Geum River, and of groundwater resources of Bani.
large-scale desalination plants (Figure Seomjin and Youngsan River), which are This has been conducted within four
9). Considering that the current price
of bottled water is about US$1/L and
gasoline for US$1.05/L and crude oil
for US$0.014/L, future demand for Securing Regional
water supply development
desalinated water will be high. With around 4 major
rivers
the advancement of the technology,
desalination of seawater is becoming Core tasks
more and more affordable.

However, in many parts of the Space

development
world, alternatives can provide the Flood control for cultural and
leisure activities
same freshwater benefits of ocean
Water quality
desalination at far lower economic and improvement
environmental costs. These alternatives ecosystem
restoration
include treating low-quality local water
sources, encouraging regional water
transfers, improving conservation and Figure 10. Major components of the river restoration project
in four major rivers in RO Korea.
efficiency, accelerating wastewater
Source: Lee.
58 December 2010

Freshwaters
60.2%
Saline waters
23.4%

Partially intruded
with saline waters
16.4%
Source: Navarro

Figure 11. Groundwater salinity map of municipality of Bani, Philippines.

years, and among the key outputs is resources, accessibility to water is more Works and Construction (MPWC) in
the mapping out of saline-intruded dependent on socioeconomic factors, 2005.
areas and freshwater areas (Figure 11), rather than on the natural environment.
providing information for planning Currently, little of the available water The government reported some
and management interventions. resources have been developed to meet progress towards the implementation
Other program components involve the need for safe water and sanitation of the policy and strategy as well as
the implementation of small water and for industrial and agricultural uses reaching the MDG water target. The
impounding projects, establishment in the country (Figure 12). government completed 51 projects in
of protected areas, and laying of water urban areas in 2006, accounting for 31
pipelines, and these contribute to the In line with the Millennium percent of the total target. However,
protection of groundwater resources. Development Goals (MDGs), the country is facing the challenge
Other important components of the specifically the target to reduce by of sustaining service delivery due to
program, such as public participation half the population without access to low cost-recovery and inefficiencies
and consultations and enactment of clean and safe water, the country is in the management of state-owned
ordinances by the municipal council, supposed to ensure that 80 percent of enterprises that are implementing the
have been carried out. The program is the total population and 70 percent of projects.
successful in solving water issues in the the urban population have sustainable
municipality through the leadership of access to an improved water source. Such is the case with the Pakse Water
the mayor. Just like the Jiulong River However, the country adopted a Supply Development Project in Lao
case in Xiamen, strong political will is medium and long term policy and PDR, wherein water service covers
essential to the success of local water strategy in 2004 that set a higher only 13 percent of the entire provincial
program implementation. target: to achieve 90 percent access to population leaving other residents
improved water supply in both rural suffering from water shortage. In
Addressing Economic Scarcity of and urban areas (National Strategy for Champasack Province, there is only one
Water Rural Water Supply and Environmental urban water supply system, located
Health Sector, 2004). To achieve these at Pakse District, while other districts
Lao PDR has the highest available water goals, a development plan was made use smaller scale community water
per capita in Asia amounting to 55,000 by the Water Supply Regulatory Office supply systems. Pakse is susceptible
m3 annually. Although rich in water (WSRO) under the Ministry of Public to flooding because the city lies at the
 Tropical Coasts 59

confluence of the Mekong and Xedon and incentives that can assist and value reflects the desire to preserve the
Rivers, its central area is relatively flat, promote water policy. Water pricing potential for possible future use. The
and drainage capacity is limited. Pakse is one of the efficient and effective intrinsic value includes non-use values
has a strong agricultural base, and measures to manage water demand such as bequest or existence values.
has been developed as an economic as well as water resources. Many past The value of water in alternative uses
growth center with strong economic failures in water resources management is therefore important for the rational
ties with the neighboring countries can be attributed to the fact that water allocation of water as a scarce resource
(Thailand and Vietnam). Due to the is viewed as a free good. There is a need (using the “opportunity cost” concept).
high population growth rate, water to change perceptions about water
supply facilities and services must also values and price and to recognize the On the other hand, pricing or charging
keep up with the increasing demand. opportunity costs involved in current for water is applying an economic or
However, since a relatively high level allocation patterns. Treating water as an market-based instrument (water tariff or
of water tariff (compared to capacity economic good may help balance the user fee) to ensure cost recovery, provide
to pay) is already being collected, it supply and demand of water, and obtain incentives for demand management,
would be hard to charge additional the maximum net benefits from available conservation and efficient water usage,
tariffs to recover costs of investing water resources. However, we need to and to signal consumers’ willingness
in expansion and improvement of distinguish between the value of water to pay for additional water supply
water supply facilities and services and pricing of water. or service. The price of water usually
to increase coverage in the unserved covers only the direct cost of providing
sectors or areas (Souphasay). This The full value of water consists of its water (capital costs and operation and
implies the need for building staff use value or economic value, option maintenance costs), and oftentimes
capacity and improving efficiency value and non-use value or the intrinsic does not reflect the total value of water.
in operating the state-owned water value (Figure 13). The economic value Figure 14 shows the components of the
utilities to lower the costs, enhance includes: direct use value (drinking, ‘price’ of water.
the balance sheet, and improve service food, agriculture, fisheries, tourism,
delivery. recreation, navigation, hydropower, In RO Korea, proper pricing is
etc.), net benefits from water that is lost encouraged and the water prices
Water as a Socioeconomic and through evapotranspiration or other have been continuously increasing to
Environmental Good sinks (e.g., return flows), indirect use cover the production costs, thereby
value (biological life-support functions). ensuring quality and sustainability of
In implementing water policy and Whereas direct and indirect use values the service. However, ‘lifeline’ schemes
programmes, there are several measures reflect the value from current use, option for the lower income users who cannot
Continued on page 64...

Figure 12. Water Availability and Usage in Lao PDR.

Source: Souphasay
60 December 2010
 Tropical Coasts 61

The Second East Asian Seas Youth Forum:

Continuing the Innovation of

Youth Involvement
With the theme, “Youth, Oceans and 39 students from Miriam College, For five days, the young participants,
Climate Change”, the Second East Philippines, and junior staff from with different backgrounds and
Asian Seas Youth Forum (YF) brought PEMSEA ICM sites. The 2nd YF cultures, spoke the language of climate
together 61 young leaders from was co-organized by the Swedish change, environmental issues and
12 countries from the EAS region: Environmental Secretariat for Asia threats, and sustainable development,
Cambodia, PR China, Indonesia, (SENSA), the ASEAN Foundation, the and shared how the youth can
Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Japan-ASEAN Solidarity Fund and contribute to addressing these
RO Korea, Singapore, Thailand, PEMSEA. environmental issues.
Timor-Leste and Vietnam on 23-27
November 2009 at the Philippine Second EAS Youth Forum Speakers
International Convention Center
(PICC) in Manila, Philippines. The 1. HE Ambassador A. Selverajah, Singapore
young leaders were selected based 2. Pres. Fidel V. Ramos, Former President of the Philippines
on their active involvement in youth 3. Sec. Jose L. Atienza, Jr., Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural
or environmental organizations Resources (DENR), Philippines
and their capacity to carry on the 4. Atty. Antonio A. Oposa, Jr., Environmental lawyer
YF outcomes. The lectures during 5. Dr. Felino Lansigan, Professor, Institute of Statistics and the School of
the Forum were also attended by Environmental Science and Management, University of the Philippines Los Baños
6. Dr. Neviaty Zamani, Professor, Department of Marine Science and Technology,
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
7. Dr. Beverly Goh, Assistant Professor, National Institute of Education, Singapore
8. Dr. Juergen Weichselgartner, Senior Science Coordinator, Land-Ocean Interaction
in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ)
9. Ms. Sally Nay, Staff, ICM Project in Sihanoukville, Cambodia and 2006 EAS Youth
Forum participant
10. Prof. Raphael P.M. Lotilla, Executive Director, PEMSEA
11. Hon. Senator Pia Cayetano, Philippine Senate
12. HE Mrs. Mean Som An, Cambodian Senate
13. HE Ambassador In May, Cambodia
14. Hon. Dr. Je Jong Geel, Former Senator, RO Korea
15. Hon. Dr. Nguyen Van Cu, Administrator, Vietnam Administration of Seas and
Islands, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
16. Mr. Manuel Cira, Director, World Ocean Network
17. Dr. Filemon Uriarte, Jr., Executive Director, ASEAN Foundation
18. Dr. Laura David, Associate Professor, University of the Philippines–Marine Science
Institute
19. Dr. Ir. Subandono Diposaptono, Director, Coastal and Ocean Affairs—Ministry of
Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia (MoMAF)
62 December 2010

Virtual Start issues affecting the environment. The next EAS Youth Forum in 2012 will
The speakers lamented the reality of be informed of the outcomes of their
The 2nd YF started virtually through climate change and together with the activities.
an online networking site, http:// other experts, explained the threats
easyouthforum.ning.com. Moderated it posed to the region affecting all Translating to Action
by one of the Philippine participants, sectors. The speakers pointed out that
the online discussions included much is being done and much needs Moving out of the confines of
the conceptualization for the YF to be done to abate it, however, it is the lecture hall, the participants
exhibit and the identification of not a hopeless case. They encouraged translated their gained knowledge
responsibilities, including materials the youth to use their knowledge and commitment into on-the-
that each of the participants were to and their available resources (e.g., ground action by planting mangrove
bring during the Congress. Internet), as well as learn from each propagules in the Las Piñas-Parañaque
other’s experiences. Critical Habitat and Ecotourism Area
Steps Forward: The Youth (LPP-CHEA), a bird sanctuary in the
Exhibit Apart from the scientific and Manila Bay area. They were joined
practical information from experts, by cadets from the training ship T/S
Through various artpieces, the youth the youth also had a fair dose of MOL, which they later visited and
depicted their ideas on the threats inspiration from an environmental learned of the training ship’s social
our planet is facing and how they lawyer, a Singaporean Ambassador, and environmental initiatives as well
can “hand in hand” make it a better the Secretary of the Philippines’ as had lively interaction with the ship’s
place to live in. Photos of their Department of Environment and officers, cadets and crew.
own involvement in environmental Natural Resources and former
activities were showcased, as well as President of the Philippines, Pres. Fidel Beyond the Forum
their promise to continue with their V. Ramos .
work for environmental protection, Back in their own country and
particularly in ocean development Executives of regional and communities, the YF participants have
and climate change adaptation and international organizations provided already initiated several activities,
mitigation activities. a push towards action by speaking on including a river cleanup (Isabela,
the available support for the youth for Philippines), treeplanting (Timor-
From Knowledge their implementation of environmental Leste), replacement of incandescent
and Inspiration to activities. Similarly, legislators from lamps to environment-friendly
Empowerment the region encouraged the youth compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)
to be the beacon for environmental (Singapore), educating kids (Malaysia
The participants were provided with protection. Support for youth activities and RO Korea), and mangrove planting
the “Handbook for Youth, Oceans and and the participation of youth in the (Indonesia).
Climate Change,” which contained policymaking process differs in each
practical material to help guide country; nonetheless, they can all The youth participants have also
them in planning and implementing do their share towards sustainable extended their influence; sharing
activities upon their return to their development. their YF experiences and building
countries. The Handbook featured networks with other youths in the
environmental activities of selected Declaration of international arena. A participant
participants from the 1st YF in Haikou Commitment from Vietnam participated in the
City, PR China. The Handbook also December 2009 Climate Change
included poster materials and activity The “Youth Statement” declared the meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark, to
sheets that participants can use in participants’ commitment to the share his organization’s initiatives on
their information campaigns related to sustainable development of the Seas youth mobilization for climate change
climate change. of East Asia, the protection of the awareness campaigns.
environment as well as their hope for a
Apart from the handbook, climate better planet for future generations. As Two youth representatives from
change experts, marine scientists testimony, the youth developed their Singapore and Vietnam were also
and coastal management experts country work plans which are sets of invited to share their experiences and
reinforced the earlier understanding simple activities that they promised the outcomes of the 2nd YF, including
of the participants on the pressing to undertake in the next three years. their environmental activities
 Tropical Coasts 63

during the 4th World Ocean Network

International Meeting in May 2010 in
Boulogne Sur Mer, France. During the
meeting, they had a chance to meet,
share experiences and build friendship
with alumni from a Youth Parliament
conducted in Reunion Island in 2008.

Four youth representatives from

Cambodia, Lao PDR, Philippines and
Thailand were also selected to participate
in the 5th World Youth Congress on 31
July–13 August 2010 in Istanbul, Turkey;
another great opportunity for them to
expand their network, not only to youth
in the EAS region but to the other regions
of the world.

Notable is the inclusion of the Youth

Statement and the outcomes of the 2nd
YF in the International Youth Proposal
presented during the Oceans Day
Celebration on 14 December 2009 at the
Climate Change Meeting in Copenhagen.

This network of young individuals will

continue to inspire and motivate their
peers and friends to do something for the
environment through the various social
media (Ning, Facebook, Friendster, MSN,
Yahoo) that their generation is used to.

Clearly the various environmental threats,

the potential impacts of climate change
are real and probably one of the biggest
challenges faced by mankind today. But
with a group of well-informed, inspired,
empowered and committed young
leaders, there is high hope that efforts for
sustainable development will continue
and will go a long way.

The Youth Statement, country work

plans and the Full Report on the Outputs
and Outcomes of the Second EAS Youth
Forum are accessible at www.pemsea.org/
eascongress/youthforum.

Prepared by Daisy Padayao and Vanessa

Bautista.
64 December 2010

Figure 13. Components of value of water. Figure 14. Components of full-cost price.

Continued from page 59... In many places around the world, water is also observed that the aquifers are
afford the water fees are currently has been consistently underpriced, dwindling seriously in many parts of
under implementation in RO Korea wasting and overusing it as a result. Metro Manila, and saltwater intrusion
through tariff reduction and exemption Stocks of groundwater have been at the and land subsidence are occurring
provisions. For example, Seoul provides expense of future water needs. Metro along the coastal areas.
a support on the basic rate of water bill Manila and other coastal provinces
to the lowest income group, and the around Manila Bay are no exception. In response, the National Water
city of Daejeon supports 10 m3/month Resources Board (NWRB) has adopted
of fundamental use water to the lowest The Philippines, a water-rich country, policies to preserve the groundwater
income group. is experiencing various challenges aquifers. It has imposed a moratorium
relating to water management including: on new applications for groundwater
To protect water resources and keep insufficient coordination among extraction particularly in critical
them as pristine as possible, it is water-related agencies; ineffective areas. A series of Cease and Desist
necessary to regulate the upstream regulations on water use and wastewater orders have also been issued against
watershed area through designation of discharges; lack of regular and systematic numerous establishments that have
water resource protection zones. In this monitoring; inconsistent enforcement of been operating without the required
situation, conflict between upstream laws and policies; inadequate incentives water permits. To complement these
and downstream on land use often for water conservation and waste regulatory measures, market-based
arises. To resolve this issue, the Korean management; and lack of facilities. These instruments, such as full-cost pricing,
government introduced the Water Use problems result in overextraction and have been considered to further
Charge in 1999 to introduce surcharge depletion of groundwater, pollution of enhance the policies.
for piped water, and the revenues surface water bodies and contamination
collected from downstream residents of groundwater, particularly in the Manila The full cost price was estimated using
are used to compensate upstream Bay Area where more than 10 percent the concept of marginal opportunity
residents for losses due to strict land of the Philippine population resides. It cost of water, and involves covering
use regulation (Moon). This is similar
to the payment for ecosystem services
(PES) scheme. Figure 15 shows how
the revenues from the water use charge
are being utilized. The case of water
use charges in Korea indicates the
possibility of a cooperative solution to
resolve the conflict between upstream
and downstream residents under a
cost-sharing principle. The government
played a key role in resolving the conflict,
through strengthening environmental
regulations and providing a cross-
Figure 15. Utilization of revenue collected from Water Use Charge.
subsidy scheme for affected residents.
Source: Moon
 Tropical Coasts 65

the direct costs (capital and operating From Pollution to Solution waste at all. Reused water makes a
and maintenance costs), user costs sensible substitute, effectively easing
(depletion cost or scarcity premium) Be careful what you water your dreams existing supply problems or deferring
and external costs. The study with. Water them with worry and fear the need for new sources to be brought
recommended the implementation and you will produce weeds that choke online. Treated wastewater should
of full-cost pricing in a gradual the life from your dream. Water them be considered as a water resource,
approach, considering the current with optimism and solutions and you and introduced as such in the water
level of institutional and administrative will cultivate success. Always be on the supply planning process. Just like clean
capacity as well as affordability. The lookout for ways to turn a problem into an water that is returned to water bodies,
study also suggested that the revenue opportunity for success. biosolids — by-products of wastewater
generated from full-cost pricing - Lao Tzu treatment — have the potential of
would be used for implementing an returning nutrients back to the earth in
integrated land and water use plan, Sad to say, wastewater management is an organic way. This will reduce the use
and groundwater monitoring and not yet a priority concern in most Asian of chemical fertilizers, which are energy-
assessment – which are essential in the cities given the lack of infrastructure intensive to produce. Methane capture
implementation of the NWRB policy that could collect, treat and dispose reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
in critical areas (Ebarvia). Moreover, of wastewater properly. Huge capital Biogas digesters produce cheap source
supporting policies including costs, unaffordable operating and of energy for lighting and cooking,
improvement of water service maintenance costs, low willingness especially in rural and remote areas,
delivery (to discourage installation to pay, and low perceived benefits thereby helping improve quality of
and use of deepwells), development make wastewater management a life in these areas. Just as water has an
of alternative water sources, and low priority in the policymakers’ (and economic value, so does wastewater.
development of sewerage system and politicians’) agenda, and together with
wastewater treatment facilities (to lack of enabling environment, inhibit Turning Waste to Water
prevent groundwater contamination, investors from this business. This
and provide potential for augmenting situation needs to be turned around, Compared to the tropical region of East
water supply and recharging aquifers) looking at wastewater as potential Asia where water is relatively rich, water
were recommended as important source of revenue rather than just in the Mediterranean region (arid and
components of groundwater resource a cost. Municipal wastewater is not semi-arid regions) is considered as a
management (Ebarvia). limited resource. Cyprus is particularly

Figure 16. Water balance for Cyprus.

Source: Kathijotes
66 December 2010

one of the water-poor countries in biogas digester, methane is captured Programmatic CDM is introduced
Europe and depends almost entirely and converted into cheap source of as a new channel to promote small
on rainfall for water resources. Figure energy, which is utilized for cooking and disperse activities that reduce
16 shows the water balance for Cyprus. and electricity. In addition, the biogas greenhouse (GHG) emissions by adding
Agriculture is the major water use digester produces residual solids, their carbon credits (Matsuo). The
sector, accounting for 70 percent of which can be used as organic fertilizer. carbon credits (typically CERs) may
total use, but its economic contribution Biogas digester also reduces odor and foster activities for rural development
is low. In this setting, as future demands prevents surface and groundwater because they reduce CO2 emissions,
will not be met by traditional water contamination. To promote the typically 5 T CO2/yr - equivalent to 60
resources like surface and groundwater, alternative energy utilizing the animal Euro/yr. Furthermore, the CDM projects
innovative solutions are required. waste, there are some problems to also provide local employment,
overcome, such as the short lifetime environmental protection and energy
With the construction of wastewater of the plastic tube digester and access security among others.
treatment plants on the rise, reusing to financing for the installation of
water from treatment plants is the digester (Winaya). It was found It is emphasized that the cooperation
considered as beneficial for agricultural that public opinion on the biogas and coordination with the local
and other uses. The results of the use technology from animal waste is government is inevitable for the
of recycled water in industrial and generally positive. Although the family- successful programmatic CDM. The
agricultural crops in Cyprus were very size biogas digester is dominant in Bali, utilization of the CDM opens a new
encouraging since in most cases, both large-scale biogas production for the door for successful implementation
the production and the quality of the big farms is expected in the future. and/or enhancement of the existing
products outweigh those watered policies and programs of the national
with fresh water (Kathijotes). The use Turning Waste to Credits and local governments on energy
of recycled water has already been supply and sustainable development of
accepted by farmers and demand is The Clean Development Mechanism rural and remote areas (Figure 17).
rising rapidly. In addition, recycled (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the
water contains many nutrients which Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with The Philippine-based Absolut
are directly taken up by plants, an emission-reduction or emission- Chemicals, Inc., in cooperation with the
including nitrogen, phosphorus and limitation commitment (Annex B Party) Mitsubishi Corp. of Japan, registered
potassium and trace elements that to implement emission-reduction methane gas recovery as a CDM project
help significantly in the development projects in developing countries. Such in October 2006, with 96,000 ton-CO2e/
of different crops. Although some projects can earn saleable certified year emission reductions. Under the
constituents in treated wastewater emission reduction (CER) credits, each guidance of the Philippine Department
may create undesirable effects on soils equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which of Environment and Natural Resources
and groundwater (e.g., bacteriological can be counted towards meeting Kyoto (DENR), the company was able to
contamination), careful management, targets (UNFCCC Clean Development develop projects and programs that
including applying standards and Mechanism). comply with the environmental laws
regulations, help overcome these and orders. The partnership with
negative effects. Recycled water also The Government of PR China has a Mitsubishi Corp. was in terms of the
showed no negative effect on soil subsidy program to introduce the application of technology — a Hybrid
salinity and infiltration rates in Cyprus. Biogas Micro-Digester with CDM to Anaerobic Digester System and a
On the contrary, it improved and promote rural development. The Covered In-ground Anaerobic Reactor
organically conditioned poor soils. biogas micro-digester is a technology Lagoon — to capture methane, as well
Moreover, drip irrigation minimized involving the installation of household- as the coordination with the investors/
problems caused by salinity. level biogas digester, mainly utilizing buyers of the CERs, which enabled the
cattle manure and replacing coal CDM project to materialize (Tan). The
Turning Waste to Energy (briquette) and/or (non-renewable) company also operates a reed bed
biomass. Farmers get to enjoy system for further polishing of the
Taking advantage of the condition that convenient, pollution-free and low-cost initially treated wastewater. This is a
Bali has a dominant agriculture sector gas as well as good-quality fertilizers. less energy-intensive and lower cost
and high availability of land space, a The technology is well-known in alternative. In addition, the effluent
biogas digester utilizing animal waste Asia with institutional arrangements from the company’s distillery is being
has been introduced. Through the in some countries, such as China. used as liquid organic fertilizer. The
 Tropical Coasts 67

application of the distillery

slops in sugarcane fields in
Batangas, Philippines, has
resulted in a 60 percent
increase in yield (Tan).

Harnessing Water,
Wind and Sun for a
Clean Energy Future

If you build it, they will come.

From the movie Field of Dreams

The growing concern over

climate change — and
how it will hurt the region’s
environment, human health
and economy — has forced Figure 17. New Channel to Enhance Governmental Policy utilizing CDM.
economic planners, advocates
Source: Matsuo
and business leaders in Asia to
search for a stable energy source that of the world’s renewable electricity to electricity and about 2.4 billion are
can moderate carbon emissions. Energy in 2006, and 16.6 percent of total still dependent on traditional biomass
resources should also have diversity electricity generation worldwide. for cooking needs (Velumail). Limited
so that there will be more security in Energy output from hydropower access to energy also has implications
case a particular resource is in short is dependent on sustainable on health. The WHO estimates more
supply or affected by weather and upstream water use as well as than 4,000 premature deaths per day, of
climatic conditions. We are at a critical hydrological patterns, and is which more than half are under 5 years
juncture as we endeavour in looking therefore susceptible to climate old, due to indoor air pollution caused
for ways to save our water resources, change impacts. by use of solid fuels (85 percent from
find alternative energy sources and biomass). The poor pay more for their
optimize water and energy utilization • Solar thermal power plant water basic energy needs. Enabling energy
while minimizing our water and carbon consumption is about 1 m3 of water access to the poor therefore, would
footprints. per 103 kWh (electric) or 277 m3 of make a difference in achieving the
water per 1,000 GJ. MDGs. A major strategy is promoting
Energy, in absolute terms, is not in community-based access to energy to
short supply in the world. The world’s • Wind energy and solar energy promote equitable access to energy
total annual use of commercial energy (photovoltaic cells that produce and to maintain sufficient power to
is on the order of 400 quadrillion BTUs electricity directly from sunlight) fuel productive uses. Experiences
(Quads), and the sun pours about 6 are considered to have negligible in Indonesia (Cinta Mekar), Bhutan
million Quads of radiant energy into water use, however, they are (Sengor) and Nepal (Rural Energy
the earth’s atmosphere each year dependent on weather patterns, Development Programme) prove the
(Hoffman, 2004). What is in short supply and hydrological cycle. reality that energy should be used to
is cheap energy, energy that people increase income. More attention should
can afford to buy. Exactly what was said • Wave energy is still a largely be given to linking energy and its
about water – what is short in supply is untapped source of renewable productive uses to promote livelihood
cheap, safe and potable water. energy, which, like hydropower, and other income-generating activities
uses water, but does not consume it. among communities. This could be
Water is embedded in energy: water is done with the help of micro-finance
essential in cooling in nuclear-, oil- and Forging an Energy-secure Future institutions. In the same manner, there
coal-fired power plants; and water is is a need to link nongovernmental
in renewable energy types (WBCSD, Energy is critical in the achievement of organizations (NGOs), governments and
2009): the MDGs. It is estimated that about bilateral and multilateral institutions
• Hydropower produced 89 percent 1.6 billion people do not have access engaged in livelihood enhancement
68 December 2010

Figure 18. Indonesia’s small islands greatly depend on alternative energy sources.
Source: Rachimat

initiatives to introduce energy services power and ocean current energy and hydroelectric energy (Dow Jones
especially at the community level technologies. Newswires, 23 June 2010).
(Velumail). Small and medium-scale
enterprises should promote programs In the Philippines, harnessing The Philippines is also implementing a
where renewable energy can make a alternative sources of energy is one of rural electrification program that uses
contribution. Private sector vendors of the strategies of the government to renewable energy technologies, e.g.,
renewable energy targets (RETs) should provide sustainable energy supply for solar and micro-hydropower to bring
also focus on income-generating the country. The Renewable Energy light and renewable energy-based social
activities. Law was enacted in 2008. The primary services to remote, off-grid, and mostly
thrusts of the country’s Department of conflict-affected areas in Mindanao.
Developing countries in Asia have Energy (DOE) are on energy security The Alliance for Mindanao Off-Grid
the potential to become global and and power sector reforms. One of the Renewable Energy or AMORE project
regional technology manufacturing objectives under Energy Security is was able to provide electricity to 474
hubs for renewable energy technology to aggressively develop renewable barangay (villages), 13,014 households,
goods and equipment. China is among energy potential, such as geothermal, and 224 schools with 43,972 student
the world’s major manufacturers of biomass, hydropower, solar, wind and beneficiaries, and improve access to
wind turbines, and has a cumulative ocean energy resources (Sargento). safe water in 155 barangays (Cayetano).
wind power capacity of over 12 GW. The Philippines is a leading producer of The project is a collaboration of USAID,
Another major investor in wind energy geothermal energy in the world. Current the Philippine Department of Energy
is India, which now has roughly 10 initiatives are directed towards creating (DOE), and private sector funders,
GW of wind power capacity. Adequate a market-based environment that is principally Mirant Philippines and
resources and friendly government conducive to private sector investment SunPower Corporation. Other benefits,
policies (such as the granting of fiscal and participation, while at the same such as carbon dioxide mitigation, job
incentives and implementation of time encouraging technology transfer creation, improved living standards,
national renewable energy policy) and research and development along increased productivity, more livelihood
supported the growth of wind energy this field (Mariño). The Philippines has opportunities, health benefits, increased
in these two countries (Dow Jones already secured US$125 million from student participation and peace
Factiva, 23 June 2010). RO Korea is the Clean Technology Fund for various promotion were also created by the
leading the way in developing tidal projects in areas, such as solar, wind AMORE project (Cayetano).
 Tropical Coasts 69

small hydropower projects, such as

the UNDP-CBRED, the JICA-supported
Village Electrification Project, the NEF
Mahaganao Micro-hydro project, the
ADB-funded Renew Negros Project
and the e8 Ambangal Mini-hydro
project. However, there are still
challenges being faced in project
implementation, including high
initial costs, inadequate financing
mechanisms, limited technical
capabilities, limited expertise
on management and operation,
and reliability of equipment used
(Sargento).
Figure 19. Energy Profit Ratio of Alternative Energy Sources.
Source: Takemura
Catching the Wave
Indonesia is embarking on developing and the need for climate change
alternative sources of energy for mitigation. A low carbon future is Ocean energy is one of the largest
small islands based on its resources a must, and Japan identifies solar potential sources of energy in the
to improve the quality of life in these and water resources as alternative East Asian region. Ocean energy
communities. Currently there are energy sources. In 2005, the National can be exploited from a number of
already solar home systems, hybrid solar Committee for Promoting Small conversion methods, such as wave
cell systems and biogas production. Hydraulic Power Generation was power, hydrokinetic energy from tides
There are ongoing projects on sea established. It has done research on and ocean currents, tidal barrage,
current energy and wind energy. The technical improvements to reduce the and ocean thermal energy conversion
other possible options considered by cost and provided policy support in (Yum). Figure 20 provides a status
the government are the wave energy order to expand the small hydraulic of technology development on the
and Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, power generation. Although the small alternative ocean energy in the East
and research is being undertaken hydraulic power generation alone Asian Seas region. Technology on tidal
(Ruchimat). However, there should cannot sustain big cities, it can be energy and offshore wind utilizations
be an assessment of the general an important energy source for local are already commercially available
condition of small islands in Indonesia, communities and sustain energy while wave and current energy are
the issues and problems surrounding needs in rural areas. Thus, Japan is still under development. Thermal
them, future development based on moving from centralized energy to and marine biomass are still on the
the available resources of small islands distributed energy (Takemura). early stages of research. There is a
(Figure 18), and overall, the Indonesian large potential for ocean energy — it
government’s energy policy. Medium and small hydropower can meet a significant share of the
generates high
Back to Basics: Power from the River energy profit
ratio compared Ocean Renewable Energy Source
Japan relied on firewood under the to fossil-based
federal system of the Edo era for 250 energy sources
years, from the beginning of the 17th (Figure 19). There
century. Water mills were also used are also lower
extensively. At the onset of the Meiji environmental
era 150 years ago, Japan started its and social costs
industrialization. Modernization was involved compared
accompanied by introducing energy to large dams
sources, such as coal and oil. Now in and hydropower
the 21st century, Japan needs to seek projects. In the
out future energy alternatives, given Philippines, there Figure 20. Status of Technology Development on
Alternative Energy in the Seas of East Asia.
the unstable oil prices and supply are a number of
Source: Yum
70 December 2010

Figure 21. KORDI’s Tidal Current Power Project in the Uldomok Channel.

Source: : Lee

world renewable energy aspirations solar energy is largely dependent on research works are being conducted
and is adequate enough to supply weather consistency. in the pilot TCPP, including monitoring
local requirements. However, the of the structural stability diagnose
marine environment is also providing In India, coastal wave energy has system. The basic development plan
difficulties in terms of economics, a lot of potential similarly with the of the commercial scale Uldolmok
sustainability and reliability of the development of new fishing harbours tidal current power plant will be made
energy converting systems. Thus, the and breakwater systems. It is a cost- on the basis of experimental results
system should be harmonized with effective and viable option since the from the pilot TCPP (Lee, et al.).
the environmental and climate change costs will be shared between the
issues while accelerating ocean breakwater wall and the power plant Another example of Korean alternative
energy research and development. (Paimpillil and Baba). energy technology development is the
Shihwa Tidal Power Plant Project. The
There are a number of benefits to In RO Korea, pilot projects on power plant has ten 25.4-MW turbines
be derived from harnessing coastal harnessing energy from tides using that can generate a total capacity of
wave energy. It contributes to a lower state-of-the-art technology have been 254 MW, with an annual generation
carbon energy future by reducing initiated. The Korea Ocean Research of 552.7 GW, which can supply energy
consumption of fossil fuels, pollution and Development Institute (KORDI) to around 200,000 residents (Kim). To
and greenhouse gas emissions. is implementing the Tidal Current ensure enough water circulation, eight
Moreover, wave power offers many Power Project (TCPP) in the Uldolmok culvert-type sluice gates were also
advantages over the renewable Channel (Figure 21). The project planned. The project was started in
sources like wind and solar since started in 1986 involving a series of 2003, and will be developed in seven
the latter forms of energy require comprehensive field measurements years, and will cost about US$355
hundreds of square acres of useful and numerical modelling. A pilot TCPP, million. The Shihwa Tidal Power Plant
open land for their installation and with a capacity of 1 MW, was designed will help boost RO Korea’s energy self-
operation. In addition, wind farms are and constructed. To enhance the sufficiency and contribute to cutting
also a source of noise pollution while efficiency of the generating system, down oil imports by 862,000 barrels
 Tropical Coasts 71

per year and reducing the emission for Industry and Energy Research region because of more rapidly
of carbon dioxide by 315,000 tons per and Development (PCIERD) also growing electricity demand, and
year (Kim). conducted an assessment of marine countries in this region have greater
current technologies that have solar radiation and more available
In the Philippines, ocean energy potential for application. Most of land than developed countries.
resource has been recognized as these technologies were developed
having significant potential for future abroad. While there are technologies In Japan, initiatives to promote solar
energy development. Its application developed locally, these are still at the energy and energy conservation have
can significantly contribute to prototype development stage and no been boosted by the establishment
the self-reliance program of the working system is installed in actual of an innovative fund, ‘South
government. Due to the country’s local power application. Shinsyu OHISAMA Fund’ by the
archipelagic nature, the ocean energy Ohisama Energy Corporation. The
resource area is about 1,000 km2 and The Heat Is On organization started as an NGO, which
the potential theoretical capacity for established solar power generation
this resource is estimated to be about Solar energy has been regarded as funded by the municipal citizens
170,000 MW (DOE Report). Based on one of the fastest growing power in Iida City. Accordingly, the NGO
the convergence from large bodies of generation technologies in recent transformed into a corporate entity
seawater in the Philippines and the years. Enabling policies, regulatory and started calling for donation from
constricting point of islands, the San frameworks, increased public all over Japan for the sustainable
Bernardino Strait, Basilan Strait, Ilo-ilo awareness, advances in technology management of the solar power
Strait, San Juanico Strait and Surigao and changes in cost structure have facilities. Figure 22 shows the fund
Strait were initially identified with given impetus, driving an impressive mechanism. As of November 2009,
awesome marine current strength. growth in developed countries. 162 solar power generators which
Among these potential sites, San Economies of scale can reduce costs to approximately generate 1,300 kW are
Bernardino Strait proves to have the make solar energy more competitive running in the Prefecture. Through
highest potential in hosting large with other sources of energy. Solar this initiative, significant amount of
ocean current power plant stations energy has great potential for greenhouse gas has been reduced.
(Mariño). The Philippine Council application in the East Asian Seas Furthermore, the power generators

Figure 22. Mechanism of South Shinsyu OHISAMA Fund.

Source: Hara
72 December 2010

are used as an environmental and holistic way. Increasing water water resources, and allows for the
educational tool for the school problems are recognized by implementation of IWRM principles
children. This shows that changing developed and developing countries at the basin level and ICM in coastal
society through changing the money alike around the world as real issues areas. Poor water management in the
flow can be done for sustainable that impact our lives, our health, our river basins affects availability of water
development (Hara). livelihoods and businesses, and our downstream and results in pollution
future. A better understanding of of coastal waters (from point and non-
Conclusion: the water-energy-food-environment point sources) as well as changes in
Managing Our Way Out of nexus will allow integrated resource coastal morphology. Thus, upstream
the Water-Energy-Food- planning and management that and downstream coordination is
Environment Crisis optimizes the use of invaluable and important. There must be recognition
increasingly scarce resources, and of “what you do not measure, you
Most people spend more time and waste treatment and reuse. cannot manage”; hence, proper
energy going around problems monitoring in all river segments is a
than in trying to solve them. Apply Integrated Management must.
- Henry Ford Approach
Improve Water Governance
Water is indeed more than an Those who have power over the
environmental issue. The “water- control and engineering of the world’s The most significant constraint is poor
energy-food-environment nexus” is a rivers have largely failed to protect and fragmented water governance.
broad label for the set of interactions these natural systems for the greater In most countries, water is managed
caused when humans develop and use benefit of everyone. Better standards by a number of different government
water and energy, with implications are needed, more options need to be agencies and jurisdictions. Proliferation
on food, health and environment. The considered, more voices need to be of different laws related to water and
nexus manifests itself in many ways, heard, better planning of water and inadequate capacity to enforce them
indicating substantial tradeoffs and energy infrastructure needs to be and low-cost recovery in the water
opportunity costs associated with provided, and coordination needs to sector are also problems. Therefore,
the manner we use water and energy. be improved. The ICARM approach there is a need to institute a lead
Producing hydropower requires offers a way of ensuring proper oversight government agency and
damming rivers and thermoelectric management of the interconnected coordinating mechanism to rationalize
power requires large amounts of
water for cooling, while nearly
every stage of the water use cycle
involves energy inputs. Moreover,
climate change and other stresses
are limiting the availability of clean
water and cheap energy. Frequent
extreme weather events are causing
numerous water-related disasters
and the frequency is worsening. The
combined effects of climate change,
pollution and population pressure
are likely to trigger a “cascading” set
of negative consequences on human
health, food production, livelihood
security, energy supplies, human
migration, economic growth and
geopolitical stability.

The big challenge for the world today

is how to manage water security,
food security, energy security and
ecological security in a sustainable
 Tropical Coasts 73

the fragmented and uncoordinated and producing biogas — allowing water use will continue to grow at a
water plans and programs, and move us to save water, energy and money. time when climate change necessitates
towards an integrated and intersectoral There are technology options available reducing carbon emissions. IWRM,
approach. to choose from. However, reusing ICM, and IRBCAM or ICARM, which
treated wastewater and applications promote sustainable water supply
Promote Effective Collaboration of biosolids in crop production require and use management, must be
among Various Stakeholders capacity development to ensure that acknowledged as integral to climate
standards are followed to ensure change mitigation and adaptation.
Public awareness and stakeholder public health. It also requires public Every drop of water conserved
participation are also essential to acceptability. The “yuck” factor — or reduces energy consumption and
ensure implementation of water the psychological aversion to reusing associated carbon emissions. With so
management measures. Upstream wastewater — requires application many interconnections, policies and
and downstream collaboration of information, education and techniques to decrease water-related
among stakeholders can be promoted communication tools to overcome carbon emissions, reduce water and
through cost sharing, partnership, and significant barriers. energy use, and shift to renewable
participation in monitoring, protecting energy have to be adopted. Just as
and restoring natural ecosystems, Improve Financial and Economic water, energy, food, environment and
and management of water resources. Tools climate change are linked and issues
International cooperation, knowledge are interconnected, so also are the
management, and sharing of Water pricing and payment for solutions.
experiences and technologies through ecosystem services are market-
partnerships are the way forward. based instruments that would Shift to Energy-efficiency
encourage protection of water Technologies and Renewable
Employ both Demand-side and resources and forest and watershed Energy
Supply-side Measures ecosystems. Such mechanisms also
allow for compensation of upstream Breakthroughs in renewable energy
There are innovative ways of securing stakeholders to protect water and technologies, energy-efficiency
water, ranging from demand-side land resources for the benefit of improvements and decentralized
management approaches, such downstream stakeholders. energy systems require greater
as full-cost pricing and the 3Rs — investments in research, development,
Recharge, Retention and Recycling Charging full-cost water pricing, piloting and full-scale deployment.
— to supply-side interventions, such which includes both direct costs and Small/micro/mini-hydropower, solar
as small impounding dams, low- externalities, can ensure efficient water energy and biogas provide solutions
cost desalination and drip irrigation. allocation and optimal level of use, for energy supply and security,
Measures to reduce ‘lost water’, promote behaviour change towards especially in small islands and remote
unaccounted or non-revenue water water conservation, and allow utilities areas. Ocean energy, tidal power, wave,
is also important. However, capacity to be financially viable and provide marine current, and offshore wind
building for local governments and reliable and sustainable service, which power are still in the development
both public and private utilities and consumers would be willing to pay for. stage.
stakeholder participation are key However, full-cost pricing is complex,
factors for the adoption of innovative and it is suggested to move forward, Set in Place the Necessary Enabling
solutions and improving water but in a step-by-step gradual process. Conditions
resources management, especially in The first step is cost recovery so
critical and vulnerable areas. there will be funds for operation and Integrated and comprehensive
maintenance, ensuring service delivery assessment of alternative energy
Expand Water and Wastewater for consumers and financial viability for resources in each country is
Treatment and Reuse utilities. recommended for the establishment
of long-, medium- and short-term
Using water and treating water and Reduce Water Footprint in Energy national plans for the development
wastewater involve energy. We can and Carbon Footprint in Water and utilization of appropriate and
turn around the equation by recycling cost-effective technologies. Supporting
water, reusing treated wastewater, Unless our water supplies are properly policies and set of clear regulations
using the biosolids, capturing methane managed, the carbon footprint of and incentives provide an environment
74 December 2010

Theme 4 Water Use and Supply Management Conclusions and Recommendations

Presented by Theme Chair, Prof. Torkil Jønch Clausen

Workshop 1: Alternative Energy: A Solution for Energy Security for Islands and Remote Areas

Conclusions
• Ocean energy sources are site dependent. Relevant technologies should be pursued accordingly.
• Tidal power — suitable for large scale — is in the commercial stage; Wave, current, and offshore wind which
could be installed in the local scale are still in the development stage.
• Small/Micro-hydropower, solar energy and biogas are potential solutions for energy supply and security for small
islands and remote areas.
• However, expansion of those energy generation solutions face difficulties, e.g., low cost-efficiency and
technology limitations.
• The CDM mechanism provides a potential benefit in energy supply and security : revenues generated by the
CDM to be invested in other alternative energy projects.

Recommendations:
• Small/micro scale power generation calls for further research, technical development, more experiences and
projects to be pursued.
• Government support is essential to promote the alternative energy development, both large and small-scale
alternative energy.
• North-south and south-south technology transfer, knowledge and information exchange needs to be further
promoted.
• Countries need to prepare long-, mid- and short-term national plans for the development of technologies, and
for efficient and economic use of the energy.
• Collaboration among various stakeholders — national and local governments, academia, NGOs, private sector —
is key to make the alternative energy development successful.

Workshop 2: Addressing Water Crisis in Rapidly Growing Cities

Conclusions:
• Poor water management in the river basins results in pollution of coastal waters (from point and non-point
sources), as well as changes in coastal morphology.
• All options for better water management must be considered, from improved agricultural water management to
advanced reuse and desalination technologies.
• A major constraint is poor and fragmented water governance, by a multitude of different government agencies
and jurisdictions.
• Proliferation of different laws, and inadequate capacity to enforce them add to the problem.
• Low-cost recovery in the water sector is a major constraint to sustainability.
• Capacity building is key to improving water resources management in many developing countries.

Recommendations
• Coordinate IWRM at the basin level with ICM at the coast — through the ICARM approach — for both sustainable
management and climate change adaptation.
• Establish a lead oversight and central coordinating government entity to rationalize fragmented and
uncoordinated plans and programs.
• Move forward towards full cost water pricing in a step by step gradual process.
• Collaborate upstream/downstream among stakeholders through active participation and partnerships.
• Create mechanisms to encourage and compensate upstream stakeholders to protect water and land resources
for the benefit of downstream stakeholders — from ridge to reef.
• Ensure proper monitoring of water resources in all river segments.
• Recognize water demand management as the first step to reduce pressure on water resources — and as a “no
regret” adaptation measure — including the “3R: Recharge, Retention and Recycling.”
• International cooperation and sharing of experiences and technologies through partnerships is the way forward.
 Tropical Coasts 75

conducive for such investments. agricultural development, protecting Acknowledgements:

Making water and energy security a human health, preventing conflicts,
national priority signals government and safeguarding the environment all Co-convenors:
commitment. Leadership and political demand much better water resource Theme 4 Workshop 1: Korea Ocean
will are a pre-condition for change to and energy management than has Research and Development Institute
happen. Likewise, the will to change by taken place in the past. The decisions (KORDI)
all levels of society is an indispensable being made today regarding the
condition. management of water and energy Theme 4 Workshop 2: Korea Environment
resources will create ripple effects and Institute (KEI)
Advance Cooperation for profoundly affect our economic and
Knowledge Management, Capacity environmental future. Presentations
Development and Financing
The water-energy-food-environment Theme 4 Workshop 1: Alternative
However, technical and financial nexus presents a valuable opportunity Energy – A Solution for Energy Security
assistance are needed by most to better manage water and energy for Islands and Remote Areas
developing countries to find a cleaner, — two of our most valuable resources.
more efficient and low carbon energy Water and energy are the critical PART 1: Overview of Trends of Policy
path, and avoid projects that repeat elements of sustainable development. and Technology on Alternative Energy
the mistakes of the past. North-south Without access to both, poverty cannot
and south-south cooperation must be alleviated. We need to refocus our Yum, K.D. “Status of the Technology
be advanced to promote technology attention on improving and preserving Development on Alternative Energy in
transfer, knowledge and information the quality of our water, and ensure the Seas of East Asia.”
exchange, and capacity development. that water continues to be the source
Collaboration among various of life in this planet. Furthermore, PART 2: Status and Feasibility of
stakeholders, including national and as the inevitable impacts of climate Introducing Ocean and Coastal
local governments, academe, NGOs change become evident, our freshwater Energies
and the private sector is essential resources and the ecosystems they
to make alternative energy projects support will be further affected. The Kim, S.H. “Shihwa Tidal Power Plant
successful. linkage between water and energy Project, RO Korea.”
therefore provides opportunity to
Provide Incentives for Pollution address climate change. Water, energy Lee, K.S.*, K.D. Yum, J. S. Park, and
Reduction and climate change are parts of the J. W. Park. “Tidal Current Power
same puzzle. As the world struggles to Development Project in RO Korea.”
Clean development mechanism reduce carbon emissions in response to
(CDM) and carbon financing provide global warming, investments in water Mariño, A. “Philippine Initiative in
incentives not only for reduction of conservation, efficiency, and reuse are Harnessing Marine Current Energy
greenhouse gas emissions, but also for among the largest and most cost- Resource.”
waste management. It allows turning effective energy and carbon reduction
wastewater into water supply for strategies available. Effective water Paimpillil, S. J.* and M. Baba. Variety of
agricultural and industrial use, turning policies and institutional arrangements, Alternative Energies and Viability:
waste to energy, turning waste to political will, innovative solution Coastal Wave Energy Utilization
organic fertilizers, and turning waste options, shifting to renewable energy, Coupled with Coastal Protection.”
to revenues. The CDM is designed pollution reduction, and a sense of
to start off developing countries on shared responsibility would allow us PART 3: Various Approaches of
a path towards less pollution, with to mitigate the worst aspects of global Utilizing Alternative Energies
industrialized countries paying for warming today. Such actions can result Through Partnerships and Innovative
these reductions. in subsequent improvements in water Mechanisms
quantity, quality, river health and
Conclusion ecosystem integrity, providing a critical Cayetano, C. “Renewable Energy for Island
buffer as humans and ecosystems adapt and Other Remote Communities in
Increasing pressures on water from to the climate of tomorrow. Mindanao: The Alliance for Mindanao
population growth, pollution, and Off-Grid Renewable Energy.”
economic production are exacerbating
old problems and threatening to create Choi, S.K. “Theme Paper Presentation:
new crises. Promoting economic and Water Security and Integrated Water
Resources Management in Asia.”
76 December 2010

Hara, A. “Evolution of Financing Tan Tee, G. “The CDM Project of Lee, J.-H. “Integrated River
Mechanism from NGO into Absolut Chemicals, Inc., The First in Management Strategies in Korea.”
Corporate Entity for Solar Energy Philippine Manufacturing Industry.”
Promotion.” Seino, S. “Status and Perspective on
Velumail, T. “Financial Sustainability of ’Water for the Sea’ in Japan.”
Marasigan, M. “Micro-hydro Power Access to Energy Services for the
Projects in the Philippines.” Poor: Experiences from the Asia Session 2. Water Resource
Pacific Region.” Management Through an Integrated
Matsuo, N.. “Biogas Micro-Digester as a Coastal Management (ICM)
Rural Development Program under Winaya, I.N.S. “Methane into Markets Approach
CDM- How to Utilize Programmatic Utilizing Animal Waste.”
CDM to Enhance Low Carbon Navarro, M.E.G. Jr., “Water for Life
Development Policy Theme 4 Workshop 2: Addressing Programme of the Municipality of
Water Crisis in Rapidly Growing Bani, Pangasinan.”
Ruchimat, T. “Development of Cities
Alternative Energy on Small Islands Peng, B. and Z. Liu. “Empirical Appraisal
in Indonesia.” Session 1. Case Studies on Issues and of Small Watershed Management
Challenges to Water Management Program: A Case Study of Jiulong
Takemura. K. “From Centralized Energy River Watershed Management
to Distributed Energy From Modern Ebarvia, M.C. “Economic Valuation of Programme. “
to Post Modern.” Groundwater in Metro Manila and
Adjacent Areas.”
 Tropical Coasts 77

Ri, K. H. “Securing Water Source of Panelists: Dr. Torkil Jonch Clausen, and International Water Association
Nampho and Pyongyang through Global Water Partnership; Prof. Zhou (IWA).
ICM Scaling up in the Taedong River Quilin, Third Institute of Oceanography
Basin.” (TIO), SOA, China; and Dr. Chu Jang- National Strategy for Rural Water
Min, Korea Environmental Institute Supply and Environmental Health
Souphasay, K. “Domestic Water Supply Sector. June 2004.
Development and Need in Lao PDR.” References:
Pacific Institute. 2009. The World’s
Session 3. Good Practices and Asia Society’s Leadership Group on Water 2008-2009.
Innovative Tools for Water Water Security. 2009. Asia’s Next
Management Challenge: Securing the Region’s Sachs, J. 2009. http://asiasociety.
Water Future. org/policy-politics/environment/
Kathijotes, N. “Climatic Changes and securing-asias-water-future.
Wastewater Reuse in Challenges in Cooley, H., P.H. Gleick and G. Wolff.
the Mediterranean Region.” 2006. Desalination, with a Grain of Scientific American, Earth3.0, Special
Salt: A California Perspective. Pacific Issue, “Energy vs. Water. Why both
Kim, J. H. and S. Kim. “Recent Institute for Studies in Development, crises must be solved together”,
Development of Desalination Environment and Security. October 2008, with amended data
Technology and its Application to from GHD.
Address Water Problems in Small Dow Jones Factiva. 23 June 2010.
Communities.” Stern, N. 2007. The Economics of
Dow Jones Newswires. 23 June 2010. Climate Change. The Stern Review.
Moon, H.-J. “Water Pricing and Cambridge University Press:
Cost Sharing for Water Resource Global Water Partnership. 2000. Cambridge.
Protection in Korea.” Integrated Water Resource
Management. Technical Advisory UNICEF-WHO Joint Monitoring
Yeo, W. “Singapore’s Marina Barrage Committee (TAC) Background Programme. 2010. Progress on
and Reservoir in the City.” Papers no. 4. Sanitation & Drinking Water: 2010
Update.
Hoffman, A. 2004. The Connection:
Water and Energy Security. United Nations Economic and Social
(downloaded from: http://www.iags. Commission for Asia and the Pacific
org/n0813043.htm) (UNESCAP). 2005 and 2006

Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate United Nations Framework Convention

Change (IPCC), 2007. on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Clean
Development Mechanism. N.d.
McIntosh, A.C. 2003. Asian Water http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/
Supplies: Reaching the Urban Poor. mechanisms/clean_development_
Asian Development Bank (ADB) mechanism/items/2718.php

World Business Council for Sustainable

Development (WBCSD). 2009.
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A Contribution from the Business
Community.

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Vision Update (to be published).

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Managing our Future Water Needs.

*Presenter
78 December 2010

By Dr. Magda Lovei, The World Bank, USA

Dr. Rudolf Wu, The University of Hong Kong
Mr. Edward Clarence-Smith, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Dr. Alexander Tkalin, Coordinator, NOWPAP of UNEP
Dr. Anatoly Kachur, Director, POMRAC of NOWPAP
Mr. David Nemazie, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, USA
Dr. Zhou Qiulin, Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, PR China
Ms. Cristine Ingrid Narcise, Country Programme Manager, PEMSEA
Mr. S. Adrian Ross, Chief Technical Officer, PEMSEA
Ms. Maria Corazon Ebarvia, Consultant, PEMSEA

Weavin g th ro u g h t h e
P o l l u t i o n C o nu n d r u m:
Getting it Right
“Humankind has not woven the web of life.
We are but one thread within it.
Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves.
All things are bound together. All things connect.”
— Chief Seattle, 1855

The Pollution Challenge natural disasters, the percentage of water contamination. When it rains,
available water resources is reduced greywater, untreated sewage, litter/
It is well known that about 70 percent even further. It is essential, then, that garbage, used oil from driveways and
of the planet is covered with water. we find ways to prevent our remaining boats, paint and solvent residues from
Hence, it seems that there is little water resources from becoming walls, fertilizer from lawns, and even
risk for water resources to become unusable. waste from our pets are all washed
depleted any time soon. However, with into storm sewers, nearby lakes, rivers,
97 percent of the water undrinkable Down the drain streams and seas or leached into
and another 2 percent frozen, only aquifers.
1 percent of the water on Earth Water pollution is a growing problem.
is available for use by mankind. There are many stories in the media In addition, there are the discharges
Furthermore, this water is not evenly of big oil spills in the ocean, and/ from small- to large-scale industries
distributed in space or time, or or companies dumping harmful and mining operations that contain
necessarily located where the largest chemicals into lakes or rivers, but there heavy metals and toxic and hazardous
concentrations of people reside. are also water pollution problems wastes, as well as agricultural runoff
Specific regions are plagued with generated from our homes. Everyday that contains nutrients from fertilizers
problems of freshwater scarcity and household activities are a major and livestock waste, and toxins from
drought, or oversupply and flooding. contributor to polluted runoff, which herbicides and pesticides. Some of the
When you factor in pollution and is among the most serious sources of discharges contain synthetic organic
 Tropical Coasts 79

chemicals (e.g., organophosphates, the chemicals traveling to cooler places effectiveness of separate management
organochlorines, dioxins, until the air is not warm enough for efforts among national and sub-
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), revolatilization to occur. For instance, national entities, and between river
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can basins and coastal areas. An integrated
and organometals), which are highly be carried through great distances by approach in managing shared water
toxic, persistent, and lipophilic, can the wind up to the Arctic region. This systems and in addressing identified
be bioaccumulated, and pose health is sometimes called the “grasshopper priorities, such as pollution, at various
threats to predators at high trophic effect” or global distillation (Figure 1). levels, is considered an imperative.
levels and to humans (Wu). There are This is why high levels of persistent
also endocrine disrupting chemicals bioaccumulative toxic substances By harnessing and linking best
(e.g., dioxins and furans, tributyltin or (PBTs) can be found in the cold Arctic, practices, policymaking and scientific
TBT, PCBs, pharmaceutical drugs and far away from cities and factories. The understanding, we can find options and
industrial chemicals), which can cause remarkable distances that pollution provide real solutions to the world’s
imposex, altered sex ratio, reduced can spread means that it is not limited water, environment and development
fecundity, reproductive failure and birth within the boundaries of any single problems. Two workshops during
defects in affected animals, such as nation. National boundaries can make the East Asian Seas Congress 2009
shellfish, birds and polar bears (Wu). water and pollution issues political. provided a venue for showing various
Politics always adds complexity to an
These pollutants end up in the same already multifaceted problem.
lakes, rivers and streams that we rely on Figure 1. Grasshopper Effect.
for drinking, bathing, swimming and Stitching a Common
fishing and ultimately end up in our Thread: Framework
seas affecting key ecosystems, human to Address
health, livelihoods and quality of life. Transboundary
Pollution Issues
The grasshopper effect
Over the last several decades,
Another problem is atmospheric water quality management in
deposition of pollutants. This occurs several regions and countries
when pollutants are transferred from has focused on control of point
the air to the earth’s surface and sources of pollution and the use
water bodies. Pollutants (e.g., PCBs, of effluent-based (discharge-
organochlorine pesticides, and PAHs) based) water quality standards.
can be transported across hundreds Nonpoint sources of pollution
and even thousands of kilometers by have not been as successfully
wind and ocean currents (Wu). These controlled. Pollutants can be
chemicals can deposit to the ground transported through rivers
or bodies of water, or revolatilize back across jurisdictional boundaries
into the air if it is warm enough. This within and across countries,
cycle can occur numerous times, with posing a challenge to the
80 December 2010

perspectives and actions to address the stability and productivity of aquatic at the same time making progress
pollution reduction and transboundary ecosystems in a given coastal region toward attaining a water quality
issues, taking into consideration through sustainable economic and standard (National Research Council,
the similarities and differences social development of the region and 2001). The adaptive implementation
between countries, regions of the its associated river basin. In establishing process begins with initial actions
world, climatic conditions, phases an integrated management system that have a high degree of certainty
of development, political systems for river basins and coastal zones, it associated with their water quality
and institutional capacity as well as is necessary to adopt a process of outcome. Future actions must be
availability of information, technologies pro-active governance, planning, based on: (1) continuous monitoring
and financing mechanisms. Getting monitoring and a strategic framework of the water body to determine how it
transboundary, national and local of goals, policies and actions. An responds to the actions taken; and (2)
pollution management “right” is not integrated approach leads to better carefully designed experiments in the
simply important but vital to secure coordination of policymaking and watershed.
the health and livelihoods of billions of action across different sites, sectors
people and sustain the resources and (water, forestry, agriculture, fisheries, Key to adaptive management is
ecosystems across the globe. urban development, habitat and the measurement and monitoring
environmental protection, etc.), and of ambient water quality. To help
Integrated management stakeholders, consequently resulting confront the disparity between
in a more rational use of resources controlling pollution from point
Transboundary transport of pollutants and more effective environmental sources and pollution from surface
through rivers is recognized as one protection. runoff and nonpoint sources, the U.S.
of the main causes of ecological Environmental Protection Agency
problems in coastal and marine areas. The technical aspects of nutrient over- (EPA) implements the Total Maximum
The concept of managing rivers as enrichment require both immediate Daily Load (TMDL) program to meet
single, spatially-integrated systems local action by river basin and coastal water quality standards. The adaptive
across their entire watershed and into managers and a longer-term national management program is being applied
downstream areas is an idea that has and regional strategy that incorporates to reduce pollution loading into
changed in complex ways over time. policy design, classification of affected Chesapeake Bay. The monitoring and
Water resource management programs sites, laws and regulations, knowledge control of total pollution loading is also
are moving towards ecosystem-based management, coordination, and being applied in other countries like
management, linking freshwater and communication. Success in addressing China and Japan.
marine water systems, and integrating coastal nutrient problems also
water and wastewater management. depends on having a solid scientific A River Runs through It
Water-related projects are moving away understanding of the causes of the
from traditional civil works construction problems and the full range of possible Over the past 20 years, scientists,
and increasing their focus on more management alternatives. watershed and coastal managers,
efficient and sustainable operation and government decisionmakers
and maintenance, habitat restoration Adaptive management have come to recognize that coastal
and rehabilitation, recreation, and ecosystems suffer a number of
cost-effective pollution reduction. Adaptive management can be valuable environmental problems that can, at
Today, successful water project where there are competing uses of times, be attributed to the introduction
planning requires an integrated waters, in which the same streams of excess nutrients flowing from
systems approach capable of balancing and rivers that sustain habitat for upstream watersheds into estuarine
all relevant issues and identifying numerous species also provide water settings through rivers. Nutrient
unintended consequences or resources for millions of people. sources include runoff from urban
cumulative effects within the river basin Adaptive implementation is, in fact, the areas, agricultural land and livestock
and down to the coastal areas. application of the scientific method production, atmospheric deposition
to decisionmaking (National Research of compounds released during the
Integrated coastal area and river Council, 2001). It is a process of taking burning of fossil fuels, and discharges
basin management (ICARM) links actions of limited scope corresponding of untreated wastewater and even from
the principles of integrated coastal to available data and information to wastewater treatment plants. Nutrient
management (ICM) and integrated river continuously improve understanding over-enrichment is the common
basin management (IRBM) to ensure of a problem and its solutions, while thread linking such diverse coastal
 Tropical Coasts 81

problems as fish kills, harmful algal the Black Sea from sources in the and coastal landscapes, and pollution
blooms (HABs), outbreaks of shellfish catchment area” (The Danube Pollution from shipping and land-based sources.
poisonings, coral reef destruction, Reduction Program). The most important transboundary
change of species composition, and issue identified in the Transboundary
large-scale hypoxia/anoxia causing The aim of the Danube River Pollution Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) and addressed
“dead zones”. Reduction of pollution Reduction Programme is the in the SAP is the reduction of nutrient
inputs from rivers is recognized as a improvement of water quality in all inputs to the Black Sea from riverine and
prerequisite in addressing downstream the water bodies in the Danube River land-based sources (Danube/Black Sea
pollution impacts in receiving coastal Basin. This includes the surface water Basin Strategic Partnership on Nutrient
and marine waters. in the rivers as well as groundwater. Reduction).
The Danube discharges its waters into
A key issue is cooperation among the Black Sea (Figure 2). Several other To address pollution from excess
governments within the river basin. rivers also discharge into the Black nutrients, and the associated
Cooperation can be facilitated by Sea, which is negatively influenced eutrophication in the lower Danube and
acknowledging that collective action by nutrients and other polluting the Black Sea, the GEF Danube-Black Sea
may be driven as much by common substances. However, the Danube Basin Strategic Partnership for Nutrient
goals to reduce risk as it is to share River Pollution Reduction Programme Pollution Reduction was launched in
benefits (Sadoff and Grey, 2002). is of great importance for the overall 2001 with an initial commitment of
Different modes of cooperation must reduction of pollution going into the US$98 million in grants from the Global
be taken into account in response to Black Sea. Environment Facility. The initiative was
different conditions. Three models coordinated by The World Bank, UNDP,
of cooperation on the development The main objective of the GEF Nutrient UNEP, and other sources of financing,
and management of basin-wide Reduction Programme for the Black as well as 16 basin countries and the
transboundary issues, involving Sea is to assist in the implementation Danube and Black Sea Commissions.
investing in institutions, information of the 1996 Strategic Action Plan The Strategic Partnership was composed
and capacity, as well as in natural and (SAP) for the Rehabilitation and of three components: The Danube
man-made infrastructure, are discussed Protection of the Black Sea as agreed River Basin Regional Project, the Black
here. on by the coastal countries. The SAP Sea Ecosystem Recovery Project, and a
provides the policy framework to Partnership Investment Fund (Zavadsky).
Danube River - Black Sea Strategic implement priority actions and address
Partnership for Nutrient Pollution transboundary environmental concerns The GEF-WB Partnership Investment
Reduction such as sustainable fisheries, tourism, Fund provides a focused regional
conservation of living marine resources framework for country-level investments
The Convention on Cooperation for
the Protection and Sustainable Use Figure 2. The Black Sea Basin and Tributaries.
of the River Danube (Danube River
Protection Convention or DRPC),
was signed in Sofia, Bulgaria, in
June 1994 by eleven Danube River
Basin countries and the European
Commission. The signatories to the
Danube Protection Convention, which
is based on the UN-ECE Framework
Convention on the Protection
and the Use of Transboundary
Watercourses and International Lakes
(Helsinki Convention), have agreed
on “conservation, improvement
and rational use of surface and
groundwater in the catchment area,
to control the hazards originating
from accidents and to contribute
to reducing the pollution loads of
82 December 2010

aimed at a common goal of reducing Chinese) is the world’s ninth longest wildlife (e.g., Amur leopards, Siberian
nutrient pollution in the Black Sea river, flowing over 4,500 km from the tigers, cranes, river turtles, etc.)
and helping to jumpstart and further mountains of Inner Mongolia to the is also a major concern. These are
accelerate key investments in sectors Sea of Okhotsk, and forming a border further compounded by inadequate
such as municipal wastewater, between the Russian Far East and institutional and management
agricultural runoff, and industrial Northeast China. It drains a remarkable systems, absence of coordinated
pollution. watershed that includes diverse planning, poor legal frameworks,
landscapes of desert, steppe, and taiga lack of enforcement of existing
The intervention has yielded positive of Northeast Asia. regulatory instruments, insufficient
outcomes for the region. Nitrogen public involvement, unbalanced
effluents have decreased about 20 The Tumen River is a 546 km-long regional capacity development, and
percent and phosphorus by almost river that starts from Mount Baekdu inadequate financial mechanisms
50 percent in the Danube Basin in the and flows in northeast Asia, on to address these problems in an
last 15 years. An integrated and
EU-funded review Figure 3. and Hypoxia in the sustainable
Black Sea, 1979 and 2007.
documented that manner.
eutrophication has
been reduced, the As a response,
“dead zone” in the the UNDP/
Western Black Sea GEF projects,
has been virtually Integrated
eliminated Management
(Figure 3), and of the Amur/
improvements in Heilong
biodiversity have River Basin
been identified. and Tumen
The number of River Area
benthic species Development
increased 1.5 to 2 Programme,
times with respect aimed to
to 1980 levels develop an
while invasive 1979 2007 overarching
alien species regional
(Mnemiopsis) has strategic
been significantly action
curtailed. Moreover, the upper reaches the border between PR China and programme (SAP) and establish an
of the Danube Basin is no longer Democratic People’s Republic of effective institutional mechanism to
considered at risk in terms of hazardous Korea (DPRK) in its upper reaches, and address transboundary land-based
substances, nutrients and organic between DPR Korea and Russia in its threats to the aquatic environment
pollutants (Zavadsky). last 17 km before entering the Sea of of the basins and their associated
Japan (or East Sea). continental coastal areas.
The Amur/Heilong and Tumen River
Basins Three key problems confront the The first task of the Amur/Heilong
Amur and Tumen river basins and River Integrated River Management
In the northeastern Asian region, coastal areas: (1) habitat degradation; approach was the creation of a
rapid economic development of PR (2) pollution of transboundary mechanism (Regional Framework) to
China, Russia, Mongolia and countries ground and river waters, and (3) solve transboundary environmental
of the Korean peninsula are causing non-optimal utilization of resources. problems between Russia, China
environmental and natural resource These are caused by unsustainable and Mongolia. The project aimed
degradation in the Amur and Tumen agricultural activities and forestry in to initiate pilot activities for the
River Basins (Figures 4 and 5). combination with growing industrial integrated management of the river
activities, along with inadequate land basin and its associated continental
The Amur River or Heilong Jiang (in use planning. Trade of endangered and Sakhalin Island coastal areas, and
 Tropical Coasts 83

Figure 4. Amur River Basin. 2006-2015) for the Tumen Small Grants Program, lead:
River Economic Development Mongolia);
Area. The project was • SAP (Strategic Action Programme,
a regional partnership lead: RO Korea); and
involving local, provincial and • SURVEY (Regional Water
national governments, the Monitoring, lead: DPR Korea).
business sector, grassroots
communities, academic The implementation of the TDA
and research institutions and SAP assisted in carrying out the
and environmental NGOs. Memorandum of Understanding
Coordination was achieved among the Tumen River Area
through a network of Development Programme member
regional lead agents and states by integrating and applying
national partners, which gave sound land and water resource
the project its nickname: management strategies. The SAP
TumenNET. provides a common framework for
the identification and formulation
Five major components of strategies, programmes and
were involved, and each of projects, which were focused on the
the participating countries conservation of biodiversity and
were responsible for one management of international water
component, which was resources; designed to obtain national,
managed in cooperation with regional and global benefits and
national Partner Institutions in respond primarily to transboundary
the other four countries: issues of environmental management
develop a replicable, inter-country
that could be financed and
and multi-stakeholder cooperation
• EIS (Environmental Information implemented by the five participating
model to address threats to resources
System, lead: PR China); countries.
and biological diversity in the Lake
• TDA (Transboundary Diagnostic
Xingkai/Khanka basin in an efficient
Analysis, lead: Russia); Taking into account the experiences
and cost-effective manner. The
• AWARE (Awareness Raising and from these projects, the following
main components of the UNDP/
GEF project included analysis of Figure 5. TumenNET project area.
the freshwater and coastal zone
management issues, causes and
impacts of unsustainable use of
water resources in the basin with a
focus on land-use practices, point
and non-point sources of pollution,
and water resource regulations.
The two final outputs were the
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
(TDA) and the ICARM Action Plan.
Among the technical components
of the ICARM Action Plan are
contingency planning, water
quality monitoring, and planned
infrastructure projects (Kachur).

The TumenNET project, which formed

part of the broader Tumen River
Area Development Programme, was
designed to help prepare an SAP (for
84 December 2010

course of action was recommended Seizing the watershed been aggressively implementing the
to ensure pollution reduction and opportunity to save the Total Pollution Load Control System
habitat restoration in the river basins coasts (TPLCS), an environmental protection
and coastal areas: (1) fostering close measure directed at controlling and
cooperation among neighboring Japan’s Eco-Compatible Integrated reducing land-based pollution at
countries in coordinating protection Management of River Basin and source in the river basin (Murakami, et
and use of natural resources; Coastal Area al.). The purpose of TPLCS is to reduce
(2) promoting development of the pollutant loads entering into the
coordinated economic policies; (3) In Japan, most of metropolises have enclosed seas, especially the specified
developing contingency plans in case developed along the enclosed coastal water bodies of Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay and
of environmental emergencies and seas and river basins with both Seto Inland Sea. Every five years, the
joint ecological monitoring systems; intensive agricultural areas and quite Minister of Environment formulates
(4) facilitating more active role of industrially-advanced areas having a Basic Policy for Total Pollutant
civil society; and (5) establishment of large populations and big cities. These Load Control System (BPTPLCS). The
international commission to manage land areas have continuously supplied governor of each prefecture makes a
transboundary river basin and the pollutant loads, and sometimes Total Pollutant Load Control Plan to
coastal areas similar to the Mekong resulted in water pollution and achieve the pollutant load reduction
River Commission and Yellow Sea degradation of marine ecosystems. target according to the BPTPLCS. Such
Commission (Kachur). Hence, the Japanese Government has a plan generally consists of concrete

Figure 6. Reduction in pollutant load in Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay

and Seto Inland Sea between 1979 and 2009.
 Tropical Coasts 85

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of eco-compatible assessment.

measures to reduce pollutants from
households, industries, and agricultural
lands. These measures significantly
reduced the COD and TN loads in
Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay and Seto Inland Sea
between 1979 and 2009 (Figure 6).

Nevertheless, further environmental

improvement from the watershed
and forest to the sea areas was called
for, and the ICARM approach was
recommended by UNEP/NOWPAP.
In 2007, a strategic environmental
policy was formulated and the Basic
Act on Ocean Policy was enacted,
which emphasized the integrated
management of coastal area and river
basins.

For the development of ICARM in Ise

Bay, an assessment framework for eco-
compatible integrated management of dependent approach, strengthening river systems since this was identified
river basin and coastal area was applied a decisionmaking support system, as the key factor contributing to
(Murakami, et al.). It consists of three involving the public, revising the the pollution of the coastal zone. In
tool boxes: (1) for evaluation of natural legal and institutional framework, 2007, the State Council promulgated
and man-made flux network (e.g., water, and forging cooperation between the National Eleventh Five-year Plan
sediment, pollutant load etc); (2) for national government agencies and for Environmental Protection (2006-
evaluation of ecosystem service for each local communities (Oh). Several policies 2010). Under this plan, there are five
categorized landscape which forms the and laws covering land, estuary and targets to reduce marine pollution:
river basin, coastal area and bay; and (3) sea areas also set policy directions (1) reduce amounts of land-based
for integrated evaluation of results from and standards for environmental pollution; (2) speed up the steps of
tool boxes 1 and 2 (Figure 7). management. In 2008, to improve important marine environmental
integration and coordination at the protection; (3) protect the sea from
National Program on ICARM in national level, the Ministry of Maritime pollution from port and shipping;
RO Korea Affairs and Fisheries (MOMAF) and (4) strengthen marine ecological
the Ministry of Construction and protection, including establishment
In RO Korea, intensive coastal Transportation were merged into of marine conservation areas; and
development since the 1970s has led the Ministry of Land, Transport and (5) avoid sea-based environmental
to degradation of coastal habitats, Maritime Affairs (MLTM). Likewise, disasters (Xin Xie, et al.). The State
rapid increase in pollutant loading a significant portion of the national Environmental Protection Agency
from land-based sources into coastal budget was allocated for pollution (SEPA) also adopted the Songhua
waters, about 40 percent increase in prevention from land-based activities, River Water Pollution Prevention Plan
BOD during the last decade, and 20 with sewage, POPs, heavy metals, and (2006-2010) and the Huai River, Liao
percent decrease in wetlands due physical alteration and destruction of River, Chao Lake, Dianchi Lake, Upper
to reclamation projects from 1987 habitats as high priorities. and Middle Reaches of the Yellow River
to 2005. Not until the mid 1990s did Water Pollution Prevention Plan (Xin
marine environmental protection China’s experience in pollution Xie, et al.).
come into the public agenda. Since reduction in rivers and coastal
then, RO Korea has implemented zones using ICARM approaches Between 2006 and 2008, China
national strategies to achieve the goal adopted several measures to reduce
of ICARM by consolidating the coastal The main target of ICARM in the Yellow pollution and improve water quality,
and watershed management regime, Sea in China is to control land-based namely: (1) land-based pollution
applying a site-specific and issue- pollution discharged through the reduction through control of industrial
86 December 2010

pollution discharges, improvement the coastal zone was defined as basins and parts of the sea of two
of municipal wastewater treatment the borders of the coastal regional nautical mile-wide, or marine
systems, delegation of responsibilities subjects/administrative units surface limited by perpendiculars
in improving water quality to local (encompassing the watershed to median lines dividing large bays
governments, and regular monitoring area) and the boundary of the and gulfs.
of results; (2) establishment of national continental shelf.
aquatic resource conservation Other users of natural resources will
areas and periodic closing of some 2. The zoning for coastal areas was be in charge of land and sea water
fishing areas; and (3) adoption and defined in terms of environmental assigned to them. The proposed
implementation of ship-based quality or conditions that can delimitation scheme considers the
pollution reduction and mitigation support life and human activity. coastal zone as a whole physical-
measures at the national and local geographical natural system, takes
levels. 3. Recommendations were made as into account the interests of federal
to zoning of coastal areas based and regional structures and the needs
ICARM approach in the Russian on sustainability principles so of municipalities and the population
Far East and application of coastal that conflicting resource use (e.g., of the coasts, and corresponds with
area zoning fishery versus extraction of oil and existing Russian and international
gas production) would be avoided. legislation. Figure 8 shows the
In the Pacific coast of Russia, ICARM delimitation of coastal zones in the
is being implemented on the basis of 4. Recommendations were also made Peter the Great Bay near Vladivostok.
the analysis of natural peculiarities, to delineate the responsibilities of
environmental conditions, and socio- the federal, regional and municipal ICM, IRBM and pollution reduction
ecological issues in the areas covered. authorities for specific areas in the in Selangor and Klang River System
coastal zone. The area of federal
For the organization of integrated and responsibility on the whole is the In the Selangor and Klang River
sustainable management of natural territory and entire sea area of system in Malaysia, pollution is one
resources in the Far Eastern coastal the country. However, exclusive of the biggest threats apart from
zones of Russia, a hierarchical structure Federal responsibility would dams and the destruction of highland
of delineation and zoning of coastal cover the continental shelf from catchments. The sources of pollution
areas and recommendations for their the outer boundary of territorial include domestic and industrial
development on the basis of natural sea to the outer boundary of sewage, effluent from livestock
resource and socioeconomic zoning was the continental shelf. Regional farms, manufacturing and agro-
developed (Arzamastsev). It involves the responsibility (of coastal Krais and based industries, suspended solids
following process: Oblasts) would cover their land from mining, earthworks, and road
borders and inner waters and construction, logging and clearing
1. Since there is no legislation on territorial sea from the marine of forest. To ensure that the water
coastal management and no legally side. Municipal responsibility resources and environment are in
approved definition of coastal would include territories of manageable and sustainable condition,
zone and its boundaries in Russia, municipal subjects located in river the Selangor Waters Management

Photo: H. Li
 Tropical Coasts 87

Figure 8. Coastal Zones in Peter the Great Bay near Vladivostok.

Authority, a one-stop agency for the Valley, while Langat River, with an Comprehensive multi-sector
management of water resources, river area of 2,400 km2, drains the Kuala pollution reduction strategies to
basin, groundwater, coastal water and Langat Basin. Both river estuaries meet restore Chesapeake Bay
other water bodies, was set up by law at the coastal waters of Port Klang
in 1999. In the past, the approach ICM area (Figure 9). The process of The Chesapeake Bay is shallow with
was to treat river basin and coastal integration required synergy among an average depth of 6 m, but with a
management separately. Eventually, different sectors (government, private, large watershed area of 166,000 km2
however, the need for integrated NGOs, civil society, etc.), different and population of 16 million. It is the
management of river basin and coastal government agencies (local authorities, largest estuary in the United States. Its
zone as a single interactive entity was land administrators, fisheries, tourism, basin includes the District of Columbia
recognized. This was demonstrated shipping, agriculture, etc.), and different and parts of six states: New York,
in Port Klang through the expansion levels of government (Federal, State and Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
of the ICM project boundary to cover Local). Harmonization of the legislative Virginia and West Virginia. More than
the boundaries of IRBM of two major and institutional development agenda 150 rivers and streams drain into the
adjoining upstream rivers, namely as well as setting up the supporting Bay.
the Klang and Langat Rivers. Klang financing mechanisms were recognized
River, with an area of 1,300 km2, passes as basic prerequisites for a successful The Chesapeake Bay has been
through Kuala Lumpur and Klang IRBM-ICM program. degraded in the last 100 years due
88 December 2010

to pollution as indicated by the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1998 is also being employed based on the
decline in aquatic life. Nutrient incorporating nutrient management on improvements made on ecosystem
enrichment from all sectors has caused farms; (4) Chesapeake Bay Restoration health. For all these measures to
fundamental and pervasive alteration Fund of 2005, which charges a fee to effectively lead to full recovery of
of its ecosystem. Seagrass has declined support wastewater treatment plant Chesapeake Bay, nutrient reduction
by 8-to 10-fold while oysters are and septic tank upgrades; (5) Water actions from all sectors must be
now at only one percent of historic Resources Element of Comprehensive undertaken. Restoring the Bay must
population levels. The Chesapeake Plans of 2006 to ensure water and also be considered in the context of
Bay Agreement was signed in 1987 sewer capacity available for growth; climate change. Given its shallowness, a
by the states of Maryland, Virginia, and (6) the Chesapeake Bay 2010 Trust rise in water level and temperature due
and Pennsylvania, and the District of Fund to support reduction of non-point to climate change will have big impact
Columbia, committing to achieving a sources of pollution. on Chesapeake Bay’s resiliency.
40 percent reduction of 1985 nutrient
levels (nitrogen and phosphorous) Following the principles of adaptive Testing the waters
in Chesapeake Bay by the year 2000 management, Maryland’s governor
and capping nutrient levels thereafter established BayStat in 2007 to Information is essential to effective
(Nemazie). Although the goal was not review monthly progress, assess the management. There are new
met, significant nutrient reductions effectiveness of nutrient reduction technologies that help in getting and
were achieved. Various laws and programs from all sectors, and consider providing necessary information.
measures applied to reduce nutrient changes to increase their efficiency There are innovative technical and
pollution include the: (1) Critical Areas (Figure 10). Two-year goals on nutrient social approaches to monitoring and
Law (1984) concerning protection reduction were incorporated to data collection across local, national,
of shorelines (revised in 2008); (2) hold politicians accountable. TMDL regional and international boundaries.
Phosphate Laundry Detergent Ban of allocations will also be enforced There are also technologies and
1988 to reduce phosphorous loads; (3) beginning 2011. Adaptive management approaches for data interpretation,
information management and systems
modeling, and decision-support
Figure 9. Port Klang ICM and river basin area. tools, such as geographic information
systems (GIS) and computer simulation
tools. Case studies described below
show how such tools and approaches
can be woven together to provide
inputs for more effective policymaking
and planning.

Water quality assessment is a

continuous process. The finding
of an impaired water body during
assessment should trigger a sequence
of actions that may include listing of
the water, development of a TMDL
program, planning of national and
local actions, and implementation
of activities/projects designed to
comply with water quality standards. In
NOWPAP, the monitoring of pollution
loading and river inputs contributes
to development of spatial zoning and
other management interventions.

In Xiamen, multi-objective optimization

and numerical models were applied to
calculate wastewater discharges and
 Tropical Coasts 89

the marine environmental carrying

capacity (Chen, et al.). The results can
be used in developing programs to
reduce sewage flux in Xiamen waters. In
particular, pollution loadings in certain
rivers in the watershed and discharge
rates from point and non-point sources
can be capped so that overall water
quality is maintained in accordance
with standards. The information from
this model can also be combined with
another model, likewise developed
in Xiamen, to show the sources of
pollution loading and their share in
the total loading. This has implications
on planning and law enforcement. In
particular, the sea-use zoning scheme
in Xiamen took into consideration the
water quality in designating different
functional zones.

Quantifying land-based pollutant

loads in the coastal area in China

Quantification of land-based pollutant

load is an important step before any
planning is done or any practical
steps are taken to address pollution.
However, in many cases, data regarding
water quality of effluent and storm
water runoff, streamflow, climate
variables, etc., in the coastal area are
insufficient or inappropriate for the
purpose of modeling or accurate direct
estimation of land-based pollutant
loads. A systematic approach for
quantifying land-based pollutant loads
in coastal bays with limited data was
developed in China with the integration
of Raster GIS, USLE, SDR, and empirical
export coefficient method (Huang, et
al.). This approach can quantify the
source apportionment of land-based
sources of pollution, in terms of point
source, non-point source (including
soil losses, fertilizer use, livestock
and poultry breeding, and domestic
wastewater), and river discharges, and
identify the critical areas of land-based
pollution in coastal areas.

The application of the approach in Figure 10. BayStat.

two bays (Xiamen Bay and Luoyuan
90 December 2010

Figure 11. Sources and Distribution of Pollution Loading in Xiamen, PR China.

Bay) with different natural conditions Pollution load assessment in the Meycauayan-Obando (MMO) river
and levels of urbanization resulted in Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando River system, which is a sub-basin in the
clear identification of the sources of System Manila Bay area. It covers 130 km2, and
land-based pollutant loads and their flows through three cities and four
respective share or contribution. In Under the Philippine Clean Water Act of municipalities. There are 1.28 million
Xiamen Bay, which suffered from a 2004, the Department of Environment residents (2007), and 794 industries (21
more intensive urbanization process, and Natural Resources (DENR) is industry types) mapped.
the results showed that over 55 percent required to designate areas that have A pollution load assessment for
of the land-based pollutants (COD, bodies of water whose water quality the MMO river system shows that
TN and TP) were caused by non-point needs to be improved. The Water 75 percent of the BOD loading is
source pollution (Figure 11). On the Quality Management Area (WQMA) contributed by domestic sources, 20
other hand, the results obtained in should cover the same physiographic percent by industries and 5 percent
Luoyuan Bay showed that 63 percent unit that affects the physico-chemical by aquaculture (Valenton and David).
of the land-based pollutant COD was and biological reactions and diffusion Figure 12 shows the estimated
mainly from rural domestic wastewater of pollutants in the bodies of water domestic BOD loading into the three
pollution, 22 percent from soil draining the said area. A WQMA is rivers.
erosion, whereas point sources only managed by a Governing Board which
contributed 4 percent. The results also is composed of representatives from This river system also receives untreated
provided implications for river basin national government agencies, the local waste discharges from tanneries and
and coastal management in the study government and other key stakeholders establishments involved in production
areas. Nonetheless, there are still some in the area. The Governing Board is of leather, jewelry making, recycling
uncertainties and limitations for such tasked among others, to prepare, used oil, etc. In the downstream and
an approach. For example, land-based approve, and update a WQMA Action coastal areas, an aquaculture industry
pollutants in this model just focused Plan. has been established. Hence, one of
on TN, TP and COD. More research work the issues raised during the study was
should be done in order to refine and One of the first three WQMAs in the sole focus of this project on BOD
further validate the model. the Philippines was the Marilao- loadings, given that previous studies,
 Tropical Coasts 91

influence of land- which is a characteristic of watersheds,

based sources. River does not address the influence of river
runoff is the main inputs on coastal waters. Hence, as a
land-based source of further step, an evaluation of coastal
chemical substances, waters, where increasing levels of
including nutrients, plankton production or eutrophication
to the coastal areas could be a consequence of the
and excessive input of observed riverine flux of nitrogen, is
nutrients is believed proposed as a proxy estimation or
to be a main reason indicator of the influence of river runoff
for eutrophication on the adjacent coastal waters (Shulkin).
of coastal waters. The bigger area of influence, the greater
The high natural and the affect of land-based sources of
socioeconomic non- nutrients on the eutrophication in
uniformity within coastal waters. The main disadvantage
the NOWPAP region of such an indicator is the lack of
makes it necessary to connectivity with oceanographic and/
normalize the riverine or biological features in the concerned
fluxes of nutrients that localities. The indicator, however, allows
are influencing the sea comparison of the situation at regional
areas. and subregional levels within large sea
areas and distinguishes between those
At present, the sea areas where the ICARM approach is
traditional area- strongly recommended and those areas
normalized discharge where influence of the land-based point
(specific discharge, Q/S), sources of nutrients is less probable.
and the environmental risk assessment
and water quality monitoring results
have shown that the major bay-wide
concern is the nutrients, while there are
localized concerns (in the MMO river
system) regarding heavy metals, and
oil and grease. The study noted that
monitoring of BOD only will not result
in a comprehensive pollution loading
assessment, and may in fact lead to
insufficient/inappropriate pollution
control facilities.

Significance of the River Input of

Nutrients in relation to Coastal
Eutrophication

The assessment of a sea area where

land-based sources determine the
characteristics and ecological problems
is a prerequisite for the success of the
ICARM approach. In the NOWPAP region,
which includes countries with very
different natural and socioeconomical
conditions, there is a need for indicators
that would allow zoning of the vast
coastal sea areas according to the Figure 12. Estimated domestic BOD Pollution Loading in the MMO river
system (2007).
92 December 2010

Figure 13. Upstreaming SEA in decisionmaking.

Embedding Pollution
Reduction in the Political
Agenda

Political will: Control of land-based

pollution and cleaning up the
Singapore River

In Singapore, major sources of

pollution affecting the marine area
include ship-borne pollution and land-
based pollution. Being a city-state, the
Source: The World Bank. 2005. Good Practices in Strategic Environmental Assessment main sources of land-based pollution
in Singapore are domestic sewage
and industrial wastewater. There are
Applying Strategic alternative proposals and mitigation also some commercial farms in the
Environmental Assessment measures. suburban areas that generate wastes,
in ICM which, if not properly managed, would
The SEA approach was used in also pollute inland and coastal waters.
Compared to project-specific evaluating the proposed land
Environmental Impact Assessment reclamation projects, developing options A big challenge that Singapore faced in
(project EIA), strategic environmental and recommendations, and augmenting the late 1970s was the serious pollution
assessment (SEA) is a process of the sea-use zoning scheme in Xiamen of the Singapore River. In 1977, then
anticipating and addressing the (Fang). A well-designed SEA framework Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew issued
potential environmental impacts or can therefore support and improve a challenge to have the Singapore
consequences of proposed initiatives decisionmaking in ICM and ICARM River cleaned up in ten years. This
at higher levels of decisionmaking, programs (Figure 14). Increased rigor in resulted in a 10-year master plan aimed
and integrating environmental implementing legislation to better link at cleaning up the Singapore River
considerations into the earliest SEA to ICM, however, is needed. and Kallang Basin. The goals were
phase of policymaking, planning and
program development (Figure 13).
The SEA is a method and approach for Figure 14. Integrating SEA into ICM.
conducting environmental assessment Dimensions of Integration in ICM How SEA Facilitates ICM
of policies, sector development plans, Administrational Intersectoral integration Analysis consistence of proposed
and programs, and can also be used target with existing PPPs; Public
as a tool in country environmental participation

analysis. It also involves assessment Intergovernmental integration Tiering of SEA: its application at
different levels of decisionmaking;
of economic and social impacts as public participation
well as cumulative impacts, which International integration Assess transboundary and global
are important because impacts of impacts
individual projects may be minor when Spatial Integration of the terrestrial and Assess interaction between land
considered in isolation, but significant marine components and ocean, especially impacts of
land-based activities
when the projects are viewed
Decisionmaking Science-management integration Start at earliest stage; Iterative
collectively. In contrast to project-
(technical process and review
level EIA, SEA brings environmental procedure)
and sustainable development Methodologies Integration of variety of natural Integration of different assessment
considerations, including temporal science and social science tools
and spatial scale of cumulative and Objectives Sustainable development Extend SEA contents to broader
balancing economic well-being, concerns
indirect effects, into decision-making
social justice and environmental
early, before any decisions on project objectives over the long run
location and scale have been made, Guiding Principle Integration of human and nature Framework designed based on
resulting in a broader range of ecosystem management
Source: Source: Fang
 Tropical Coasts 93

to remove sources of pollution and infrastructure and pollution control Policy and institutional reforms:
to ensure water quality that would facilities, stringent enforcement of Pollution Reduction in the
support fish and other aquatic life, pollution control legislation and an Jiulongjiang Basin and Xiamen Bay
and water recreational activities. An effective monitoring programme,
interagency committee was led by Singapore managed to control land- The Jiulongjiang, with a total basin area
the Ministry of Environment, which based pollution sources effectively of 14,240 km2, is the second largest
adopted action programs meant and keep the inland and coastal river in Fujian Province running from
to: (1) identify sources of pollution waters clean and healthy (Hui). After the hills of Longyan City through
and measures to remove them; (2) just ten years, river quality improved Zhangzhou City, entering the sea in
upgrade environmental infrastructure dramatically as indicated by the Xiamen City. The Fujian provincial
and construct new infrastructure; return of aquatic life, resurgence government has paid great attention
(3) review existing institutional of water recreational activities, and to the control of pollution in the river
structure and legislation to strengthen aesthetic improvement of various basin of the Minjiang (the largest river
environmental pollution control; (4) areas along the river (Figure 15). The of Fujian running into the sea in Fuzhou)
resettle industries and illegal settlers success of the program was attributed and the Jiulongjiang. However, after a
along riverbanks; and (5) implement to political will, a clear mandate for decade of ICM practice in Xiamen, the
river rehabilitation and beautification. agencies to carry out their tasks, close managers and stakeholders in Xiamen
coordination among government came to realize that the Jiulongjiang
With proper planning and development, agencies and partnerships with Basin still was having a great impact
provision of environmental stakeholders. on ecosystem health and marine

Figure 15. Selected Areas along Singapore River before and after
rehabilitation.

Before and After

Singapore River
(North Boat Quay)

1981

1987
Singapore River
1980 1987 (Robertson Quay)
94 December 2010

biodiversity conservation in Xiamen Bay. environmental infrastructure gap. Livestock Waste Management in
The Jiulongjiang accounts for 50 percent Institutional capacities are too weak, East Asia: Waste treatment and
of the non-point source pollution regulatory frameworks are either not energy generation
in the Bay. Therefore, the Strategic in place or not enforced. As such,
Management Plan of Xiamen ICM (2004) investors are wary to invest. Oftentimes, The GEF-World Bank Livestock Waste
made the control of transboundary technologies being offered are too Management in East Asia Project
pollution from the Jiulongjiang Basin expensive, too energy intensive, or aims to reduce the major negative
one of its priority objectives. Since too complex to be set up in areas environmental and health impacts
2004, the Xiamen Government has where there are limited capacities and of rapidly increasing concentrated
initiated a comprehensive program for resources. Innovations in both policy and livestock production on water bodies.
transboundary pollution reduction in technology will serve to close the gap The project is a collaboration between
the Jiulong River through institutional, between these two challenges. Various PR China, Vietnam and Thailand, three
technical and financial arrangements wastewater treatment technologies — of the major livestock producing
with the upstream and downstream conventional or innovative; low cost countries in the region, and the Food
cities (Zhou). or high cost — are available, but there and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
must be supporting policies in place and
In terms of institutional arrangements, institutional and technical capacities to The project focused on moving from
several actions were made, such as the ensure appropriate technology selection the business-as-usual approach
setting up of a Xiamen, Zhangzhou (suitable, affordable, cost-effective, of inadequately addressing the
and Longyan City Alliance in 2004. This energy-efficient), implementation and environmental problems that are
led to a united effort in coastal zone replication. In some settings, simpler, being created by the rapidly increasing
management, pollution reduction, less expensive technologies might be large-scale livestock production
conservation of rare and endangered appropriate for meeting immediate units to a strategic framework for a
marine species, coastal disaster needs, while larger scale solutions are cost-effective and environmentally
prevention and mitigation, intensive being planned for implementation sound livestock production. The
fishery law enforcement, and marine as capacities improve. Decentralized project also involved capacity and
environmental monitoring. In terms and community-based wastewater institution building in the countries
of technical arrangements, workshops treatment systems may be explored concerned, and comprised: (a)
and forums were held among the cities in rural and urban poor communities. awareness raising and development
to exchange knowledge and lessons Moreover, tapping the potential for of policies and replication strategy;
learned. Every year, the mayors of the energy generation and reuse of treated (b) livestock waste management
three cities sit down to summarize what wastewater and application of biosolids technology demonstration and
has been achieved and lay down the in agriculture can result in multiple training involving introduction of a
target for the coming years. benefits — alternative sources of energy, better spatial distribution of intensive
water supply and organic fertilizers livestock production to bring the
Over the past six years, the Fujian while at the same time addressing the nutrient effluent more in line with the
Government has invested in water pollution problem. In looking forward, adsorptive capacity of the surrounding
pollution control and ecological the most innovative approaches will land, and the use of improved manure
management. Moreover, since 2004, reflect the following considerations: management technologies to reduce
the Xiamen Municipal Government (1) the linkages between policy and the environmental damage that
has been providing financial assistance technology; (2) the need to specifically industrial livestock activities currently
to its upstream partners for pollution tailor solutions to the local situation; cause; (c) setting in place a project
reduction activities in the upper reaches (3) the relationships between water, management and monitoring and
of the watershed. Arrangements were agriculture and energy; and (4) the evaluation system; and (d) regional
also set up to relocate, move or shut importance of capacity building for support services to be provided by
down activities and industries that effective implementation of both FAO (Chaiyakul and Chatsanguthai).
significantly pollute the watershed. policy and management interventions.
Breakthroughs in technology that Through this project, examples of
Linking Policies and change the economics or environmental innovative wastewater and sludge
Technologies impacts of water supply and wastewater treatment (see Box 1) and biogas
treatment processes would make the electricity generation systems in pig
Both policy and technology solutions adoption of certain policies less risky to farms were applied, demonstrating
will be critical to solving the political leaders. Some examples follow. technologies that treat waste, convert
 Tropical Coasts 95

waste into a resource (energy source) reduction and odor control; (c) energy Supporting policies, plans and
and generate revenue (carbon credit) generation – reducing use of fossil regulations have also been set in place.
(Figure 16). energy and additional revenue stream In Thailand, the Ministry of Natural
to farms, greenhouse gas reduction Resources and Environment, with the
The project benefits included: (a) and obtaining carbon credits (in assistance of the project preparation
organic (BOD) stabilization and Thailand); and (d) social contribution – team, has passed a regulation for
nutrient conversion; (b) pathogen Community Benefit Plan (in Thailand). waste management for pig farms
and developed a Code of Good
Box 1. Introduction of innovative Agricultural practice for the certification
technologies in pig farms. of standard farms, which includes
conditions for management related
In Thailand: to health, food, water, animal welfare
• Modified Covered Lagoon (MCL) - Additional: PVC lined bottom and
and waste management. In addition,
sludge withdrawal pipe
• Channel Digester Plus - to improve sludge withdrawal efficiency and regulations that ban the discharge of
sludge storage during monsoon season wastewater into surface water has been
put into place. In Viet Nam, a national
In China: strategy and a law on environmental
• Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) digester
protection has been enacted while in
• Factory-fabricated combined digester and gas storage
• Red mud plastic baffled reactor China, a general national regulation
on wastewater management has
In Vietnam: been passed, which also addresses
• Communal system industrialized livestock production.
• Cluster household system
Source: Livestock Waste Management in East Asia (LWMEA) Project Management Office, Bangkok Ningbo Water and Environment
Project: Natural systems for
Figure 16. Innovative approaches to livestock management. wastewater treatment

The Ningbo Water and Environment

Project (NWEP) is the first project
financed under the Strategic
Partnership Investment Fund for
PVC lined bottom
and sludge Pollution Reduction in the Large
withdrawal pipe Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) of East Asia
established by the GEF and The World
Bank. In line with the Fund’s objective,
the overall project development
objective was to reduce land-based
pollution along the Cixi coast and
the East China Sea, promote the
replication of innovative, low-cost
Modified Covered Lagoon wastewater treatment techniques, and
(MCL) encourage coastal zone conservation.
This project’s concept, objectives
and components were previously
presented during the East Asian
Seas Congress in Haikou City, Hainan
Province, PR China in December 2006.
Since then, progress has been made
starting with the establishment of the
Wetland Center in 2007.
Methane capture Electricity
(wastewater and generation The GEF/World Bank Ningbo Water and
sludge treatment) Environment Project was implemented
Source: Livestock Waste Management in East Asia (LWMEA) Project Management Office, Bangkok.
96 December 2010

by Ningbo Municipality (in Zhejiang the Wetland Center, and engaged a Project II. The Shandong project
Province), which is located 175- Consortium consisting of Wetlands aims to promote sustainable urban
km south of Shanghai and borders International, Global Environmental development in Shandong province by
Hangzhou Bay, China’s second- Center and East China Normal implementing the following projects:
largest port. Investments in water University to provide technical
supply and pollution control in the assistance on design and operations of • Upgrade the urban wastewater
municipality have lagged far behind the Wetland Center (Li). treatment facilities, solid waste
its rapid economic development, so disposal and water supply
its coastline is severely polluted. Its Quarterly monitoring of the site facilities;
local governments have now declared indicates that populations of • Improve the efficiency of urban
pollution reduction a priority and migratory and breeding birds have wastewater treatment plants,
adopted a progressive, sub-regional increased and that vegetation solid waste disposal companies
and multisector approach to it. The communities are colonizing the new and water supply companies;
project demonstrated cost-effective freshwater wetlands. The water quality • Disseminate results of the Yantai
and innovative solutions, including at the wastewater treatment wetland GEF Pilot Project in Shandong
a constructed wetland for tertiary outflows, however, has yet to show province; and
treatment of the Cixi Wastewater significant changes as the treatment • Facilitate institutional and
Treatment Plant and a natural wetland wetlands are not yet fully functional. capacity development.
conservation area for non-point
source pollution control, restoration Yantai Pilot Project: An integrated The Yantai GEF-World Bank Pilot
of degraded wetlands and tidal approach for septage management Project is addressing septage
mudflats, biodiversity protection, and management issues, such as lack
environmental education (Li). The Cixi The Yantai GEF-World Bank Pilot of regulations on obligations,
County– Ningbo Government also Project is ongoing and is part responsibilities, design, construction,
established a Wetland Management of the bigger second Shandong operation and maintenance of
Company to develop and manage Urban Environmental Protection septic tanks, and septage collection,

Figure 17. Use of information management tools (GIS and GPS) in septage management in Yantai.

Source: Yantai GEF-World Bank Pilot Project

 Tropical Coasts 97

treatment and disposal (Jin, et al.). The training and certification center for The Pasig River also has four major and
major project components include: practitioners; and 43 minor tributaries which are directly
• Investigation on decentralized/ and continuously discharging polluted
• Policy and Regulation Study: on-site wastewater treatment water into it. These tributaries, and
reviewed and analyzed current technologies. the Laguna de Bay were causing the
policies and regulations, developed degradation in the water quality of the
a new policy framework and The role of the improved GIS and GPS Pasig River and Manila Bay.
specific regulations on septage for mapping, monitoring and regulating
management in Yantai; septic tank systems in Yantai has been In 1999, the Pasig River Rehabilitation
• Institutional Development: successfully demonstrated (Figure 17), Commission was created through an
To develop the structure and and this could be replicated and scaled Executive Order, with the main
analyze the costs of management, up in other cities in PR China (Jin, et objective of upgrading the water
inspection, and field operation for al.).Once the equipment, vacuum trucks quality of Pasig River to Class C level
sustainable and financially viable and septage treatment plant have been — water quality that is fit for fishery,
septic tanks management; procured, this septage management secondary recreation and water supply
• Establishment of GIS/IMS System project is expected to result in additional for manufacturing processes (after
(database with GIS of spatial BOD reduction of 25 percent per year, treatment). The Commission set
and attribute information of and would complement the wastewater 12 targets, namely to: (1) eliminate
septic tanks, and GPS for vacuum treatment facilities (Jin, et al.). offensive odor; (2) reduce BOD load
trucks’ operation and transport from 330 tons/day to 200 tons/day; (3)
optimization); Reducing pollution in the Pasig reduce solid waste; (4) increase and
• Construction of septage treatment River: Strategies, good practices, control the flow of water; (5) reduce
station, including procurement achievements and challenges flooding; (6) enforce zoning ordinances
of vacuum trucks and treatment by respective local government units
equipment with GEF funds; and The Pasig River is one of the major rivers (LGUs); (7) remove sunken vessels;
development of Operation and and most important natural waterways (8) develop linear parks; (9) relocate
Maintenance Manuals; in the Philippines. Located at the informal settlers; (10) establish water
• Environmental Monitoring; heart of the nation’s capital, the 27-km transport service; (11) undertake
• Project Assessment; river serves as the only link between bioremediation/aeration and filtration;
• Training, Public Education and Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay, which and (12) implement phytoremediation.
Technology Transfer; is the largest freshwater lake in the From 2000 to 2008, the PRRC was able
• Development of septic tank Philippines. to reduce dumping of garbage and

Figure 18a. Snapshots of Progress in Pasig River

Before After
PUP Linear Park
Sta. Mesa, Manila
Development of Linear Parks. Out of 38 km on both banks of the Pasig River, a total of 25 km has been developed.
98 December 2010

discharging of industrial waste into the Presently, the Commission faces several Rising to the Challenge:
river; remove sunken vessels and other challenges, such as: (1) fast-tracking Initiatives in the Pollution
materials from the river bed; develop the construction of septage treatment Hotspots
linear parks and turn the riverbanks plants (STPs) and wastewater treatment
into environmental preservation areas facilities by the concessionaires; (2) Jakarta Bay–Ciliwung River
(Figure 18a and 18b; resettle informal strengthening involvement of LGUs Pollution Reduction Project
settlers to decent and socialized in the relocation of informal settlers
housing units (Figure 18c); revive the and construction and operation of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia,
commercial ferry; continuously monitor Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs); and has been the economic development
the water quality of the river; and create (3) establishing biological treatment center of the country, and the resulting
public awareness (Tablan and Mallari). A stations for households, commercial urbanization has created environmental
river dredging and rehabilitation work and industrial establishments and the as well as social problems. The city has a
was also initiated in 2009. 43 minor tributaries of the Pasig River. night-time population of 10 million and

Figure 18b. Snapshots of Progress in Pasig River.

Before After
Brgy. Pineda Linear Park
Manila

Figure 18c. Relocation of Informal Settlers. PRRC has resettled 9,217 out of 10,113 informal settler families from the
Pasig River to decent and socialized housing units.

Before After
 Tropical Coasts 99

Figure 19. Spatial Planning of Coastal Areas of Jakarta — Protected zone (N1), day-time population of 12 million, while
Cultivation zone (B1, B6, B7) and Buffer zone (P2, P3 and P5). the Greater Jakarta area has a total
population of around 25 million people.
The city’s geographical condition is
characterized as a low-lying region,
with 13 river systems coming from the
neighboring administrative regions of
Banten and West Java Provinces flowing
to Jakarta Bay in the northern part of
the city.

One of the rivers flowing into the bay

is the Ciliwung River, which in the past
used to be an economically important
transportation route but is now
functioning mainly as a flood control
canal. Ciliwung River flows through 72
sub-districts with many areas along the
Figure 20. Approaches for the 5 Major Rivers Draining Bohai Sea. riverbanks occupied by informal settlers.
Large volumes of solid waste and
sedimentation due to upstream land
erosion have resulted in a decrease in
the water flow of the river. In addition,
industrial waste, agricultural waste,
livestock manure and market waste
flow into the river without treatment.
This has resulted to pervasive water
pollution in the river and the receiving
Jakarta Bay. The local government has
implemented a Clean River Program,
undertaken periodic environmental
quality monitoring, endeavored to
control effluent pollution from industrial
and commercial activities, and actively
River Approaches undertaken river clean up campaigns
Dalinghe River • Protected Area (PA)-based targets (Susanti). With regard to coastal water
• Protected areas: pollution, the city has signed a Letter
- National level: 1
- City level: 2 of Declaration for improvement of the
- Country level: 6 waste management performance of
• Total area of protected areas: 51872 ha
• Country-level model companies, which are located along the
• Protected Area (PA)-based targets coast, and undertaken spatial planning
Luanhe river • Zoning for total control of quantity of pollution discharge of the coastal area (Figure 19), strategic
• Network for control of discharge environmental assessment (SEA) for
• Ecosystem-based targets
coastal reclamation and revitalization,
Haihe river • Controlling under rapid development
• Coastal water-based targets and beach cleanup campaigns (Susanti).
Guanglihe river • Reconstructing relationship between water and human use
• City river with eco-landscaping Despite the programs undertaken
Xiaoqinghe river • Sewage by the city government, the need to
- Wastewater address the pollution problems in
- Non-point
- Eco-engineering a sustainable way was recognized.
• Integrated control in 5 cities/10 counties: A strategic plan for the integrated
management of Jakarta Bay Area and
tributary rivers has been prepared, and
100 December 2010

Jakarta Province will be formulating the importance of public-private However, the two concessionaires,
future actions in line with this plan. partnerships (PPP) in addressing Manila Water and Maynilad, are making
pollution and other issues, particularly huge investments in sewerage, septage
A master plan to reduce pollution the application of CSR in the and wastewater management. They
and improve the water quality of the rehabilitation of the Manila Bay. The may not be able to meet this target
Ciliwung River has also been developed. Forum also discussed the contributions in the short term, but significant
of the corporate sector, both existing pollution reduction in major rivers can
It includes: (1) water pollution control and prospective, to the rehabilitation be expected. Both concessionaires are
– for domestic, agricultural, livestock of Manila Bay and how they can involved in the San Juan river basin
and industrial wastes; (2) environment strategically realign their efforts in project (Figure 21). Long-considered
degradation control to address achieving the goals and objectives set a dead river, San Juan River is a major
erosion and sedimentation; (3) spatial forth in the Operational Plan for the tributary of the Pasig River. With
planning – including zoning of both Manila Bay Coastal Strategy (OPMBCS). both concessionaires making this a
upstream and downstream areas; (4) The CSR Forum highlighted the role of priority project, this would hopefully
law enforcement; and (5) community integrated coastal management (ICM) as result in reviving the San Juan river,
empowerment – through raising a management tool that could address and contribute to the long-term
community awareness, information the three areas of concern in the rehabilitation of Pasig River.
dissemination, training and community OPMBCS, namely: (a) Partnerships and
participation in composting and biogas Governance; (b) Water Pollution; and On habitat, resource and biodiversity
projects, harvesting rainwater and (c) Overexploitation of Resources. The conservation, there are already
recharge of deep and shallow wells OPMBCS aims to scale up ICM to cover ongoing various resource management
(Sigit). 100 percent of the Manila Bay coastline, projects being implemented by the
and implement an integrated river basin private sector in partnership with
IRBCAM Project in Bohai Sea: and coastal area management program the local governments, NGOs and
Current status and the future for the entire Manila Bay Area. communities, such as mangrove
planting, tree planting, coastal
The integrated river basin and coastal In terms of Partnerships and cleanups, river rehabilitation, and
area management (IRBCAM) project Governance, the private sector has been management of wild bird sanctuaries
in the Bohai Sea Economic Region in an active partner in the ICM program of and marine turtle sanctuary. For
northeast China is focusing on pollution the Province of Bataan. The Provincial livelihood activities, the private sector
reduction in the watershed and coastal Government, in partnership with the has supported the establishment of
areas of five major river systems: Bataan Coastal Care Foundation, Inc., fish sanctuaries and artificial reefs,
Dalinghe River; Luanhe River; Haihe local governments, civil society groups, setting up of a microenterprise, and
River; Guanglihe River; and Xiaoqinghe fisherfolk and other stakeholders, was the conduct of anti-illegal fishing
River (Figure 20). able to institutionalize the Bataan activities.
Integrated Coastal Management
Programs/projects that will Program (BICMP), and came out with Stemming the tide of toxic
be implemented include: (a) the Bataan Sustainable Development chemicals
implementation of the National Plan Strategy (SDS) and the Bataan
for Bohai Sea Environment Protection; Coastal Land and Sea-Use Zoning The United Nations Industrial
(b) infrastructure for pollution control; Plan. The BCCFI, composed of 17 Development Organization (UNIDO)
(c) establishment and networking companies located in Bataan, provides advocates for cleaner production and
of protected areas; (d) zoning and counterpart funding for the BICMP and application of best available techniques
ecoengineering; and (e) ecosystem- implementation of the Bataan SDS. The (CP/BAT) and best environmental
based management (Wen, et al.). replication of the PPP for ICM in Bataan practices (BEP) to reduce/eliminate
to other provinces and in the National danger to human health and
Manila Bay: Role of Corporate Social Capital Region (NCR/Metro Manila) is environment caused by persistent
Responsibility called for, and the BCCFI can lead the organic pollutants (POPs) and persistent
way (Erni). toxic substances (PTS). The organization
One of the special events of the has a portfolio of projects that support
EAS Congress was the PPP for the On water pollution, the target of sustainable industrial development
Rehabilitation of Manila Bay: A CSR 50 percent reduction of untreated while preventing or mitigating
Forum. The CSR Forum highlighted wastewater by 2015 is a tall order. pollution. UNIDO also recommends the
 Tropical Coasts 101

implementation of Industrial Pollution in productivity and, within the proper of regulation for toxic and
Prevention Policies, such as eco-towns framework conditions, would result in a hazardous chemicals;
models, zero discharge policies for EDS sustained and more equitable economic • Move ‘cleaner production’ from
(endocrine-disrupting substances) in development. voluntary to mandatory;
coastal zones, CP/BAT and BEP, regional • Encourage effluent trading;
policies, market-based policies and The UNIDO strategy to address POPs • Introduce direct toxicity
economic incentives, and participative and PTS includes the following: assessment techniques;
decisionmaking for coastal zone • Initiate an environmental quality
communities (Centeno). Embedding • Application of Integrated
such policies and risk management Pollution
measures in the development plans at Prevention and
both the national and industry levels Control (IPPC)
would contribute to a sustainable growth and enforcement

Figure 21.
Proposed Wastewater Treatment Plants (2009 to 2016)

San Juan River Basin Project

Accelerated Wastewater Program

100% Served (2012)

Total population - 570,000
102 December 2010

management (EQM) model Environmental user fees and public- class from third to first – allowing it to
through R&D institutions; private partnership: Puerto Galera become more creditworthy (Dolor).
• Raise public awareness on Efforts also included exhaustive
endocrine-disrupting substances Located at the center of marine multistakeholder consultations,
(EDS) in the food chain; biodiversity and a major tourism capacity-building workshops and
• Initiate partnership to develop destination, pollution reduction is public hearings on the project and
initiatives; important to Puerto Galera, a small the ordinance for the establishment
• Registration and notification of seaside municipality in Oriental of the EUF system. A major challenge
new chemicals; Mindoro, Philippines. The local is the management of the EUF Fund,
• Community “right to know” government has gone a step further in particularly earmarking funds to meet
programs; ensuring the protection of its coastal the financing requirements of the
• Ensure obligations of industry to resources and sustaining its tourism sewerage project.
disclose chemicals toxicity; industry despite its lack of institutional,
• Support R&D on contaminants technical, and financial capacities. Cost recovery and ring fencing
and contaminated sites; and It has prioritized environmental
• Establish an effective sanitation in its agenda, and taken a In the Philippines, low compliance
biomonitoring system. risk in implementing a sewerage and by the local governments with the
wastewater treatment project, which Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
Mobilizing financing and was made a priority project within can be attributed to: high investment
managing funds the coastal resource management costs; increasing operational and
plan. The local government has put maintenance costs; highly subsidized
The enormous investment gap in place the enabling conditions, program and no user fee systems in
undoubtedly creates a significant including necessary ordinances. It place; limited access to financing; and
challenge and will demand pursued the public-private partnership low priority given by local government
innovative thinking and multi- (PPP) approach and got a private as funds compete with other basic
institutional, multisector cooperation. sector partner to provide the viable services of government. A key strategy
The development of necessary technology option and financing to make SWM financially viable and
infrastructure and its long-term arrangement for the sewerage project. sustainable is to apply business
sustainability will require the The municipality also integrated principles and implement a cost-
identification of additional sources the water supply and wastewater recovery mechanism. Another strategy
of financing and the introduction of treatment projects, and is executing and one that complements cost
market principles, such as appropriate both projects through partnership with recovery is ring fencing, which involves
pricing mechanisms. Policy and the private sector. It is implementing keeping the resources earmarked
regulatory reforms, tariff structuring, an Environmental User Fee (EUF) for solid waste management (SWM)
cost recovery, and private sector system as a financing mechanism for exclusive within the SWM program, and
participation remain intractable the sewerage project as well as other plowing revenues generated through
issues. The failure to stimulate private coastal resource management projects. SWM activities back to the program
sector involvement in wastewater The collection of EUF from tourists (at (Salas).
management is a cause for concern PhP50 or roughly US$1 per tourist) is
essentially because of the proven an innovative approach to overcome The system for cost recovery and ring
inability of the public sector to its financing constraints. The collected fencing of collected fees was applied
finance needed investments and EUFs have increased the municipality’s in the SWM project in Jagna, Bohol
sustain operations and maintenance. revenues and budget — elevating its province, Philippines.
 Tropical Coasts 103

The benefits are: also crucial for more effective waste in 1997 to 16 percent in 2008, and
management planning and investment. aims to achieve 30 percent coverage
• Performance can be monitored, As demonstrated in the Pearl River by 2012. Manila Water’s wastewater
allowing implementers to do Delta in PR China, intersectoral strategy focused on three areas, namely,
proper budgeting and planning. planning and information sharing, septic tank desludging and septage
• Funds are more wisely used. and interjurisdictional collaboration treatment, package sewage treatment
• Reliable data is available to on water quality monitoring and systems and combined sewer-drainage
determine subsidy levels and for wastewater treatment are necessary systems for areas served by individual
validating tariff rates. if water quality objectives are to be septic tanks and with no existing sewer
• It keeps the SWM team focused achieved. Significant savings in both networks. It has established 33 sewage
on their performance targets and capital expenditures and operating and treatment plants in various locations
outcomes. maintenance costs can also be obtained treating 90 million L/day with 218 km
• SWM becomes financially viable through clustering of municipalities/ of sewer network. It has invested PhP
due to increased revenues and cities and sharing of infrastructure 1 billion from 1997 to 2006 and PhP 5
controlled expenses. within each cluster. billion from 2007-2010 for wastewater
treatment. In terms of its septage
Demonstrating that Partnership between public and management, Manila Water’s Sanitasyon
Partnership Works private sectors: Metro Manila para sa Barangay (a ‘free’ septic tank
desludging program) has served
The experience of Puerto Galera and In 1997, Maynilad Water Services, Inc. 455,513 households as of 2008.
Metro Manila demonstrates that (MWSI) and the Manila Water Company,
sewerage service can be a profitable Inc. (MWCI) were awarded concession Moreover, Manila Water has an
business in either small municipalities contracts by the government- investment plan to accelerate coverage
or mega-cities. Indeed, Public–Private owned and –controlled corporation, of wastewater treatment to 100 percent
Partnership (PPP) is a solution that Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage in the three river systems by 2018
works. However, the private sector is System (MWSS), and split between them (San Juan River basin, Marikina River
prepared to get involved only if risks the service areas in Metro Manila and basin and Pasig River catchment), and
are manageable and this requires a adjacent areas (some municipalities in the whole of its concession area by
good regulatory framework that would Rizal, Bulacan and Cavite). Twelve years 2037. This is a unique case of financing
provide them with incentives, including after privatization, the program seems wastewater treatment projects wherein
collection and setting of user fees or to have paid off, even after a ‘false start’ capital investment is privately sourced,
tariffs that would allow cost recovery. of one of the concessionaires (MWSI). with no government subsidies. Cost
In Marikina City (one of the cities in Manila Water, which won the bid for recovery is primarily through collection
Metro Manila), the city government the East Zone, was able to meet all 23 of water tariffs (with cross-subsidy from
passed ordinances on solid waste and performance indicators, and has been the water supply distribution) and
septage management and provided the profitable since 2003. The company environmental fees, and enhanced by
land where the wastewater treatment was able to increase coverage of water corporate governance, more efficient
facilities were constructed by Manila supply distribution from 26 percent operations that reduced non-revenue
Water Company, Inc. (MWCI), one of the of the population (in the East Zone) in water, and improved staff capacity
concessionaires. 1997 to 99 percent in 2009 and with 24- and customer relations. In addition
hour water supply. Likewise, coverage to septage and sewage treatment,
Partnerships among the municipalities/ of the sewerage system increased from the company also produces biogas
cities within a river basin or delta are 3 percent of the East zone’s population for power generation, reuses treated

Constructed and natural wetlands

are used in Ningbo, PR China for
municipal and non-point pollution
treatment and biodiversity
conservation. Photo: H. Li
104 December 2010

gaps in drainage, and improperly designed

and constructed drainage system,

Source: en-wikepedia.org/wiki/filepearl_river_delta_area.png
unwillingness of customers to connect or
have their septic tanks desludged, failure
to secure/acquire septage treatment plant
sites/lots within the scheduled timeframe
and the presence of informal settlers in
estero and creek areas.

Partnership among municipalities:

Pearl River Delta

The Pearl River Delta (PRD), also known

as the “Golden Delta of Guangdong,”
is formed by three major rivers, the Xi
Jiang, Bei Jiang and Dong Jiang. The
Figure 22. Pearl River Delta. term Pearl River Delta also refers to
the network of cities that covers nine
wastewater for landscape irrigation Basin project and construct a 250-CMD
prefectures of the province of Guangdong,
and toilet flushing, applies biosolids septage treatment plant in the southern
namely, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai,
for agricultural use in lahar-affected portion of the concession area. From
Dongguan, Zhongshan, Foshan, Huizhou,
areas, and has a Clean Development 2009 to 2016, it is planning to put up
Jiangmen and Zhaoqing, and the Special
Mechanism (CDM) project in one of its 17 wastewater treatment plants in the
Administrative Regions (SARs) of Hong
wastewater treatment facilities. West Zone of Metro Manila. To maximize
Kong and Macau (Figure 22).
the utilization of this existing sewerage
The other concessionaire for the West system in Central Manila, Maynilad
The following are key issues in the
Zone, Maynilad or MWSI, has five will enhance treatment capacity to
Pearl River Delta in China: (a) financial
sewerage systems in place in Central accommodate additional flow. For
sustainability (inability to pay operation
Manila, Dagat-dagatan, Quezon the San Juan River Basin Project, the
and maintenance (O&M) of expensive
City, Makati and Alabang. For its concessionaire is planning to upgrade
treatment systems); (b) wastewater in
environmental sanitation services, the treatment capability of communal
small towns/cities (lack of investments in
Maynilad has in place a 450-CMD (cubic septic tanks in Quezon City and to
wastewater treatment facilities in smaller
meters per day) septage treatment implement a combined sewerage system
townships); (c) agricultural waste; (d)
plant, 25 vacuum truck units, and seven by constructing 13 wastewater treatment
sludge treatment and disposal; and (e)
mobile dewatering units serving 325,100 facilities to intercept and treat flows from
impacts of global warming, e.g., lower
households. Its sewerage and sanitation drainage and estero (estuaries) before
base flows, sea level rise, etc. (Cho). To
strategy is to maximize utilization of final disposal to San Juan River. Maynilad
address these issues, a GEF- supported
existing network, expand coverage is also committed to help in the cleanup
project was developed and implemented
using a combined system, and maintain of Pasig River. To do this, it will connect
to catalyze the following three key
sanitation facilities outside the sewered around 1,800 customers to the existing
innovative aspects:
areas. sewerage system, prioritizing those near
the creeks. It will also put up a 550-CMD
First, it promoted the planning and
The priority projects of Maynilad from wastewater treatment facility.
construction of shared municipal
2009 to 2012 are to maximize the Some of the challenges being faced by
wastewater treatment and waste
utilization of the existing sewerage Maynilad include inadequate garbage
management facilities. This integrated
system, undertake the San Juan River collection, poor drainage maintenance,
 Tropical Coasts 105

approach to wastewater and waste water quality data, which will Box 2. GEF/World Bank Investment Fund (IF)
management was designed to achieve enable a collaborative sharing for Pollution Reduction in the Large Marine
significant capital and operational of data with other municipalities Ecosystems of East Asia.
cost savings, which in turn accelerates and other stakeholders. One
investment in wastewater treatment of the recommendations that • Launched in 2005
and landfill development, expands the came about was to integrate • Mechanism to co-finance innovative
volume of investment and enhances the the results of the improved data projects
financial sustainability of the project. collection/monitoring exercises • Support to PEMSEA objectives
These actions achieve faster and larger with diagnostic/modeling • World Bank co-finances grant from GEF:
reductions in pollution loads. There exercises. Initial simulation ο Scale: US$80 million of GEF resources
are three pilot wastewater treatment models were presented, which leveraging at least US$800 million of
facilities under construction in: (a) showed assessment of impacts of World Bank investments
Foshan Nanhai (collaboration between proposed location and schemes for ο Tranche 1: US$35 million
Nanhai and Changcheng Districts; (b) wastewater treatment facilities as (fully committed; 5 projects in
Guangzhou Nangang (Collaboration well as the impact of sea level rise. implementation, 2 in preparation)
with Guangzhou Economic and ο Tranche 2: US$30 million
Technical Development District); and (c) The project has shown that ο Tranche 3: US$15 million
Guangzhou Luoxi Island (collaboration significant savings in both capital • US$5 million of GEF grant financing per
with Panyu District). The study on expenditures and operating and project
constraints, and the review and updating maintenance costs can be obtained
Source: Lovei
of the Pearl River Delta wastewater through sharing of infrastructure,
master plan have been completed. All and interjurisdictional collaboration
municipalities have signed up to the on wastewater planning, information on PPIAF’s experience, management
Pearl River Delta Clean Up Campaign. sharing, and water quality monitoring. contracts and operational efficiency
The development of a PRD Water Agency projects proved to be more suitable
Second, the project aimed to stimulate to act as a financing vehicle has been in capital intensive projects for PPPs
greater private sector involvement in proposed. One key lesson learned in urban water, and stressed the need
waste management and wastewater concerns the role of the private sector, for tailor-made solutions (Redell).
treatment investment and operation which was found to be more appropriate PPP projects that have failed were
by: (1) encouraging the municipalities for the operation and maintenance caused by poor design, and lack of a
to actively seek private sector partners; of facilities, while government still regulatory framework and cost-recovery
and (2) assisting potential private has a major role to play in ensuring mechanism. Overall, performance of
sector investor/operators to prepare infrastructure capital financing (Cho). PPP projects had been mixed. PPIAF
facility management investment and identified major lessons learned from the
operational service proposals for Public-Private Infrastructure performance of PPP projects, namely:
consideration by the municipalities Advisory Facility
and ensuring that such proposals were • PPP is a viable option to reform
evaluated solely on their technical and The Public–Private Infrastructure water utilities in developing
financial merits and implemented when Advisory Facility (PPIAF) was created countries;
they are both least-cost and financially in 1999 to act as a catalyst to increase • A new generation of private
sustainable options. private sector participation in emerging operators has now appeared;
markets. It provides technical assistance • The focus on trying to attract private
Third, additional funding is provided for to governments to support the creation money (to fund the huge backlog
water quality testing that will improve of a sound enabling environment of water investments in developing
the collection and dissemination of for private service provision. Based countries) proved to be a mistake;

Photo: H. Li
106 December 2010

• The main contribution of private climate change mitigation (Villaluz). the risk of increasing vulnerability. In
operators lies in improving service Carbon Finance projects can help scale general, averting the onset of pollution
quality and operational efficiency; up implementation of the Sustainable in any area, i.e., be it on air, water or
and Development Strategy for the Seas land, could be the start, the simplest
• Social considerations need to be of East Asia (SDS-SEA) objectives and and the most rational solution to the
incorporated explicitly in the design actions. problem. This calls for conscientious
of PPP reforms. efforts to adopt good practices or the
The following are some examples of conscious practice of good habits by the
Sustaining the Momentum: pollution reduction projects where people, the enactment, passage and the
Financing Facilities CDM was applied: (a) replacing aerobic proper implementation of appropriate
with anaerobic treatment, and biogas laws and the strict compliance and
GEF/WB East Asia Land-based recovery in wastewater treatment enforcement. Yet, this is easier said than
Pollution Reduction Investment projects (Shanghai Sludge Carbon done. Certain bad habits are entrenched
Fund (Partnership Fund) Finance project); (b) converting organic and rapid urbanization, uncontrolled
wastes into renewable energy; (c) development, industrialization and
The GEF/World Bank East Asia Land-based converting manure to energy (Livestock intensive agriculture somehow carry
Pollution Reduction Investment Fund Waste Management Project, Thailand); with them the concomitant burden of
Project (Partnership Fund) is a financing (d) methane recovery in landfill (Payatas, pollution. Moreover, the cost to business
and technical assistance facility to Quezon City, Philippines); (e) excavating and its commercial ramifications make
accelerate pollution reduction initiatives in and composting of partially decayed this rather simple preventive approach
the East Asian Seas region. The objective municipal solid waste (Kota Kinabalu, quite complicated and more difficult to
of the Fund is to reduce local, national and Malaysia); (f) methane recovery in implement. Major constraints include lack
transboundary degradation of East Asia’s agricultural activities at household/small of: awareness on the issue and impacts;
marine ecosystems due to land-based farm level (Laguna de Bay Community political will; law enforcement; access to
pollution. It focuses on the countries Waste Management project, Philippines); innovative and affordable technologies;
involved in the GEF-supported planning and (g) avoid deforestation by capacity to access financing and engage
efforts for the South China Sea and the improving charcoal production (Plantar private sector.
Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystems, sequestration and biomass reuse, Brazil).
and the national and local commitments A crucial step in providing solutions to
facilitated by PEMSEA. Its strategic With the end of the Kyoto funds water sustainability is to acknowledge
objective is to help address major gaps approaching, new facilities are being that managing a resource, such as water,
in regional land-based pollution control developed, such as the Carbon is not just about providing technical or
efforts. The Fund’s development goal is Partnership Facility (CPF): Carbon Asset engineering solutions, but considering
to promote sustainable development of Development Fund (CADF) which is the social, political and environmental
the coastal areas of the East Asia region operational at €7 million, and the Carbon complexities attached to it as well.
by reducing land-based pollution of its Fund, which is currently at €100 million We need to collectively deal with the
rivers and seas. There are five projects in (operational target at €200 million). increasing pollution as population and
implementation (discussed in this paper): economies grow, and look for ways on
Livestock Waste Management in East Conclusion and how each sector can respond to address
Asia, Ningbo Water and Environment; Recommendations: the various environmental challenges
Yantai, Pearl River Delta, and Manila Third Averting the pollution affecting our coasts and seas, including:
Sewerage Project. conundrum
• Nutrients: excess nitrogen and
Carbon Finance for Pollution Pollution — from a range of sources phosphorus from homes, cities and
Reduction Investment Projects from municipalities to industries and farms can promote algal growth and
agriculture — is a major threat to eutrophication; cause fish kills, dead
Gaining access to the Clean sustainable development in the region. zones, red tides (toxic algal bloom);
Development Mechanism (CDM) to Impacts on health, quality of life, and and obstruct navigation;
recover costs for pollution management ecosystems impose large economic • Oil pollution (from both land-based
projects is one of the innovative and social costs. Climate change adds and sea-based sources): impacts
financing mechanisms that link waste an additional dimension — a threat marine life; kills mangroves, seagrass
management, pollution reduction, of increased pollution, the need for and corals; and fouls fishing gear;
alternative energy generation and climate-proofed infrastructure, and • Plastic waste: kills seabirds, marine
 Tropical Coasts 107

mammals and sea turtles and (at different levels — international, Department of Environment and
releases toxins; national, local), institutions, sectors and Natural Resources).
• Industrial waste: toxic, non-toxic, all stakeholders. Regions, countries or
hazardous and non-hazardous localities can learn from success and • Strategic integrated planning
wastes affect water quality, failure in particular situations. – Application of strategic
ecosystems and public health. environment assessment is
The major lessons and points arising being recognized as a useful
In addition to pollution reduction, other from the workshops was: tool in designing plans,
benefits from waste management programs and projects.
must be promoted, such as improved • Political will
public health conditions, more efficient – Political will, commitment – Optimization of infrastructure
production in industrial companies, and leadership are needed to planning, linking investment
reversal of economic losses (e.g., attract address pollution problems and with expected environmental
more investments and tourists, lower transboundary issues. outcomes and targeting
cleanup cost), biodiversity conservation investments can achieve
(constructed wetlands), and energy • Institutional arrangements highest impact.
generation from biogas. Moreover, the – Interagency and multisector
application of treated sludge as soil cooperation is essential in the – Ecosystem-based planning
conditioner/organic fertilizer and treated management of river basins and management approaches
wastewater for agricultural use may and coastal areas, including ensure integrated methods.
be promoted as ways to contribute to water management authorities,
addressing various issues like the use ocean management agencies, – Pollution load monitoring
of energy-intensive chemical fertilizers, environmental protection and modeling are key tools
food security, water scarcity and climate agencies, academe, civil society to develop effective pollution
change mitigation. and other concerned sectors reduction targets, plans
and strategies, and support
In addition to pollution reduction, other – It is also important to enhance investments in cleaner
benefits from waste management coordination and develop areas production technologies and
must be promoted, such as improved of collaboration among related pollution abatement facilities.
public health conditions, more efficient programs and initiatives, and to
industrial production, reversal of improve the level of cooperation – Good coordination is required
economic losses (e.g., attract more in on-the-ground actions. in monitoring, quality assurance
investments and tourists, lower cleanup and quality control and
costs), biodiversity conservation – Establishment of institutional standardization of data.
(constructed wetlands), and energy arrangements, including
generation from biogas. Moreover, the appropriate bodies as required • Regulatory/policy/ institutional
application of treated sludge as a soil to oversee transboundary framework
conditioner/organic fertilizer and treated pollution reduction, such as the – Environmental laws (passage
wastewater for agricultural use may international commissions for and enforcement) provide
be promoted as ways to contribute to the Mekong River, the Yellow the basis for actions on
addressing various issues like the use Sea and the Danube-Black Sea pollution reduction and waste
of energy-intensive chemical fertilizers, for cross-country pollution management.
food security, water scarcity and climate reduction.
change mitigation. – Economic regulation/market-
– Establishment of a national based instruments: tariffs (e.g.,
Success depends in part on having a solid river basin agency and national Metro Manila concession) and
scientific understanding of the causes or sub-national commissions user fees (e.g., Laguna de Bay,
of the problem and the full range of and alliances between levels Puerto Galera) ensure funding
possible management alternatives, and of government and other for operation and maintenance
more so, on the political will to undertake stakeholders can also be and sustainability of facilities
necessary policy and institutional reforms forged for in-country pollution and services, and provide
and investments in needed infrastructure, reduction (e.g., River Basin incentive for private sector
and cooperation of various governments Control Office in the Philippines’ involvement.
108 December 2010

• Innovative approaches and

Theme 6: Pollution Reduction and Waste Management technologies
Recommendations – There are alternatives and
Presented by Theme Chair: Prof. Rudolf Wu cost-effective approaches to
wastewater treatment (e.g.,
Workshop 1: Transboundary Pollution Reduction in River Basins and Coastal
artificial and natural wetlands in
Areas
Ningbo; bioremediation in Pasig
Through the analysis of best practices from the Northwest Pacific, East Asia,
River; combined sewer systems
Europe and North America, workshop participants agreed that the following in Metro Manila, etc.).
actions are deemed necessary for transboundary pollution reduction in river
basins and coastal areas: – Piloting technologies/
• Close cooperation of neighboring countries in economic policies, including techniques can build capacity
coordinated use of natural resources, environment protection and ensuring and understanding to help
sustainable development of river basins and coastal areas. address issues such as water
• Political leadership; legislation and enforcement; financial resources; political scarcity, water allocation rights,
agreement (commitment); bringing together academics and decision makers. alternative energy, and food
• National laws and regulations aiming at coordinated economic, investment
security while dealing with
and social policies related to environmental protection and sustainable
the wastewater treatment
development.
• More active role of civil society in conservation of natural resources and wildlife.
issue (e.g., use of less energy-
• Establishment of international commissions to manage transboundary river intensive wastewater treatment
basins and coastal areas (such as Mekong River Commission, Yellow Sea technologies; use biogas
Commission, etc.). digesters in livestock waste
• Establishment of joint monitoring systems (including water quality standards management for waste-to-
and criteria) for transboundary river basins and coastal areas. energy; wastewater reuse
and biosolids application in
Workshop 2: Innovative Policies and Practices in Water Supply, Sanitation and agricultural areas).
Waste Management
• Financing
The workshop discussed the applications of strategic integrated planning, regulatory/
– Cost recovery, through tariffs and
policy/ institutional framework, innovative approaches and technologies, and
financing mechanisms for water supply, sanitation and pollution reduction, and
user fees, is essential to ensure
recommended to: financial viability.
• Use strategic planning approaches and strategic environmental assessment
more systematically, to optimize investments; – Special financing instruments
• Focus on a small number of demonstration projects that can deliver (e.g., CDM/carbon financing) can
development outcomes; further help.
• Provide incentives for innovation and systematic learning from their
implementation; – Targeted subsidies and
• Replicate and scale up successful examples/pilots through programmatic output-based aid can assist in
financing;
improving coverage and access
• Build capacity for engaging the private sector to improve efficiency;
by poor communities to the
• Develop capacity of local governments to develop bankable projects and
implement cost recovery mechanisms; and
environmental facilities and
• Need champions for sustained implementation. services.

CSR Workshop: PPP in the Rehabilitation of Manila Bay – Combination of targeted and
conditional subsidies and tariffs/
The workshop highlighted the importance of public-private partnerships in user fees can ensure investments
addressing pollution and other issues, particularly the application of CSR in the and capital financing as well as
rehabilitation of the Manila Bay, and recommended: O&M funding and sustainability
• The corporate sector to confirm commitments, set specific targets, and take of service.
an active part in initiating programs to support the implementation of the
Operational Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy.
– Technical assistance is important
• More active participation from the local governments, and closer interactions
with the corporate associations and chamber of commerce.
to help local governments
in accessing financing and
 Tropical Coasts 109

developing bankable projects The key recommendations arising from resources and wildlife conservation.
(e.g., PPIAF). the workshops are: • Establish international/
intergovernmental commissions to
• Private sector participation and • Facilitate close cooperation manage transboundary river basins
PPP among neighboring jurisdictions and coastal areas, such as Mekong
– Private sector is particularly (e.g., national governments; local River Commission, Yellow Sea
efficient in operation and governments) sharing a water body Commission, etc., across countries,
management, but less effective (i.e., large marine ecosystem or LME, or similar arrangements across local
in filling the financing gap for bays, rivers), including economic governments.
capital investments. policies, coordinated use of natural • Establish joint monitoring systems
resources, environment protection (including water quality standards
– PPP works if enabling conditions and sustainable development of and criteria) for transboundary river
(policies, regulations, user fees, river basins and coastal areas. basins and coastal areas.
institutions) are in place and • Use strategic and integrated
implemented. planning approaches (e.g., SEA), Effective management is site-specific
ecosystem-based management and unique for each river basin, estuary
– The corporate sector is actively and scientific support (adaptive and coastal water body, with no
implementing CSR programs management, pollution load universal ‘right answer’. Raising public
that are relevant to pollution assessments, environmental awareness provides the start to reverse
reduction, habitat restoration carrying capacity, GIS, etc.) bad practices that result in pollution
and resource protection. more systematically to optimize of water resources. An integrated and
environmental investments. adaptive management approach,
• Learning and capacity building • Adopt and enforce national with the following essential factors —
– There are many successful laws and regulations aiming at using accessible and emerging tools,
experiences in the countries of coordinated economic, investment knowledge of successful and cost-
the East Asian Seas region to and social policies related to effective technologies, coupled with
learn from, replicate, and scale environmental protection supporting policies, regulations and
up. and sustainable development institutional arrangements, and backed
(including tourism-related up by committed leadership, sustainable
– Learning across countries by regulations; wastewater treatment; financing mechanisms, strong
practitioners (e.g., twinning environmental monitoring and monitoring program, and cooperation of
network) can promote adoption compliance). and collaboration of different sectors and
of key policies, institutional • Focus on a small number of stakeholders — appears to provide the
arrangements, cost-effective demonstration projects that can highest probability of long-term success.
technologies and financing deliver development outcomes.
mechanisms. • Provide incentives for innovation
and systematic learning from their Acknowledgements:
– Knowledge management — implementation. Co-Convening Agencies:
documentation of good practices • Replicate and scale up successful
and lessons, sharing of success examples/pilots through T6 W1: Northwest Pacific Action Plan
(NOWPAP) – Pollution Monitoring
stories and sharing of benefits programmatic financing. Regional Activity Center (POMRAC)
— is essential to increase public • Build capacity for engaging the
awareness and ensure support private sector to improve efficiency. T6 W2: The World Bank and Korea Maritime
Institute
for policies and initiatives on • Develop capacity of local
pollution reduction. governments to develop bankable Prof. Rudolf Wu, The University of Hong Kong,
projects and implement cost- Theme Keynote Speaker
Key Recommendations recovery mechanisms.
Panel Facilitators:
• Support champions for
Given the political, technical and policy reforms and sustained Mr. Arunkumar Abraham, DAI-EcoGov and Dr.
financial complexity of the problem and implementation. Kim Jong-Deog, KMI
the myriad players who have a role in • Encourage more active participation Panelists: Dr. Christophe Crepin, Mr. David
addressing it, as well as working models, from the local government. Villeneuve, Mr. Paul Reddel, Mr. Juergen
there are a number of solution options. • Engage civil society in natural orenz, Mr. Mark Tom Mulingbayan
110 December 2010

Presentations: Session 1: Knowledge Sharing on Philippine Environmental Governance

Innovative Policies and Practices Project (DAI-EcoGov). “Cost-recovery
Theme 6 Workshop 1 - Transboundary and Ring Fencing of Special Accounts:
Pollution Reduction in River Basins and a. Optimizing technology to suit local Promoting Sustainability in Solid Waste
Coastal Areas conditions Management for Local Governments.”

Part 1: Case Studies on Transboundary Centeno, C.R. “Optimizing Technology to Reddel, P. “Public–Private Infrastructure
Pollution Reduction in River Basins and Suit Local Conditions Pollution Reduction Advisory Facility.”
Coastal Areas from the Northwest Pacific Applications for Industry in East Asia.”
Villaluz, M. “Clean Development Mechanism.”
Arzamastsev, I. “Integrated Coastal and River Chaiyakul, A. and S. Chatsanguthai.
Basins Management (ICARM) Approach in “Livestock Waste Management in East SPECIAL EVENT: Public-Private
the Russia Far East Coastal Zones.” Asia.” Partnerships (PPP) for the Rehabilitation
of Manila Bay: A Corporate Social
Kachur, A. “International Approaches to the Li Hai Sheng* and Yang Xiao Ming. “Low- Responsility Forum
Transboundary Pollution Reduction on cost Wastewater Treatment: Ningbo
Examples of ’Amur GEF‘ and ’TumenNet‘ Constructed Wetlands.” Dela Torre. “A Corporate Social Responsibility
Projects.” (CSR) Forum.”
Jin, L.*, J. Zhao, and J. Zhou. “An Integrated
Murakami, S. H. Higashi and T. Tsujimoto. Approach for Septic Tank Management: Erni, M. “Public-Private Partnership for the
“Assessment Framework of Eco- Yantai Demonstration (World Bank Rehabilitation of Manila Bay: A CSR
Compatible Integrated Management of Investment Fund project).” Forum.”
River Basin and Coastal Area.”
Lovei, M. “Pollution Reduction and Waste Erni, M. Partnerships and Governance:
Oh, H.T. “National Program on (ICARM) of the Management: Innovative Policies and Facilitating 100% ICM Coverage of
Republic of Korea.” Practices in Water Supply, Sanitation, and the Coastline through Public-Private
Pollution Reduction.” Partnership - Marilou G. Erni
Shulkin, V. “The Significance of the River
Input of Nutrients in Relation to Coastal b. Overcoming financing constraints Jara, R. “Scaling Up ICM in Manila Bay.”
Eutrophication: Spatial Zoning Examples
from the Northwest Pacific.” Dolor, H.C.A. “Sustainable Development in Maynilad. “Maynilad’s Program for Pollution
the World’s Center of Marine Biodiversity: Reduction of Manila Bay.”
Xie, X.*, Liu, T. and R. Wang. “Chinese Puerto Galera’s PPP Experience.”
Experience in the Reduction of Pollution in Tuddao, V. B. “Operational Plan for Manila Bay
the Rivers and Coastal Zones using ICARM c. Demonstrating that Partnerships work Coastal Strategy (OPMCBS).“
Approaches.”
Almendras, J.R. “Experience in the Other Documents
Part 2: Case Studies on Transboundary Development of Water and Sewerage
Pollution Reduction in River Basins and Services in Metro Manila.” Corporate Community Statement of Support
Coastal Areas from the East Asian Region for the Manila Bay Rehabilitation
Cho, T.S. “First Pearl River Delta Urban
Huang, J., Q. Li, Z. Tu, C. Pan, L. Zhang, P. Environment Project.” Corporate Social Responsibility
Nyodoke, J. Lin, H. Hong. “Quantifying Opportunities for the Rehabilitation of
Land-based Pollutant Loads in the Coastal d. Using Scientific Support in CLeanung Manila Bay
Area with Sparse Data: Methodology and up Rivers and Coasts
Application in China.”
Fang, Q.*, L. Zhang, J. Wang, G. Wang, J. References:
Hui, J. “Control of Land-based Pollution in Huang and Y. Jiang. “Pollution Load
Singapore and Singapore’s Experience in Allocation in Semi-enclosed Bays – A Center for Strategic and International Studies
the Cleaning up of Singapore River.” Practical Approach in China.” (CSIS). 2005. Addressing Our Global Water
Future.
Shamsuddin, N.B.* and M. Bin Idrus. “Pollution Jiang, Y. Z. Chen*, F. Zhang, Z. Zhang, E.
Reduction in the Selangor and Klang River Liao, W. Song, J. Huang and L. Zhang. Danube/Black Sea Basin Strategic
Systems.” “Calculation of Marine Environmental Partnership on Nutrient Reduction,
Carrying Capacity in Xiamen, China.” Phase I. www.iwlearn.net/iw-projects/
Susanti, P. “Integrated Management of Jakarta Fsp_112799468982/view
Bay and Ciliwung River.” Session 2: Moving Forward – New
Initiatives, Challenges and Opportunities Danube Pollution Reduction Program.
Tablan, D. J. Jr.* and J. M. Mallari. “Targets, Danube Program Coordination Unit,
Strategies, Good Practices, Achievements David, C.P. “Pollution Load Assessment in Vienna, Austria. www.oieau.fr/ciedd/
and Challenges in Reducing Pollution in the Meycauayan-Marilao-Obando River contributions/atriob/contribution/
Pasig River.“ System-WQMA.” danube.htm.

Zhou, Q.*, C. Bin. “Transboundary Pollution Radiansyah, A. D. “Jakarta Bay: Ciliwang River National Research Council. 2001. Assessing
Reduction in River Basins and Coastal Pollution Reduction Project.” the TMDL Approach to Water Quality
Areas by Watershed Management in Management. National Academy of
China: The Jiulong River Basin-Xiamen Bay Wen, Q. “Bohai Sea: River Basin Pollution Sciences. (Downloaded from: www.nap.
Case Study.” Reduction Project.” edu/catalog/10146.html).

Theme 6 Workshop 2 - Innovative Policies Session 3: Sustaining the Momentum Sadoff, Claudia W. and David Grey. 2002.
and Practices in Water Supply, Sanitation – Developments in Financing and Beyond the River: The Benefits of
and Pollution Reduction Investments Cooperation on International Rivers.
Water Policy (4): 389-403.
 Tropical Coasts 111

Side Events

Partnerships at Work:
Local Implementation and Good Practices

Philippine International Convention Center

Manila, Philippines

23-27 November 2009

112 December 2010

For the first time in the history of the East

Asian Seas Congress, the corporate sector
was invited to a CSR Forum for Public-Private
Partnerships in the Rehabilitation of Manila
Bay. The special event attracted more than
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 80 CSR practitioners from companies and
Forum for Manila Bay Rehabilitation: banking institutions located in the provinces
of Bataan, Batangas, Laguna, and Pampanga

Finding Opportunities
and the National Capital Region of the
Philippines. Collectively, the CSR programs of
these individual companies, most of which

for Public-Private
are members of the League of Corporate
Foundations (LCF) and the Bataan Coastal
Care Foundation (BCCF) was seen to be

Partnerships in the
contributing considerably to the achievement
of the objectives set forth in the Operational
Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy

Manila Bay Area (OPMBCS).

Ms. Malu Erni, Executive Director of Petron

Foundation and President of the BCCF, chaired
the CSR Forum while Mr. Rogelio Singson,
 Tropical Coasts 113

President of Maynilad Water Services, Inc., served as co-chair.

Focusing on the three main areas of concern of the OPMBCS,
namely, Partnerships and Governance; Water Pollution;
and Habitats and Resources, case studies of successful CSR
initiatives demonstrated that the corporate sector was
undertaking smart CSR programs that provided both business
and social benefits, exerted positive influence in coastal
communities and generated impacts on the ground.

For Partnerships and Governance, Ms. Erni highlighted

the experience of the Bataan Coastal Care Foundation in
supporting the development and implementation of the
Bataan ICM program, clearly demonstrating that Public-Private
Partnerships (PPP) can indeed work, provided there are strong
champions from both sides. The 23 founding members of
the BCCF have shown inspiring solidarity in taking care of the
coastal environment of Bataan by undertaking CSR initiatives,
such as annual coastal cleanups, solid waste management
programs, establishment of sewage treatment facilities,
disaster response and rebuilding operations, mangrove and
upland reforestation, support to livelihood programs and
turtle sanctuaries and other relevant environmental activities.
The BCCF has also actively contributed to the development
and implementation of the Bataan Sustainable Development
Strategy and the formulation and enforcement of the Coastal
Land and Sea-Use Zoning Plan of the Province of Bataan. The
Bataan experience is a shining example that could provide
the impetus to facilitate 100 percent integrated coastal
management (ICM) coverage of the Manila Bay coastline
through PPP.

For water pollution, Mr. Frankie Arellano (Maynilad),

showcased the achievements of Maynilad and Manila Water
in providing water supply and wastewater treatment services
in the West and East Zones of Metro Manila. The experience
of the water concessionaires showed that CSR can be both

a case of performing well in your business operations that

impact on the lives and welfare of customers and doing good,
in a philantrophic sense, that could elevate the business
of providing water and treating wastewater into a socially
meaningful corporate mission. By providing free desludging
services and improving access to water and sanitation to the
urban poor, Maynilad and Manila Water have improved the
lives of their customers.

Equally important, the past and planned investments in

sewerage network of the two water concessionaires have
strategically positioned them to move closer to the target of
50 percent reduction in untreated or inadequately treated
wastewater by 2015.
114 December 2010

The last case study presentation

was on accomplishing food security
and creating alternative livelihood
opportunities through habitat
rehabilitation and management. Mr. Eric
de la Torre (Team Energy) described their
CSR programs on carbon sequestration
and biodiversity conservation.
Team Energy’s Carbon Sink Initiative
was designed to protect existing
watersheds from degradation (upland
reforestation), preserve life forms
in the marine environment (coastal
resource management), and rehabilitate
degraded mangrove forests (mangrove
amelioration). Its initiative with the Wild
Bird Club of the Philippines involves
habitat rehabilitation and management
of the Las Piñas-Parañaque critical
habitat. Located in Metro Manila, this
critical habitat is part of the migration
path of migratory birds that serves as
a haven and a sanctuary for more than
8,000 birds of different species during
the height of bird migration. The major
activities are mangrove restoration and
provision of the necessary infrastructure
for bird watching as part of the
ecotourism project being undertaken by
the government in the area.

Several other companies from the

BCCF and LCF are also undertaking
habitat rehabilitation and management
programs, including:

• Mangrove and tree planting

activities - Liquigaz, Maritime
Academy of Asia and the Pacific,
Oilink International, Orica Philippines, Petron Foundation, The CSR Forum likewise provided an opportunity for the
PNOC-Alternative Fuels Corporation, Philippine Resins corporate and public sectors to spur ideas for potential PPP
Industries, Inc. and Total Philippines Corporation; arrangements that could further improve the environmental
conditions in the Manila Bay area. After a presentation
• Coastal and river cleanups - Core Maritime Corporation, on ICM scaling up, opportunities were presented to the
Liquigaz, Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific, Oilink corporate sector by Mr. Robert Jara (PEMSEA/DENR), an
International, Orica Philippines, Petron Corporation, open forum facilitated by Mr. Mark Mulingbayan (Manila
Petron Foundation, PNOC-Alternative Fuels Corporation, Water) and Mr. Rox Peña (TIPCO), rekindled interests from
Philippine Resins Industries, Inc., and Total Philippines the corporate sector in partnering with communities and
Corporation; and local governments to undertake projects for the coastal and
marine environment and resources of the Manila Bay.
• Providing support to bird and marine turtles sanctuary
– Petron Corporation, Petron Foundation, Philippine As a culminating activity, the CSR Forum participants expressed
Resins Industries, Inc. and Total Philippines Corporation. their commitment as one community of CSR practitioners to
 Tropical Coasts 115

work towards a stronger partnership with local government companies posted stickers on a Manila Bay map indicating
and civil society groups in the rehabilitation of Manila Bay the commitment to continue or start a new CSR project in a
by signifying their interests to start up or continue their CSR particular province or municipality in the Manila Bay area.
programs in the various provinces, cities and municipalities
in the Manila Bay area. Individual representatives of various Prepared by Rainier Requinala.

The following are the list of CSR activities that have been initially committed by the different CSR participants in
the Forum:

BATAAN
1. Bataan Coastal Care Foundation (BCCF): Continuing support to Bataan ICM
2. Petron Bataan Refinery/Petron Foundation: Reforestation Program (330 ha); Fish Sanctuary/Artificial Reef Program;
Active participation in the BCCF programs/activities (coastal cleanup, tree planting, mangrove rehabilitation,
alternative livelihood programs); waste and water management program
3. Petron Marine: Double Hull Ships and Ballast Management
4. MAAP: Establishment of artificial reefs, coastal cleanup and tree planting
5. Philippine Resin: Coastal cleanup and mangrove planting

PAMPANGA
1. TIPCO: Solid Waste Management, IEC Campaign and Waste Water Reduction
2. Coca-Cola: Undertake waste minimization, carbon dioxide emission reduction; Solid waste management and
watershed rehabilitation

BULACAN
1. Nestle Philippines: River rehabilitation and support to information awareness activities
2. Coca-Cola: MMO partnership particularly in watershed protection
3. San Miguel: Rehabilitation of Tullahan River in Valenzuela

CAVITE
1. Coca-Cola Foundation: Solid waste management
2. Cavite Corporate Social Responsibility Council : Coastal cleanup and waste water management
3. Caylabne Resort: Coastal cleanup and mangrove habitat rehabilitation and protection.

LAGUNA
1. Coca-Cola Foundation: Watershed protection and undertake waste minimization, carbon dioxide emission reduction
and to solid waste management

National Capital Region

1. Energy Development Corporation: Mangrove rehabilitation and monitoring
2. Team Energy: Mangrove rehabilitation and development of the Parañaque Critical Habitat
3. Maynilad: Expansion of sewage coverage and promotion of community-based sewage and sanitation program
4. League of Corporate Foundations: Building awareness, reforestation activities and other environmental advocacies/
programs
5. Coca-Cola Foundation: Green Kalinga Program
6. Manila Water: Implementation of the wastewater treatment development program; support to watershed
management and awareness program
7. TOTAL: Control of leacheate contribution from Payatas dump site
8. UCPB-CIIF: Reforestation project in the Marikina Watershed
9. PETRON: Pasig River Rehabilitation Program; implementation of programs promoting environmental sustainability
10. ABS-CBN: Pasig River Rehabilitation Program and management of the La Mesa Watershed
11. Ayala Foundation: Solid waste management and wastewater management
116 December 2010

Innovative Technologies and

Good Practices at the

SEAnergies
Exhibition
Manila, Philippines — The environmental Exhibition
titled SEAnergies was showcased from 23-26
November 2009 at the Reception Hall of the
Philippine International Convention Center (PICC) in
Manila, Philippines, during the EAS Congress 2009.

Sixty-seven exhibitors from around the world

showcased innovative technologies and good
practices which promote linkages among
people, organizations and sectors working
on coastal and ocean management at local,
national, regional and global levels. PEMSEA
Country and non-Country Partners, PEMSEA
ICM Sites, international, regional and national
organizations, NGOs and the private sector
exhibited state-of-the-art technologies and
on-the-ground actions which address coastal
and ocean environmental and ecological
threats such as natural and man-made
hazards, habitat degradation, water and
energy scarcity, food security, water pollution,
and climate change.
 Tropical Coasts 117

The SEAnergies exhibit was opened with

the Ribbon-Cutting Ceremony by President
Fidel V. Ramos, Former President of the
Government of the Philippines; Ambassador
A. Selverajah of Singapore; Dr. Chua Thia-Eng,
EAS Partnership Council Chair; Hon. Jose L.
Atienza, Jr., Secretary of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) of
the Philippines; and Prof. Raphael P.M. Lotilla,
Executive Director of the PEMSEA Resource
Facility.

The centerpiece of the exhibition featured

the coastal and marine initiatives in the
East Asian Seas region, including those of
PEMSEA Country and non-Country Partners.
The PEMSEA exhibit highlighted the
interconnectivity of the East Asian Seas region
in 12 colorful and large panels, showing the
issues, challenges and values focusing on:
(1) Biogeochemical Richness and Natural
and Man-made Hazards; (2) Harnessing
Freshwater Potentials: Impacts of Catchments
on Coastal Seas; (3) Losing Biodiversity; (4)
Fishing Down the Web and Upcoming Assault
of Climate Change; and (5) Sustainable
Development in an Uncertain Climate: Trade,
Tourism and Economy. PEMSEA showcased
its contributions and progress in addressing
118 December 2010

these issues and challenges and in achieving the international and regional targets
through the local implementation by various stakeholders, such as PEMSEA Country
and non-Country Partners, partner organizations, etc.

The exhibit of DENR highlighted major programs and projects contributing to

sustainable development as good examples of the local actions on the ground. The
projects on Manila Bay, Laguna de Bay and Pasig River and ICM programs in Bataan,
Batangas and Cavite were highlighted as national and local actions, and the Coral
Triangle Initiative as a sub-regional initiative.

The SEAnergies Exhibition also marked the first active participation of various
private companies in the EAS Congress Exhibition. These companies showcased
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) efforts to protect and conserve the
environment and to achieve sustainable development in the coastal areas and the
oceans.

Through the efforts of the DENR Exhibition Team, colleges and universities in
Manila were invited to the environmental exhibition as part of their field studies.
More than 800 college students visited the Exhibition to learn new technologies,
environmental facts and various local actions being taken by the exhibitors.

On 26 November 2009, during the Ministerial Forum, the Ministers and

representatives of the PEMSEA Country Partners toured the exhibition and
interacted with the exhibitors. Mr. Takehiko Fujita, Deputy Minister for Technical
Affairs, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan, said of the
exhibition, “The PEMSEA centerpiece exhibition captures the environmental status,
challenges and emerging issues on coastal and ocean environment in the region
very well and is quite informative.”

Mr. Lotilla adds that the “exhibition is a brilliant example of what can be achieved
when the private and public sectors, the scientific community and people’s
organizations work together in pursuit of a common purpose – to lessen the impact
of the current environmental damages to secure a sustainable future.”

The exhibition also served as an ideal venue to meet and interact with over 1,500
policymakers, national and local government officials, professionals, experts, private
sector, academe, NGOs, and regional and international organizations on coastal and
ocean development that attended the East Asian Seas Congress 2009.
 Tropical Coasts 119

List of Exhibitors

1. 2nd EAS Youth Forum 36. Magsaysay Mitsui OSK Marine, Inc.
2. ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity(ACB) 37. Manila Bay - River Basin Control Office (DENR)
3. ASEAN Foundation 38. Manila Water Company, Inc.
4. Asia Regional Office of the International Union for the 39. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT),
Conservation of Nature (IUCN-ARO/MFF) Japan
5. Bali, Indonesia 40. Ministry of Land, Transportation and Maritime Affairs (MLTM),
6. Bataan Provincial Government/Bataan Coastal Care Republic of Korea
Foundation, Philippines 41. Municipality of Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro & Puerto
7. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), Philippines Galera Infrastructure Organization
8. Cambodia 42. National Parks Board, Singapore
9. Cavite Provincial Government, Philippines 43. Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP)
10. Chonburi ICM (Thailand) 44. Northwest Pacific Action Plan Special Monitoring & Coastal
11. Chonburi Provincial Administrative Organization Environmental Assessment Regional Activity Centre (NOWPAP/
12. Conservation International Philippines (CI-Philippines) CEARAC)
13. Danang, Quangnam, Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam 45. Ocean Construction Co. Ltd.
14. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 46. Ocean Policy Research Foundation(OPRF)
15. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, National 47. Oil Spill Response Limited
Economic Development Administration and Department of 48. PEMSEA Resource Facility
Tourism (DENR-Region 1) 49. Philippine Airlines, Tanyankee Foundation
16. Dongying City, People’s Republic of China 50. Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP)
17. East China Sea UMIGOMI Project - The University of Tokyo, 51. Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML)
JEAN/Japan Environmental Action Network 52. Port of Tanjung Pelepas
18. Foreign Assisted and Special Project Office (FASPO), 53. Pusan National University/Marine Research Institute
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines 54. RCA Regional Office
19. Foundation for the Philippine Environment 55. Republic Democratic Timor-Leste
20. Gulf of Thailand 56. RO Korea Secretariat
21. Haribon Foundation 57. Shima City, Japan
22. Indonesia 58. Sukabumi, Indonesia
23. International EMECS Center 59. Team Energy Foundation
24. Japan Federation of Ocean Engineering Societies (JFOES) 60. Thailand
25. Japan International Marine Science & Technology Federation 61. The Organizing Committee for Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea (Yeosu
(JIMSTEF) Expo)
26. Korea Environment Institute (KEI) 62. The Philippines Environmental Governance Project,
27. Korea Marine Environment Management Corporation (KOEM) Development Alternative Inc. (DAI-EcoGov)
28. Korea Maritime Institute (KMI) 63. The WorldFish Center
29. Korea National Park Service 64. UNEP/Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
30. Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (KORDI) Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (UNEP/GPA)
31. Korea Water Resource Corporation 65. United Nations Development Programme, Philippines
32. Kyungnam University 66. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
33. Laem Chabang Port, Thailand 67. University of the Philippines-Marine Science Institute (UP-MSI)
34. Land Bank of the Philippines 68. Xiamen City, People’s Republic of China
35. Lao People’s Democratic Republic