Report of Investigations 9650

Performance Comparison of Rescue Breathing

Apparatus

Nicholas Kyriazi

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Pittsburgh Research Laboratory
Pittsburgh, PA

October 1999
International Standard Serial Number
ISSN 1066-5552
 CONTENTS
Page

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Description of apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Siebe Gorman Proto Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Test apparatus and experimental procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Siebe Gorman Proto Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Biomarine BioPak 45 schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Biomarine BioPak 60 schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5. Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6. Biomarine BioPak 240 schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7. Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
8. Draeger BG-174A schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
9. Draeger BG-174A canister schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
10. Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
11. Draeger BG 4 schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
 CONTENTS—Continued
Page

12. Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

13. Litton LITPAC II schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
14. MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
15. MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
16. MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
17. MSA Chemox schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
18. MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
19. MSA McCaa schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
20. Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
21. Sabre SEFA schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
22. Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
23. Scott Rescue-Pak schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
24. Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
25. Siebe Gorman Aerorlox schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
26. Siebe Gorman Proto Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
27. Siebe Gorman Proto Ten schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
28. Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
29. Survivair LP-120 schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
30. Breathing and metabolic simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
31. Durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
32. CO2 levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
33. Differences between average and minimum inhaled CO2 levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
34. O2 levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
35. Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
36. Breathing pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
37. Pressure swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
38. Breathing pressures during high-work-rate intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

TABLES

1. Rescue breathing apparatus tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2. Means of average values of monitored physiological parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
 UNIT OF MEASURE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT
breaths/min breaths per minute L/min liter(s) per minute

ft foot (feet) min minute(s)

hr hour(s) mm H2O millimeter(s) of water pressure

kg kilograms(s) psi pound(s) per square inch

L liter(s) EC degrees Celsius

L/breath liter(s) per breath % percent

 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF RESCUE BREATHING APPARATUS

By Nicholas Kyriazi1

ABSTRACT
A performance comparison of 14 rescue breathing apparatus was undertaken as an assessment of past and
present worldwide technology. Rescue breathing apparatus are self-contained, closed-circuit breathing
apparatus used for entry into areas having atmospheres that are immediately dangerous to life and health.
Apparatus tested were the Biomarine BioPak 45, 60, and 240; the Draeger BG 4 and BG-174A; the Litton
LITPAC II; the MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask, Chemox, and McCaa; the Sabre Selected Elevated Flow
Apparatus (SEFA); the Scott Rescue-Pak; the Siebe Gorman Aerorlox and Proto Ten; and the Survivair
LP-120. The apparatus were tested on an automated breathing and metabolic simulator at the Pittsburgh
Research Laboratory of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Physiological
parameters monitored during the testing were average inhaled CO2 and O2, minimum inhaled CO2, inhaled wet-
and dry-bulb temperatures, and peak inhalation and exhalation breathing pressures. The metabolic demand
on the apparatus was 1.35 L O2/min for most of the test with two 5-min intervals of 2.5 L O2/min, the first
beginning 10 min into the test and the second beginning 10 min before the end of the rated duration of the
apparatus. Results presented include apparatus service life and test-averages of monitored physiological
parameters. Schematic drawings and photographs of the apparatus are also included.
The Draeger BG-174A and BG 4 had the highest durations—295 and 291 min, respectively. The BG 4 had
the lowest minimum inhaled CO2 levels, attesting to the effectiveness of its CO2-absorbent canister. The Sabre
SEFA had the lowest average inhaled CO2 levels, due mostly to the apparently low-dead-space mask and
nose cup. The MSA Air Mask, the only open-circuit device tested, had the lowest wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures, with the liquid-O2-source Siebe Gorman Aerorlox having the next lowest temperatures. The only
apparatus with a CO2-absorbent not in a packed-bed design, the BG-174A, had the lowest exhalation pressures.
The BG 4 had the highest level of positive pressure, with the Biomarine BioPak 60, Survivair LP-120, SEFA,
and Litton LITPAC II nearly as high. The BG 4 had the lowest pressure swing, with the SEFA a close second.

1
Biomedical engineer, Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, PA.
 2

INTRODUCTION

In the event of a fire or explosion in underground coal In an effort to compare the performance of presently used,
mines, the air is likely to be irrespirable because of toxic gases commercially available apparatus and those that have been used
or the absence of O2. For this reason, all underground coal in the past, models of each type, which were either bought or
miners in the United States are required to have access to borrowed, were tested on an automated breathing and metabolic
emergency escape breathing apparatus. Performance simulator (BMS) [Kyriazi 1986]. Testing on a BMS enabled
comparisons of such apparatus have been published by the the apparatus to be evaluated with identical and repeatable
author [Kyriazi and Shubilla 1984; Kyriazi 1996]. In order to inputs unlike human-subject testing. Although little attempt
recover the mine after a fire or explosion, or to rescue trapped was made to analyze the designs of the apparatus, an apparatus
miners, mine rescue teams use long-duration, closed-circuit, designer can evaluate the effectiveness of the designs, which are
self-contained breathing apparatus for respiratory protection. shown in schematic form, by comparing the performance
These are commonly called rescue breathing apparatus (RBA), results. Consumers can use the performance results to help
or entry, versus escape, apparatus. decide which apparatus best suits their needs.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

All of the apparatus tested are similar in their basic CO2 is absorbed, and then to the flexible breathing bag. It is
functions, which are to provide O2 to, and absorb CO2 produced stored there until it is drawn through the inhalation hose and
by, the user. The standard parts of the breathing apparatus into the user's lungs upon inhalation. In most compressed-O2
coming into contact with the user's exhaled air are the face apparatus, the O2 flows at a constant rate to the breathing bag
mask, breathing hoses, CO2-absorbent canister, and breathing and is supplemented at times of higher O2 consumption by a
bag. O2 is stored in the apparatus as either a solid (potassium demand valve triggered by either low bag volume or a threshold
superoxide (KO2)), a liquid, or a gas. The CO2 absorbents used inhalation pressure. In contrast, when O2 consumption is lower
were lithium hydroxide (LiOH), calcium hydroxide (CaOH), than the constant flow, the breathing bag fills to capacity and
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), or a combination of these usually begins venting to ambient through a relief valve triggered by
simply poured into a canister (packed-bed design). either high bag volume or a threshold exhalation pressure.
In general, exhaled air is channeled through the exhalation Table 1 lists the apparatus tested. A description of each
breathing hose to the CO2-absorbent canister where the user's apparatus follows.

Table 1.—Rescue breathing apparatus tested

Rated
duratio Country of Weight,
Apparatus Gas supply
n, origin kg
hr
Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . . 0.75 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 7.7
Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . . 1 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 11.4
Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . . 4 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 17.7
Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . . 4 Germany . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 15.8
Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Germany . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 13.5
Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . . 2 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed gas . . . 13.6
MSA Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . 1 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed air . . . . 16.0
MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . . 1 U.S.A. . . . . . Chemical O2 . . . . . . 6.1
MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 17.7
Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 U.K. . . . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 16.0
Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . . 4 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 15.9
Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . . 3 U.K. . . . . . . . Liquid O2 . . . . . . . . . 13.4
Siebe Gorman Proto 3 U.K. . . . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 15.0
Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . . 2 U.S.A. . . . . . Compressed O2 . . . . 10.0
 3

BIOMARINE BIOPAK 45 soda lime. The low-pressure alarm sounds at approximately

25% of capacity.
The BioPak 45 (figures 1-2) is a compressed-O2, closed- The user exhales into the face mask containing both
circuit apparatus with a disposable CO2-absorbent canister. It inhalation and exhalation check valves, through the exhalation
was certified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety hose, through the CO2-absorbent canister, and into the breathing
and Health (NIOSH) in 1973 as a 45-min unit when the bag consisting of a spring-loaded, rigid diaphragm and a
O2 cylinder is filled to 2,100 psi (at room temperature). The O2 flexible sleeve. The CO2-absorbent canister and breathing bag
is delivered to the user at a rate of 3.6 L/min at ATPD (ambient are contained within the breathing chamber, as Biomarine calls
temperature and pressure, dry) with no demand valve. The CO2 it. Upon inhalation, the air is drawn from the breathing bag
absorbent is a form of soda lime (mostly calcium hydroxide). through the inhalation hose and check valve, and then into the
Unlike most of the other apparatus tested, the BioPak 45 is face mask. An anoxia-prevention valve, located in the
worn on the chest rather than the back. The face mask is exhalation hose at the point that it enters the breathing chamber,
equipped with a speaking diaphragm. The low-pressure alarm blocks exhalation flow unless opened by pressure provided by
sounds at approximately 25% of capacity. the O2 cylinder. This prevents use of the apparatus unless the
Exhaled air travels past the exhalation check valve in the O2 cylinder is opened and pressurized. It also signals the user
face mask, through the exhalation hose, through the CO2- when the cylinder is empty by preventing exhalation into the
absorbent canister, and into the breathing bag. Air is inhaled circuit.
from the bag, through the inhalation breathing hose, past the The flow path through the breathing chamber is relatively
inhalation check valve, and into the face mask. There is an complex. The exhaled air enters an inlet plenum between the
optional coolant ring that surrounds the CO2-absorbent canister. CO2-absorbent canister and a solid plate separating it from the
breathing bag. The O2 constant flow enters the circuit at this
point, also. The exhaled air then travels through the absorbent
BIOMARINE BIOPAK 60
to an outlet plenum formed by the canister and the lid of the
breathing chamber. The exhaled air is then routed around
The BioPak 60 (figures 3-4) is a compressed-O2, closed-
coolant rings containing sodium phosphate crystals, through
circuit apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister. It
slots around the circumference of the housing, and into the
was certified by NIOSH in 1978. It was certified again in 1988 breathing bag.
as a positive-pressure device after that classification was added The spring-loading on the diaphragm results in a positive
in 1985. It contains approximately 170 L of O2 if filled to the static pressure in the breathing circuit. The term "positive-
recommended cylinder pressure of 2,250 psi.2 A constant flow pressure" is derived from this feature. When the user demands
of 1.9 L O2/min (ATPD) plus a volume-activated demand valve more air than is contained in the breathing bag, the diaphragm
constitute the O2-delivery system. The relief valve is also presses against a demand valve, which causes O2 to flow into
volume-activated. The CO2 absorbent is Sodasorb, a form of the bag. The flow of O2 from the bypass valve is delivered to
the bag at a location on its circumference. If more air is exhaled
2
All volumes, unless otherwise noted, are listed at standard temperature and into the breathing bag than it can hold, the diaphragm presses
pressure, dry. against a relief valve and vents the excess volume.

Figure 1.—Biomarine BioPak 45. Figure 2.—Biomarine BioPak 45 schematic.

4

Figure 3.—Biomarine BioPak 60.

Figure 4.—Biomarine BioPak 60 schematic.

 5

BIOMARINE BIOPAK 240 is the most widely used long-duration closed-circuit breathing
apparatus in the world. Originally certified in 1966 by the
The BioPak 240 (figures 5-6) is a compressed-O2, closed- former U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) as a 2-hr apparatus, it
circuit apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister. It is was NIOSH-certified in 1975 as a 4-hr apparatus. The O2
NIOSH-certified (1985) as a 4-hr apparatus and is separately cylinder contains approximately 395 L of O2 at the
certified (1986) as a positive-pressure device. The fiberglass- recommended fill pressure of 3,135 psi at room temperature.
wrapped aluminum O2 cylinder contains approximately 535 L The BG-174A has a constant flow of O2 of 1.5 L/min ATPD
of O2 at the recommended fill pressure of 3,000 psi at room plus a pressure-activated demand valve. The relief valve is also
temperature. The BioPak 240 has a constant O2 flow of pressure-activated. The CO2 absorbent is NaOH suspended in
1.65 L/min ATPD plus a volume-activated demand valve. The .
relief valve is also volume-activated. The CO2 absorbent is
called Rexsorb, a form of soda lime. The low-pressure alarm
sounds at approximately 25% of capacity. Over the main
viewing area, the face mask has a double lens, which is intended
to minimize fogging.
The user exhales into the face mask containing the inhalation
and exhalation check valves, through the exhalation hose,
through the canister, and into a breathing bag. The con-
figuration of the CO2-absorbent canister/breathing bag
component is the same as that of the BioPak 60. Upon
inhalation, the user draws air from the breathing bag, through a
heat-absorbent canister, and then through the inhalation hose
and check valve back to the face mask.

DRAEGER BG-174A

The BG-174A (figures 7-8) is a compressed-O2, closed-

circuit apparatus with a disposable CO2-absorbent canister. It Figure 5.—Biomarine BioPak 240.
.

Figure 6.—Biomarine BioPak 240 schematic.

6

a crisscross, corrugated-screen bed (figure 9) designed to quantity of N2, the O2 concentration in compressed-O2 apparatus
prevent the NaOH from melting into a solid mass during use can fall to subambient levels before the demand valve is
The user exhales into the face mask, through the exhalation activated.
hose, past the exhalation check valve, through the CO2-
absorbent canister, and into the breathing bag. Upon inhalation,
the user draws air from the breathing bag, through the valve box
and inhalation check valve, through the inhalation hose, and
back to the face mask.
The face mask includes a wiper that removes condensation
from the inside of the lens. A preflushing device operates when
the O2 cylinder is opened and fills the breathing bag with
approximately 6 L ATPD of O2, purging the circuit of a large
quantity of N2. If the user's O2 consumption rate is higher than
the O2 constant flow rate and the circuit contains a large
Figure 9.—Draeger BG-174A canister schematic.

DRAEGER BG 4

The BG 4 (figures 10-11) is a compressed-O2, closed-circuit

apparatus with a disposable soda lime CO2-absorbent canister

Figure 7.—Draeger BG-174A.

Figure 8.—Draeger BG-174A schematic. Figure 10.—Draeger BG 4.

.
 7

Figure 11.—Draeger BG 4 schematic.

It has been NIOSH-certified four times (1995) as both a 3- and refillable, CO2-absorbent canister. It was certified by NIOSH
4-hr apparatus and a standard- and positive-pressure apparatus. in 1994 as a 2-hr, positive-pressure apparatus. Its targeted
The 4-hr, positive-pressure version of the BG 4 was tested using
the same O2 cylinder as that used for the BG-174A, which has
the same recommended fill pressure of 3,135 psi at room
temperature. The 3-hr version comes with a fiberglass-wrapped
cylinder. The BG 4 has a constant flow of O2 of at least
1.5 L/min ATPD plus a volume-activated demand valve. The
relief valve is also volume-activated and purges exhaled air
before it enters the CO2-absorbent canister. The face mask is
the same as that used with the BG-174A.
The user exhales into the face mask, through the exhalation
check valve and breathing hose, through the CO2-absorbent
canister, and into the spring-loaded breathing bag. Upon
inhalation, the user draws air from the breathing bag, through
the heat-absorbent canister, the inhalation hose and check valve,
and back to the face mask. The heat-absorbent canister works
by routing inhalation air around a chamber containing a large
cylinder of ice inserted just before use, formed in a separate ice
mold.

LITTON LITPAC II

The LITPAC II (figures 12-13) is a positive-pressure,

compressed-gas (39% O2), closed-circuit apparatus with a Figure 12.—Litton LITPAC II.
8

market is mainly the fire service and other users who require MSA CUSTOM 4500 II AIR MASK
positive pressure even at high work rates. These users desire
durations longer than open-circuit apparatus can provide, but do The Air Mask (figures 14-15) is a positive-pressure,
not want high O2 levels in the breathing circuit. This apparatus compressed-air, open-circuit apparatus with a belt-mounted
was designed to pass the anticipated National Fire Protection regulator. It is NIOSH-certified (1988) as a 1-hr apparatus. It
Association 1984 standard for closed-circuit apparatus. contains approximately 2,300 L of air that is delivered to the
The two gas cylinders contain 1,036 L ATPD of gas when user on a demand-only basis. As in all open-circuit apparatus,
filled to 4,500 psi. The LITPAC II is a demand-only apparatus every inhalation draws air from the air cylinder and every
with approximately 20% of each breath coming from the
cylinders through a positive-pressure-biased demand valve
regulator. The same portion of exhaled air is vented out of the
circuit on every exhalation through a pressure-biased
exhalation/relief valve. This strategy spares the CO2-absorbent
to some extent and provides cooler breathing air, but requires a
large quantity of supply gas. If one considers that open-circuit
apparatus draw 100% of each breath from the gas supply versus
approximately 4% for typical closed-circuit apparatus, this
apparatus can be seen as a cross between open- and closed-
circuit.
The user exhales into the face mask, through the exhalation
breathing hose, into an exhalation/relief valve assembly
containing a check valve and a relief valve, both of which are
spring-loaded. The exhaled air then either exits the circuit via
the relief valve or enters the scrubber inlet bag. The air that
enters the scrubber inlet bag then passes through the CO2-
absorbent canister into a scrubber outlet bag, then into the
pressure vessel bag, which encases the two compressed-gas
cylinders. A small fourth bag made of thicker material,
functioning more as a duct, connects the pressure vessel bag
with the regulator. Inhalation draws air from the breathing bags
and the gas cylinders. The gas from the cylinders enters the
regulator through an injector nozzle, creating negative pressure
in the regulator, which draws air in from the breathing bags,
functioning as a sort of power-assist. This combination gas-
cylinder/breathing-bag air is then drawn through the inhalation
breathing hose and back into the face mask. Figure 14.—MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask.

Figure 13.—Litton LITPAC II schematic.

Figure 15.—MSA Custom 4500 II Air Mask schematic.
 9

exhalation is vented to ambient. The face mask used for the to the present as the primary U.S. Navy shipboard firefighting
performance comparison did not have the nose cup accessory. apparatus progressing from the A-1 model to the presently used
A-4. The early models had no chlorate candles and differed in
MSA CHEMOX the design of the breathing bag, relief valve, and the mechanism
and procedures for loading. The U.S. Navy calls the device the
The Chemox (figures 16-17) is a chemical-O2, closed-circuit OBA, short for O2 breathing apparatus. Like the BioPak 45, it
apparatus with a disposable KO2 canister. It was certified by is worn on the chest rather than the back.
the USBM in 1946 as a 1-hr breathing apparatus. Because it KO2 not only absorbs CO2 but also produces O2, so that a
was certified for less than a 2-hr duration, it was considered an separate O2 source is not needed. The new KO2 canisters
auxiliary rescue apparatus. It has seen extensive use from 1946 contain sodium chlorate "candles," which provide a quick
source of O2, permitting the apparatus to be worn immediately.
Otherwise, the KO2 needs three or four exhaled breaths, which
provide not only the H2O and CO2 required for the chemical
reactions, but also sufficient initial volume in the breathing bag
to permit self-contained use of the apparatus. Since there is no
O2 cylinder and gauge to indicate quantity of O2 remaining,
a timer is provided that informs the user how long the apparatus
has been in use. This allows for only a rough estimate of
remaining duration, however, since KO2 is strictly demand-
responsive. KO2 overproduces O2 relative to human CO2
production such that the breathing bag is always full and
continually venting O2 through the volume-activated relief
valve. Earlier models had a manually activated relief valve.
The model tested was the A-4 with an automatic relief valve and
canisters containing chlorate candles.
Exhaled air goes through the exhalation check valve and
hose, through a passageway down the middle of the KO2
Figure 16.—MSA Chemox. canister, up through the chemical bed, and is channeled to the
bottom of one breathing bag, sweeping over the inner surface of
the bag to a connecting tube terminating at the top of the other
breathing bag. Upon inhalation, the air is drawn from the
bottom of the second breathing bag, through the inhalation
breathing hose and check valve, then back into the face mask.

MSA McCAA

The McCaa (figures 18-19) is a compressed-O2, closed-

circuit apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister that is
integral with the apparatus frame. It was originally approved by
the USBM in 1925 as a 2-hr apparatus and is permitted by
NIOSH to be used indefinitely as long as it is maintained in an
approved condition. The O2 cylinder contains approximately
243 L ATPD of O2 when filled to 1,985 psi at room
temperature. The McCaa does not have a constant flow of O2;
the demand valve regulator is activated by bag volume. The
relief valve is functionally combined with a saliva trap release
in the face mask and is manually activated. The CO2 absorbent
is called Cardoxide, which consists mostly of CaOH.
The user exhales into a face mask or a mouthpiece, through
an exhalation check valve and hose, through the CO2-absorbent
canister, to the 8-L breathing bag. Inhaling draws air from the
breathing bag, through a large plenum formed by the entire case
Figure 17.—MSA Chemox schematic. housing that serves as a heat radiator, and through the inhalation
10

Figure 18.—MSA McCaa.

hose and check valve in the face mask or the mouthpiece.

Figure 20.—Sabre SEFA.

was approved by the U.K. Health and Safety Executive in 1985

as a 2-hr apparatus in its low-flow mode, with a constant flow
of O2 of 5 L/min ATPD. In its high-flow mode—10 L/min
ATPD—it is certified for 1-hr duration. It contains 750 L
ATPD of O2 at a pressure of 3,000 psi at room temperature. It
has no demand valve. The pressure-activated relief valve is
located upstream of the canister, venting exhaled air before it
has been cleansed of CO2 or enriched with O2. The CO2-
absorbent canister is filled with SEFAsorb, consisting mostly
of CaOH.
The user exhales into the face mask, through an exhalation
check valve and hose, through the CO2-absorbent canister, and
through a heat exchanger to the 6-L breathing bag, consisting of
a spring-loaded, rigid diaphragm connected to a flexible sleeve.
Inhaled air is drawn from the bag, through the inhalation
breathing hose and check valve, then back to the face mask.
The heat exchanger functions in tandem with the ambient-air
chamber containing the breathing bag. The volume in the
Figure 19.—MSA McCaa schematic. ambient-air side of the chamber increases when the breathing
A face mask without a nose cup was used in this testing. bag decreases, during inhalation, drawing ambient air through
This device is no longer used to any extent. It is claimed that two check valves in the panel separating the chamber from the
this apparatus is positive-pressure with a static head pressure of O2 cylinder compartment. Upon exhalation, the breathing bag
about 6 mm H2O. This claim is made by Grove [1941], but the volume increases, forcing the ambient air in the chamber out
breathing circuit pressure does not remain positive during through the outside and core of the wetted heat exchanger,
inhalation and would certainly not qualify as positive-pressure drawing heat—through the evaporation of the water as well as
by present standards. direct conduction—from the hot exhaled air passing in the
opposite direction through the middle plenum of the heat
SABRE SEFA exchanger on the way from the canister to the breathing
chamber. Two relief valves in the panel separating the ambient
The SEFA (Selected Elevated Flow Apparatus) (fig- air chamber from the O2 cylinder compartment permit ambient
ures 20-21) is a compressed-O2, positive-pressure, closed-circuit air in the chamber to escape if exhalation pressure becomes
apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister. It too high.
 11

Figure 21.—Sabre SEFA schematic.

SCOTT RESCUE-PAK NIOSH-certified (1973) as a 3-hr apparatus. It is filled with

3 kg of liquid O2 and provides a flow of between 6 and 12 L
The Rescue-Pak (figures 22-23) is a compressed-O2, closed- O2/min to the breathing circuit. The pressure-activated relief
circuit apparatus with a disposable CO2-absorbent canister. It valve continually vents the excess volume of breathing air in the
is NIOSH-certified (1975) as a 4-hr apparatus. The O2 cylinder circuit. The CO2 absorbent is 8-12 mesh Protosorb, a soda lime
contains 435 L ATPD at a pressure of 1,980 psi at room that is mostly CaOH.
temperature. A constant O2 flow of 1.5 L/min ATPD is
augmented by a volume-activated demand valve. The relief
valve is also volume-activated and dumps exhaled air from the
breathing circuit before it enters the CO2-absorbent canister.
The CO2 absorbent is LiOH.
Exhaled air passes through the exhalation check valve and
breathing hose, through the CO2-absorbent canister, and into the
breathing bag, which consists of a rigid diaphragm attached to
a flexible sleeve. Air is inhaled from the breathing bag, through
the inhalation breathing hose and check valve, then back to the
face mask. The relief valve is activated by the movable
diaphragm of the breathing bag, but channels the excess volume
from the exhaled column of air just before it enters the CO2-
absorbent canister. This feature conserves both the absorbent
and the O2 supply, since the vented exhaled air has not yet been
cleansed of CO2 nor enriched with O2.

SIEBE GORMAN AERORLOX

The Aerorlox (figures 24-25) is a liquid-O2, closed-circuit

apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister. It is Figure 22.—Scott Rescue-Pak.
12

Figure 23.—Scott Rescue-Pak schematic.

Figure 25.—Siebe Gorman Aerorlox schematic.

mask, through the nose cup, which contains two inhalation

check valves. The O2 flows from the evaporator into the
breathing bag.

SIEBE GORMAN PROTO TEN

The Proto Ten (figures 26-27) is a compressed-O2, closed-

circuit apparatus with a refillable CO2-absorbent canister. It
was certified by the USBM in 1968 as a 3-hr apparatus. The
cylinder contains 400 L ATPD of O2 when filled to 2,840 psi at
room temperature. A constant O2 flow of 1.5 L/min ATPD is
provided and augmented by a pressure-activated demand valve.
The relief valve is also pressure-activated. The CO2 absorbent
is Protosorb, a soda lime composed mostly of CaOH.
Exhaled air from the face mask passes through the exhalation
hose and check valve through the radial CO2-absorbent canister
Figure 24.—Siebe Gorman Aerorlox. housed in a metal shell, which also contains an inverse
breathing bag, a heat-absorbent canister, and a warning whistle.
Exhaled air is channeled through a check valve in the face The breathing circuit air is contained within the metal shell and
mask through the exhalation breathing hose, through the radial contacts the exterior of the breathing bag, the interior of which
CO2-absorbent canister, around the liquid-O2 dewar (called an is open to ambient. Air is inhaled from the shell interior,
evaporator), which cools the air on its way to the breathing bag. through a metal tube connected to the heat-absorbent canister,
The moisture that is condensed from the air as it passes over the through the inhalation check valve and hose, and back to the
evaporator collects in the breathing bag. The inhaled air is face mask.
drawn from the breathing bag around the evaporator again, then The inverse breathing bag design results in the breathing
through the inhalation breathing hose and back to the face circuit air contacting the metal shell, enabling heat to be
 13

radiated to air in a plenum vented to ambient. A chamois cloth

jacket covers the exterior of the metal shell. The jacket is
wetted from water coming from the ice melting in the heat-
absorbent canister, which is wicked through a hole in the
canister to two positions on each side of the surface of the shell.
The water in the chamois jacket evaporating to ambient cools
the surface of the metal shell. Heat is transferred to ambient
also through the breathing bag, which pulls ambient air into it
with each breath. A sponge at the bottom of the inside of the
metal shell, under the CO2-absorbent canister, holds the water
released by the chemical reaction.

SURVIVAIR LP-120

The LP-120 (figures 28-29) is a prototype, compressed-O2,

closed-circuit apparatus with a refillable, LiOH CO2-absorbent
canister. It is NIOSH-certified (1987) as a 2-hr apparatus. The
O2 cylinder contains 240 L ATPD at a pressure of 3,000 psi.
O2 is delivered on a demand-only basis by a positive-pressure-
biased, pressure-activated, demand valve. The relief valve is
also pressure-activated. The apparatus functions as a positive-
pressure system, but was not submitted for certification under
that category because of the use restrictions for pure-O2
apparatus in the positive-pressure, closed-circuit apparatus
category.
Figure 26.—Siebe Gorman Proto Ten.

Figure 27.—Siebe Gorman Proto Ten schematic.

14

Figure 28.—Survivair LP-120.

The user exhales into the face mask, through the exhalation
breathing hose, past the exhalation check valves, and into the
exhalation breathing bag. Some of the exhaled air passes
through the CO2-absorbent canister and heat-absorbent
canister, into the inhalation breathing bag. When the user
inhales, some of the air is drawn from the inhalation breathing
bag and some from the exhalation breathing bag, across the
CO2-absorbent and heat-absorbent canisters. The inhaled air Figure 29.—Survivair LP-120 schematic.
continues through the inhalation check valves and breathing
hose, then back to the face mask. The dual-breathing bag
design splits the breathing pressures of the CO2-absorbent The heat-absorbent canister contains LiNO3, a phase-change
canister between inhalation and exhalation rather than only on material that is formulated to melt at about 27 EC.
exhalation.

TEST APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Unlike human subjects, the BMS used in this study (fig-

ure 30) elicits a constant and repeatable metabolic demand on
the breathing apparatus. Human-subject testing of a breathing
apparatus is similar to evaluating the output of a black box with
an unknown input. Use of the BMS provides a known input.
The BMS simulates O2 consumption and CO2 production, re-
produces humanlike waveforms, and heats and humidifies the
inhaled air.
The metabolic work rates used in this study are:

Work rate 1

VO2 (O2 consumption) ' 1.35 L/min

VCO2 (CO2 production) ' 1.10 L/min
Ve (ventilation) ' 30 L/min
Vt (tidal volume) ' 1.67 L/breath
RF (respiratory frequency) ' 17.9 breaths/min Figure 30.—Breathing and metabolic simulator.
Qpeak (peak flow rate) ' 67 L/min (exhalation)
' 83 L/min (inhalation)
 15

Work rate 2 Average inhaled CO2 <4%

Average inhaled O2 >15%
VO2 (O2 consumption) ' 2.50 L/min Wet-bulb temperature <50 EC
VCO2 (CO2 production) ' 2.50 L/min Exhalation pressure <200 mm H2O
Ve (ventilation) ' 54.8 L/min Inhalation pressure >&300 mm H2O
Vt (tidal volume) ' 2.45 L/breath
RF (respiratory frequency) ' 22.4 breaths/min The average inhaled gas concentrations include the
Qpeak (peak flow rate) ' 115 L/min (exhalation) contribution of any dead space in the face mask or hoses.
' 149 L/min (inhalation) (Dead space is that apparatus volume containing exhaled air that
will be reinhaled.) All measurements were made at the mouth
Most of the test consisted of work rate 1 with the addition of of the headform except the wet-bulb temperature, which,
two 5-min intervals of work rate 2, the first beginning 10 min because of the configuration of the wet-bulb thermocouple
into the test and the second beginning 10 min before the end of [Kyriazi 1988], was placed at the back of the neck of the
the rated duration of the apparatus. This was done not only to headform.
evaluate performance at a higher work rate, but also to The wet-bulb temperature reflects both temperature and
determine if this performance is maintained as the apparatus humidity. The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature actually
nears depletion. perceived by the wearer with the wet human respiratory tract
The physiological parameters measured were average inhaled functioning essentially as a wet-bulb thermometer.
concentrations of CO2 and O2, minimum inhaled CO2, end-of- A test was terminated when the O2 supply was exhausted, if
breath inhaled wet- and dry-bulb temperatures, and inhalation average inhaled CO2 reached 10%, or if average inhaled O2 fell
and exhalation peak breathing pressures. Measure-ments were below 15%. A depleted O2 supply is the preferred termination
calculated over a two-breath period and averaged each minute. mode since this can be determined by the user without the aid
Test-averages were derived from the minute-averages, including of instrumentation. Termination under the other conditions is
the two high-work-rate periods. At least five tests were run on undesirable because the safety of the user may be compromised.
each apparatus. In some cases, average inhaled CO2 level was permitted to
The levels of the physiological parameters considered to be exceed 10% because the O2 supply was nearly exhausted, and
acceptable here are: the test was permitted to continue until complete exhaustion.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2 lists the means of the test-average values of each The duration obtained from a compressed-O2 apparatus is
physiological parameter for each model of apparatus. entirely dependent upon how much O2 is contained in the
Figures 31-38 graphically illustrate the results of table 2. cylinder. Filling compressed-O2 cylinders rapidly to high
Figure 33 shows the differences between the average and pressures results in the heating of both gas and cylinder. If
minimum inhaled CO2, which can be interpreted as some filled exactly to the recommended pressure, the final pressure
indication of quantity of apparatus dead space. If there were no after cooling will be below this level, requiring additional
dead space and the minimum inhaled CO2 remained at a steady filling. Final cylinder pressures varied based on filling
level from beginning to end of inhalation, average and minimum procedures and ambient temperatures, with some settling below
inhaled CO2 would be equal. The greater the dead space, the and some above the manufacturer's recommended pressure.
higher the difference between the two values. It is not The durations listed in table 2 for gaseous-O2 apparatus were
surprising, therefore, that the two apparatus with no face mask those actually attained, with the standard deviations reflective
nose cups (MSA Air Mask and McCaa) have the highest dead- of the arbitrary differences in fill pressures, and the estimated
space values. A small difference between the wet- and dry-bulb durations for the apparatus if their storage vessels had been
temperatures, shown in figure 35, indicates that the air was filled to their recommended levels.
humid; a large difference means dry air. Pressure swing, as In addition to the numerical results, discussions of unusual
depicted in figure 37, is the combination of inhalation and or notable behavior and/or comments about the testing follow
exhalation breathing pressures. the table and figures.
16

Table 2.—Means of average values of monitored physiological parameters (standard deviations)

Duration, min
At recom- Average Average Minimum Exhalation
Cause of
Apparatus Average of mended inhaled inhaled inhaled pressure,
termination
all tests fill O2, % CO2, % CO2, % mm H2O
pressure
Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . 51 (3) 51 Empty 80 (1) 1.7 (0.3) 0.8 (0.3) 46 (3)
Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . 80 (2) 80 Empty 88 (1) 0.8 (0.1) 0.1 (0) 82 (3)

Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . 264 (6) 264 High CO2 87 (2) 1.4 (0.1) 0.6 (0.1) 69 (1)
Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . 295 (9) 298 Empty 62 (6) 1.2 (0.3) 0.4 (0.2) 26 (4)
Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . 291 (17) 299 Empty 90 (2) 1.3 (0.1) 0 (0) 44 (1)
Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . 138 (15) 130 Low O2 25 (1) 1.0 (0.2) 0.1 (0.1) 51 (1)
MSA Custom 4500 II
Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 (4) 66 Empty 19 (1) 1.8 (0) 0.1 (0) 63 (1)
MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . 70 (4) — Empty 76 (3) 3.6 (0.8) 3.0 (0.9) 93 (5)
MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . 130 (10) 137 Empty 60 (8) 4.0 (0.5) 1.6 (0.4) 42 (4)
Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . 174 (3) 176 Empty 87 (2) 0.5 (0.1) 0.1 (0) 39 (1)
Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . 265 (18) 293 Empty 73 (4) 1.1 (0.2) 0.3 (0.2) 42 (3)
Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . 228 (8) 216 Empty 96 (1) 1.0 (0.1) 0.1 (0) 51 (1)
Siebe Gorman Proto 130 (13) — Empty 45 (17) 1.5 (0.6) 0.9 (0.7) 33 (3)
Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . 141 (7) 137 Empty 63 (8) 1.6 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 58 (3)
High- High- High- High-
Inhalation Inhalation
Inhalation demand 1 demand 2 demand 1 demand 2
wet-bulb dry-bulb
Apparatus pressure, exhalation exhalation inhalation inhalation
tempera- tempera-
mm H2O pressure, pressure, pressure, pressure,
ture, EC ture, EC
mm H2O mm H2O mm H2O mm H2O
Biomarine BioPak 45 . . . . . . &27 (2) 73 (10) 72 (9) &46 (7) &45 (3) 34 (0) 35 (1)
Biomarine BioPak 60 . . . . . . 6 (2) 112 (2) 119 (1) &18 (2) &28 (2) 34 (1) 36 (1)
Biomarine BioPak 240 . . . . . 0 (3) 87 (1) 99 (3) &31 (1) &39 (6) 32 (1) 34 (1)
Draeger BG-174A . . . . . . . . &26 (5) 47 (4) 70 (9) &45 (2) &56 (3) 36 (1) 39 (1)
Draeger BG 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 8 (2) 55 (3) 53 (2) &6 (2) &13 (3) 32 (1) 34 (1)
Litton LITPAC II . . . . . . . . . . 0 (1) 56 (2) 57 (2) 0 (3) &12 (4) 29 (2) 31 (2)
MSA Custom 4500 II
Air Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &20 (2) 66 (1) 68 (1) &41 (3) &44 (3) 14 (0) 18 (0)
MSA Chemox . . . . . . . . . . . &27 (2) 141 (8) 164 (13) &65 (3) &73 (3) 22 (1) 32 (1)
MSA McCaa . . . . . . . . . . . . &42 (4) 90 (7) 121 (16) &70 (1) &141 (74) 34 (1) 38 (1)
Sabre SEFA . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 (1) 54 (2) 56 (2) &23 (2) &25 (1) 34 (1) 35 (1)
Scott Rescue-Pak . . . . . . . . &33 (2) 78 (5) 92 (9) &58 (2) &68 (5) 35 (1) 38 (1)
Siebe Gorman Aerorlox . . . . &26 (1) 92 (2) 87 (1) &62 (2) &58 (1) 16 (0) 20 (1)
Siebe Gorman Proto Ten . . &70 (17) 66 (5) — &101 (8) — 30 (3) 31 (1)
Survivair LP-120 . . . . . . . . . 2 (3) 84 (3) 84 (3) &8 (4) &12 (4) 34 (1) 35 (1)
 17

Figure 31.—Durations.
18

Figure 32.—CO2 levels.

 19

Figure 33.—Differences between average and minimum inhaled CO2 levels.

20

Figure 34.—O2 levels.

 21

Figure 35.—Wet-bulb (WB) and dry-bulb (DB) temperatures.

22

Figure 36.—Breathing pressures.

 23

Figure 37.—Pressure swings.

24

Figure 38.—Breathing pressures during high-work-rate intervals.

 25

BIOMARINE BIOPAK 45 amount of outleakage of O2 in normal use due to imperfect face

mask sealing. In these tests, the face mask was sealed with
This apparatus is no longer being manufactured, and the putty to the headform with no leakage.
apparatus tested was of advanced age. This was not particularly As with the BioPak 60, during the high-work-rate intervals,
evident except for one peculiarity that surfaced after several both the demand valve and relief valve were activated with each
tests had been performed. Either or both of the check valves in breath, which wastes cylinder gas. Possibly this is intentional,
the face mask began to leak. Exhalation check valve leakage since reducing the gas supply brings it closer in capacity to that
causes exhaled air in the exhalation hose to be reinhaled, of the CO2-absorbent canister.
effectively increasing the dead space and causing the average
inhaled CO2 to incrementally rise in value. Inhalation check DRAEGER BG-174A
valve leakage permits exhaled air to enter the inhalation hose.
This high-CO2 air is then reinhaled, again effectively increasing The BG-174 had the lowest exhalation pressure of any
the dead space and causing the average inhaled CO2 to apparatus tested here. This is due mostly to the CO2 bed design,
incrementally rise in value. When the check valves leaked, which suspends the chemical absorbent in a wire mesh rather
average inhaled CO2 values were approximately 3.5% compared than a packed bed.
with approximately 0.9% when they sealed properly. If this
problem were to occur in actual use, a user would respond to DRAEGER BG 4
the higher level of CO2 by increasing his ventilation rate, which
would result in the valves sealing better, thereby lowering the This apparatus had the lowest minimum inhaled CO2 of any
CO2 level. apparatus tested, including the open-circuit MSA Air Mask,
During the high work periods, the valves seemed to begin testifying to both the efficiency of the canister and the fact that
functioning again, with average inhaled CO2 levels dropping. its face mask included a nose cup. In the Air Mask tests, the
Presumably, the higher ventilation rates forced the valves to seat lack of a nose cup resulted in the nonzero minimum inhaled
properly. At the manufacturer's suggestion, newer check valves CO2 level measured. In addition, the BG 4 had the lowest
from the face mask of the BioPak 240 were installed in the absolute pressure swing—exhalation and inhalation peak
BioPak 45 face mask. These check valves sealed properly pressures combined—of any apparatus tested in this study.
during the test performed immediately after their installation.
After sitting over a weekend, however, they warped. This was LITTON LITPAC II
discovered after the next test again showed high average inhaled
levels of CO2. The manufacturer later informed PRL that the In the LITPAC II, the low-pressure alarm sounds at
check valves from the two apparatus were not identical. approximately 25% of capacity and continues until the cylinders
Biomarine then sent a new set of apparatus-specific check are empty. Users should remove the apparatus when the alarm
valves, which functioned properly in the remaining tests. ceases because O2 drops immediately thereafter. Although the
user's manual states that it becomes difficult to inhale when the
BIOMARINE BIOPAK 60 cylinders are empty, it was found that O2 fell below 15% before
inhalation pressure increased significantly. This occurred only
During the two periods of work rate 2, both the demand and after the low-pressure alarm stopped sounding, however.
relief valves were activated, indicating that the tidal volume Although this apparatus was designed so that face mask
(volume of a breath) was larger than the volume of the pressure never becomes negative relative to ambient, very short-
breathing bag. This is wasteful of the cylinder gas. duration inhalation pressure spikes occurred on every breath,
eventually becoming negative toward the end of the test. These
BIOMARINE BIOPAK 240 are the values measured and reported, but the inhalation face
mask pressures, excepting these spikes, were ap-proximately
Throughout its rated duration, the average inhaled CO2 of 20 mm H2O, remaining well above ambient even during the
the BioPak 240 remained low and the O2 high. Every test, high-demand intervals. Although the reported positive-pressure
however, was terminated due to high CO2 (10%), with an performance of the LITPAC II is comparable to the Draeger
average duration of 264 min with at least 600 psi left in the BG 4 and Survivair LP-120 in being among the best performing
cylinder. High CO2 level is not a positive indicator of end-of- apparatus during the high-demand intervals, measuring average
life, i.e., it is not easily evident without instrumentation. A user inhalation pressures instead of peak inhalation pressures would
would increase his ventilation rate at higher values of CO2 and undoubtedly improve the measured performance of this
would increasingly desire to remove the apparatus. Ideally, the apparatus over that of the others.
scrubber would be oversized relative to the quantity of available
O2. It could be that the manufacturer counts on a certain
26

MSA CUSTOM 4500 II AIR MASK 10%. It should be noted, however, that the apparatus passes the
standard U.S. Navy step test.
Very short-duration negative inhalation pressure spikes of The performance of the Chemox is extremely dependent on
approximately &15 mm H2O occurred on every breath with this the KO2 canister, as might be expected. The canister determines
apparatus, but the inhalation pressure during most of the the O2 production and CO2 absorption and greatly influences
inhalation was approximately 15 mm H2O. During the high- temperatures and exhalation pressure. Only inhalation pressure
demand intervals, initial spikes of approximately &45 mm H2O is related more to the rest of the apparatus than to the canister.
were followed by diminishing oscillations, with pressure The performance of the Chemox is, therefore, naturally
stabilizing at approximately %20 mm H2O. As with the dependent on the formulation of KO2 used in the canisters.
LITPAC II, measuring average inhalation pressures instead of Canisters from three batches of KO2 were used randomly in this
peak inhalation pressures would better reflect actual user impact study, with CO2 and pressure seeming to be particularly batch-
since, in the event of a breathing circuit leak from ambient, the sensitive, and temperature and O2 appearing to be less so.
degree of in-leakage depends upon both the level and duration On one apparatus from an old batch of canisters, the chlorate
of the negative pressure. candle pull cord slipped out of the firing pin, requiring the
It was somewhat surprising that the minimum inhaled CO2 candle to be activated by pulling the pin out with pliers.
level was not zero for an open-circuit apparatus. This can be Assuming that under normal circumstances this action would be
explained, however, by the fact that the face mask did not have taken while still in good air, this is not considered to be a
a nose cup. Nose cups not only reduce the face mask dead dangerous defect.
space volume, reducing the average inhaled CO2 level, but are
also designed without remote corners so that CO2 is swept MSA McCAA
cleanly at once from the contained space rather than trickling
out a little at a time which seems to have happened here. Since In order to test the McCaa, because of its aging and de-
the cylinder air contained no CO2, this is the only possible teriorating parts, we had to have the O2 cylinders hydrostatically
explanation for a nonzero minimum inhaled CO2 level. tested and combine the good parts of two apparatus to make one
functional unit. The regulator of one apparatus malfunctioned
MSA CHEMOX and caused a downstream O2-supply line to burst. The CO2-
absorbent canister of the other apparatus, which is integral with
Except for the Aerorlox, which has a cold O2 source, and the entire frame and body, had its lower screen excessively
the open-circuit Air Mask, the Chemox provided inspired air clogged with hardened absorbent. Because of this, after 20 to
with the lowest wet-bulb temperature of any apparatus tested. 40 min of use, the breathing pressures approximately doubled.
There was a large difference between wet- and dry-bulb The pressures remained at that level for the duration of the test.
temperatures, indicating relatively dry air. The low wet-bulb The visibly cleaner canister screen of the second apparatus did
temperature is attributed to the inherently dry air produced by not experience this phenomenon and was used for all recorded
KO2, causing heat of evaporation to be drawn from the tests.
respiratory tract. The low dry-bulb temperature can be The termination mode was low bag volume in every test,
attributed to the design feature of the apparatus that forces air although average inhaled CO2 levels were high in general, due
to sweep over the inner surfaces of the exposed breathing bags in part to the lack of a nose cup in the face mask, and in two
from one end to the other, maximizing heat exchange with the cases reached 10% in the second 5-min, high-work interval.
cooler laboratory environment. Of course, in a warmer The test with the longest duration, 144 min, reached average
environment, this feature would be less effective and, with inhaled CO2 levels of 10% at 135 min.
rising ambient temperature, would begin to add heat to the The demand valve was activated generally once every three
breathing-circuit air. breaths at the start of the tests. Later in the tests, as the pressure
On the negative side, the CO2 and breathing resistance levels in the O2 cylinder fell, the demand valve was activated
were high. The second, 5-min, high-workload interval, generally once every two breaths. Near the ends of the tests,
beginning at 50 min, usually brought average inhaled CO2 up to the demand valve was activated every breath. This
10% and beyond. Since substantial recovery occurred after this phenomenon is attributed to the delivery of more O2 than
interval, the test was permitted to continue, but CO2 continued demanded at first, then less overdelivery as cylinder pressure
to rise after this recovery. Since the breathing bag volume was decreased. The large variation in pressures experienced in the
rapidly decreasing as average inhaled CO2 levels reached 10%, second, 5-min, high-work interval is believed to be a result of
the test was not terminated until the breathing bag was empty. variations in the cylinder pressures. Lower cylinder pressure
High inhaled CO2 concentration is not considered a positive seemed to cause the demand valve to be less responsive,
indicator of end-of-life, nor desirable. A person would likely resulting in greater inhalation pressure. With higher cylinder
have removed the apparatus by the time CO2 levels reached
 27

pressure during the second 5-min high-work interval, the device to test. It has no demand valves, regulators, or gauges.
inhalation pressure averaged in the &80 mm H2O range; with It was certainly the coolest closed-circuit apparatus tested and
lower cylinder pressure, this value increased to &250 mm H2O. had the highest O2 concentration due to the high O2 flow rate of
6-12 L/min, which mostly exited the relief valve.
SABRE SEFA The Aerorlox is no longer being manufactured, but Siebe
Gorman will make custom replacement parts if desired for its
The SEFA was tested at the low-flow (5 L/min) regulator remaining users.
setting. Even the "low" O2 flow rate, however, was much
greater than the test O2 consumption rate, so that the relief valve SIEBE GORMAN PROTO TEN
was activated on every breath. This characteristic spares the
CO2-absorbent canister by dumping high-CO2 air, and ensures This apparatus presented many obstacles to testing; some
a high concentration of O2 throughout the test. The SEFA had parts were missing while others had deteriorated, compromising
the lowest average inhaled CO2 of any apparatus tested, as well performance. It is no longer being manufactured and Siebe
as the lowest difference between average and minimum values, Gorman had no spare parts. The inhalation check valve could
indicating low face mask dead space. The SEFA also had the not be located; a Rudolph 1800 check valve was used in its
lowest exhalation peak pressures of any positive-pressure place. The metal frame of the apparatus, containing the CO2-
apparatus. absorbent canister, the breathing bag and the heat-absorbent
canister, had a crack in a weld joint which had to be repaired.
SCOTT RESCUE-PAK The bypass valve kept opening on its own and had to be
screwed down shut. We could not locate the ice mold to form
This apparatus is no longer being manufactured, so new a block of ice for the heat-absorbent canister, so small ice cubes
CO2-absorbent canisters were unavailable. The CO2-absorbent were used instead. The most serious problem, however, was
canisters used for the Rescue-Pak varied in condition from found after six tests had been performed. It was discovered that
questionably sealed to positively sealed, but all were past the the O2 supply lines were leaking along their entire lengths and
recommended use date by nearly 2 years. LiOH does not could neither be repaired nor replaced. This resulted in a large
degrade with age, however, so all the canisters were used. quantity of the O2 supply being lost to ambient, preventing the
Although there was variation between individual canisters, all 3-hr-rated apparatus from attaining its intended duration. This
of them maintained very low CO2 levels. means that the CO2-absorbent canister was never pushed to its
Two Rescue-Paks were tested. Five tests were run on one limit and that, in general, late test performance was not
and three on the other. The data from both apparatus were observed and averaged in with the early test data; this resulted
combined since the differences between them were negligible. in favorably biased average performance results. Given all
these problems, the apparatus would not have been included in
The O2 cylinder fill requirement was from 1,800 to 2,000 psi.
this study at all were it not for its unique design.
This low pressure enabled them to be filled from standard 4.5-
The test averages were calculated from the best four tests, all
ft-tall cylinders. Since we did not yet have an O2 pump on site,
of which still suffered from one or more problems,
this expedited testing. As the supply cylinder was depleted,
compromising their validity to some extent. All the durations
however, less O2 was available to the apparatus cylinders,
were short due to the leaky O2-supply hoses, and some of the
resulting in less duration and more variation in duration than
tests suffered from random activation of the bypass valve before
would be seen if each cylinder had been filled by a pump to a
it was permanently shut off. Durations ranged from 116 to
targeted pressure. The average cylinder pressure achieved was 148 min. The first two tests had average inhalation pressures of
approximately 1,780 psi on the first seven tests. The last test &55 mm H2O compared with &85 mm H2O for the last two tests.
was with a cylinder at 2,000 psi filled by a pump. This test This might be explained by differing use of the demand valve
lasted 297 min compared with an average of 260 min for the or by an actual change in performance characteristics after
first seven tests, with a standard deviation of 11 min. The reassembly for cleaning. There were also large variations in
average inhaled CO2 concentration for the last test was only both average and minimum inhaled CO2 levels for unknown
.01% higher than the average of the first seven tests indicating reasons.
that the extended duration resulted in no CO2 breakthrough. The warning whistle is located inside the breathing circuit,
The demand valve was usually activated during the tests, but presumably to make use of the O2 vented from it when
did not seem to add to the inhalation pressure, probably because activated. Unless the user is working at a very high O2
it is volume-activated, rather than pressure-activated. consumption rate, however, most of this O2 is simply vented to
atmosphere after the volume able to be contained in the
SIEBE GORMAN AERORLOX breathing circuit is exceeded. Further, the sound made by the
whistle is severely muffled by its placement inside the shell,
The most difficult challenge in testing this device was compromising its intended purpose.
obtaining the liquid O2 and filling the device. Once the The areas in which the Proto Ten excelled were the
apparatus had been filled, however, it became the simplest exhalation pressure and both wet- and dry-bulb temperatures.
28

The temperatures would have been higher had the durations components rather than different apparatus, since the prototypes
been longer, however. The low exhalation pressure was, were all hand-built and not from a machine-tooled, assembly
presumably, the result of the low bed depth of the radial line.
canister. It would not likely have changed much with longer The relief valve was originally placed in the exhalation
durations. breathing bag and was volume-activated. Our prototype, of a
later design, had a pressure-activated relief valve in the face
SURVIVAIR LP-120 mask. This design, however, vented large volumes of air from
the breathing circuit at high work rates. Between 30 and 40 L
Four prototype apparatus were delivered to the USBM as of air were vented during the first, 5-min, high-work-rate
part of the contract to develop a low-profile, lightweight, 2-hr- period. This resulted in severely reduced durations; therefore,
rated rescue breathing apparatus. Only one of the prototypes the relief valve was plugged in subsequent tests. Since a relief
was used in the performance comparison so as to ensure that valve serves little purpose in demand-only apparatus, this
performance variation was a reflection of replaceable modification was considered an acceptable tradeoff in order to
permit full evaluation of the apparatus.

SUMMARY

The Draeger BG-174A and BG 4 and the Scott Rescue-Pak Air Mask. In fact, the Air Mask, with a completely CO2-free
had the highest durations. The Biomarine BioPak 240 contains inhalation source of breathing gas, had a nonzero minimum
more O2, but the lower-capacity CO2-absorbent canister does inhaled CO2 level. This is due, presumably, to the exhaled CO2
not permit its full use; average inhaled CO2 concentrations trapped in the recesses of the face mask, trickling out during the
reached 10% at 264 min with 600 psi remaining in the cylinder. entire inhalation but never being completely washed out.
The BG 4 had the lowest minimum inhaled CO2 levels, attesting The Air Mask had the lowest wet- and dry-bulb
to the effectiveness of its CO2-absorbent canister. The Sabre temperatures, which is not surprising because it is an open-
SEFA had the lowest average inhaled CO2 levels, due mostly circuit device. The liquid-O2-source Siebe Gorman Aerorlox
to the apparently low-dead-space mask and nose cup. had the next lowest temperatures. The only apparatus with a
Peculiarly, the face mask used on both the BG 4 and the CO2-absorbent not in a packed-bed design, the BG-174A, had
BG-174A behaved differently on each apparatus, exhibiting the lowest exhalation pressures. The BG 4 had the highest level
higher dead space characteristics on the BG 4 than the of positive pressure, with the Biomarine BioPak 60, Survivair
BG-174A. Apparently, there is some interaction between the LP-120, SEFA, and Litton LITPAC II nearly as high; the
mask and the apparatus. The impact of having no face mask Air Mask and the LITPAC II would have been higher if the
nose cup to reduce the quantity of reinhaled CO2 is shown by short-duration, inhalation-pressure spikes had been ignored.
the large difference between the average inhaled and minimum The BG 4 had the lowest pressure swing (36 mm H2O), with the
inhaled CO2 levels in both the MSA McCaa and SEFA a close second (39 mm H2O).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The schematic drawings in this report were done by Richard Roth, Marion Molchen, and John Pozzuto, Pittsburgh Research
Laboratory. For larger size schematic drawings, please contact the author.

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of Mines. Kyriazi N, Shubilla JP [1984]. Performance comparison of oxygen self-
Kyriazi N [1986]. Development of an automated breathing and metabolic rescuers. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines,
simulator. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, RI 8876.
IC 9110.
Kyriazi N [1988]. Fast-response wet-bulb thermocouple. J Int Soc for
Respiratory Protection 6(3):12.