Part Ii: Pavement Design Method

Part II Pavement Design Guide
7
Pavement Design Method
PART II : PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
1. INTRODUCTION
The structural design guide developed consists of nomographs from which the thickness of
the asphaltic layers in relation to the thickness of the base and subbase layer of a flexible
pavement can be determined. The nomographs have been developed in terms of the stiffness
of the subgrade, expressed in CBR, and the total number of Equivalent Standard Axles
(ESA).
For practical reasons the thickness of the sub-base/base untreated layer have been fixed to
200mm, 300mm and 400mm.
Since air temperature affects the mechanical properties of the bituminous mixtures two sets
of nomographs have been prepared. One set at the almost lowest average yearly
temperature to occur along Egnatia road which is 13 oC and one set at the almost highest
average yearly temperature to occur which is 16 oC. For intermediate temperature values
the thickness is determined by interpolation.
Nomographs have also been prepared not only for the standard type of bitumen used which
is the 50/70pen bitumen but also for a harder bitumen 40/50pen. Mixtures prepared with
40/50pen bitumen may be considered as heavy duty mixtures. The type of bituminous
mixtures considered in the development of the nomographs are dense asphaltic concrete
mixtures.
For the development of the nomographs, the elastic theory has been employed for multi-
layer systems in which the materials are characterized by the elastic modulus (Young’s
modulus) and the Poisson’s ratio. The materials are assumed to be homogeneous and
isotropic and the layers have horizontally infinite dimensions. The calculations of the
stresses and strains at the critical interlayer points and the required thickness of each layer
to sustain these strains were carried out with the BISAR-PC1 and SPDM-PC2 programmes.
2. DESIGN CRITERIA AND PRINCIPLES
The design criteria used in order to ensure the satisfactory performance of the pavement
throughout the design period are:
a) The bituminous materials should not crack extensively under the influence of traffic
loading. This is controlled by the horizontal tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the
last bituminous layer.
b) The subgrade should not deform excessively under the influence of traffic loading. This is
controlled by the vertical compressive stress or strain developed at the surface of the
subgrade.
c) The thickness of the sub-base, base and the capping layer (if constructed) should be thick
enough to withstand the construction traffic without overloading the subgrade.
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The traffic is expressed in terms of standard axle loads acting vertically and/or horizontally
on the surface, which are assumed to be uniformly distributed over two circular areas. The
pavement is regarded as three or more distinct layers according to the type of materials in
each layer.
The BISAR computer program incorporated into the SPDM-PC program, for a given
pavement structure, calculates the maximum compressive strain at the top surface of the
subgrade and the maximum horizontal tensile stains, normally occurred, at the bottom of the
last asphaltic layer. If the calculated compressive strain is excessive, permanent deformation
will occur at the top of the subgrade, and this will cause deformation at the pavement
surface. Similarly, if the calculated horizontal tensile strain is excessive, cracking of the
asphaltic layer will occur, which soon will show on the surface of the pavement. The
thickness of the pavement is determined by the lowest cumulative number of standard axles
determined by the corresponding fatigue equations.
The BISAR computer program was also used to determine the developed compressive
strain at the surface of the subgrade when the pavement consisted only of sub-base and base
layers. By this, it was possible to determine the thickness of the above layers so as there was
no excessive overloading of the subgrade during construction.
3. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS, MATERIALS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED
3.1 Elastic modulus of the subgrade
The elastic modulus of the subgrade (Esubgrade), being one of the major input data for
analytical calculations, was determined from the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). CBR is
not a direct measure of stiffness modulus but is widely used and considerable experience
with it has been gained throughout the years. Empirical relationships have been developed
between the elastic modulus and CBR by various international organizations. The most
commonly used relationships are those developed by the Asphalt Institute3 and TRL4.
Graphical comparison of the equations is given in Appendix B, Figure B-1. The equation
developed by TRL gives more conservative results for CBR values >5%.
The equation adopted for the development of this design guide is the one proposed by TRL
and is as shown below:
subgrade = 17,6 x CBR0,64 (1)
The above equation is considered to by applicable to materials expected to have CBR

between 2 and 12%. For materials with CBR 15% and 20% the values of 100 MPa and 120
MPa were assumed.
3.2 Elasticity modulus of the sub-base/base layer
The elastic modulus of the unbound layers sub-base and base was determined from the
elastic modulus of the subgrade in relation to the thickness of the unbound layer. This
approach was proposed and used by the Shell pavement design methodology and its
Addendum 19855. The formula used is:

9
Esb/b = kxEsubgrade (2)
where k = 0,2x(hsb/b)0,45 (limits of k: 2<k<4) (3)
The above formula is valid for a confidence limit of 50%. For the 85% confidence limit
used, the k value is corrected according to the Addendum 1985. However, the maximum
elastic modulus of this layer was limited to 150 MPa.
3.3 Subgrade strain criterion
The allowable maximum subgrade compressive (vertical) strain to be developed is directly

related to the deformation of the subgrade. Extensive laboratory work by various
laboratories and organizations determined mathematical equations from which it is possible
to determine the allowable maximum strain of the subgrade in relation to the number of
equivalent axle load repetitions until failure. All the equations have the general format of:
c = axNb (4)
where c = maximum allowable compressive strain to be developed at the surface of

the subgrade
N = cumulative number of standard axles
a and b = regression coefficients
and in most cases failure is considered to be a certain deformation of the subgrade which
will result in a 20mm, approximately, rut depth at the surface of the pavement. For
comparison reasons the most widely known equations developed are shown in Appendix B,
Figure B-2. As it can be seen the equation developed by AASHTO6 gives the most
optimistic results, i.e. it allows higher subgrade compressive stains to be developed.
In the design guide developed, the equation adopted to be used was the one proposed by
TRL and also used in the current British pavement design methodology7. The reason for
choosing this equation is simply the fact that it gives less optimistic results which may add
to the probability of the pavement achieving the required life.
3.4 Stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures
The stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures is determined automatically by the

SPDM-PC program. The determination is based on the work reported by Bonnaure et.al.8.
In fact, the stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures is determined from the properties
and relative volumes of the constituent materials. In other words, by the stiffness of the
bitumen, the percentage by volume of the bitumen and the percentage by volume of the
mineral aggregate used. The determination of the stiffness of the bitumen was also carried
automatically by the program, by using the work reported by Van der Poel9. According to
this, the effect of the air temperature, the properties of the bitumen and the time of loading
are all taken into account for the determination of the stiffness of the bitumen.
It must be noted that, as far as the air temperature is concerned, for the determination of the
stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures, the program does not use the average yearly
temperature but it follows a certain procedure to determine the weighted mean annual

10
temperature and from that the effective temperature of the bituminous mixture. The
effective temperature of the bituminous mixture is also dependent on the thickness of the
bituminous layer. The effective temperature of the bituminous mixture is always higher than
the average annual air temperature. Details about the procedure followed can be found in
the relative bibliography5.
3.5 Fatigue of bituminous mixtures
The fatigue of the bituminous mixtures due to the tensile horizontal strains developed
results in cracking of the bituminous layer. The fatigue behaviour is affected by various
parameters and primarily from the type and composition of the mixture, the characteristic
properties of the bitumen, the environmental temperature and the stress conditions. Under
given conditions the bituminous layers can take a certain number of traffic loading before
they crack.
Several nomographs and equations have been developed for the prediction of fatigue
performance of the bituminous mixtures. Each one differs in complexity, i.e. in the number
of parameters taken in order to characterize the mixture and the bitumen, the test conditions
etc., and in the type and number of mixtures covered in the experimental data which were
used to device the method.
In the present study the fatigue equation used was the one based on the work reported by
Valkering and Stapel10. The equation was developed after many years laboratory work
using various types of bituminous mixtures inclusive asphaltic concrete type. The equation
used is as follows:
. = (0.856V . +1,08)(S . )-0,36 x (N . )-0,2 (5)
where = horizontal tensile strain

V . = volume of bitumen, %
S . = stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixture, MPa
N = cumulative number ESA to cause fatigue
3.6 Representative bituminous mixtures
The types of bituminous mixtures taken into consideration for the structural analysis of the
pavement were dense asphaltic mixtures, used in all pavement construction in Greece. The
mixtures are specified by the Greek specifications PTP -265 and PTP -260. The
composition properties of the typical mixtures considered are as shown in Table 1.
Other mixtures were also considered but only for the construction of the anti-skidding layer.
These mixtures were: dense Asphaltic Concrete (AC) for anti-skidding layer, Porous
Asphalt (PA), Slurry Seal (SS) (micro-surfacing), and Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA). The
composition properties of the typical mixtures used are as shown in Table 2.

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Table 1 Composition properties of typical dense asphaltic mixtures
Mix property
Percentage Percentage Volume of Volume of
Type of mixture of bitumen of voids bitumen in the mix aggregates in the mix
(%) (%) (%) (%)
265 Wearing course 5,3 4 12,5 83,5
265 Binder course 4,6 6 10,6 83,4
260 Asphaltic base 4,0 8 9,0 83,0
Table 2 Composition properties of hot mixtures for antiskidding layers
Mix property
Percentage of Percentage of Volume of Volume of
Type of mixture bitumen voids bitumen in aggregates in
the mix the mix
(%) (%) (%) (%)
AC for antiskidding layer 5,3 4 12,5 83,5
Porous asphalt 4,5 20 9,2 70,8
Stone mastic asphalt 7,0 3,5 16 80,5
3.7 Types of bitumen
The types of bitumen used in the analysis were: 40/50pen, 50/70pen and 80/100pen, all of
them straight run bitumen. The typical characteristic values of their properties are:
Penetration value 45, 65 and 90, respectively. Ring and Ball 52 oC, 46,5 oC and 43 oC,
respectively.
3.8 Other data and variables used
Confidence level : 85%

Mean vehicle speed : 50 km/h
Asphaltic mix temperature : Varies (see paragraph 3.4)
Poisson ratio : 0,35 for all layers
Equivalent standard axle
Axle stress : 80 kN
Number of tires : 2 twins on each side
Contact radius : 105 mm

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4. DESIGN PROCEDURE
The steps in the design procedure developed are illustrated schematically by the flow
diagram shown in Figure 2. The steps are:
1. Determine the input data

(a) Traffic value, ESA
(b) CBR of the subgrade
(c) Mean annual air temperature (MAAT)
2. Decide whether capping layer is required
(Use appropriate Table 4)
3. Decide on the sub-base/base layer thickness
(Use appropriate Table 4)
4. Determine design thickness of the bituminous layers for the specified conditions
described by the input data
(Use relevant nomographs)
5. Choose the appropriate anti-skidding layer
(Refer to para. 11)
6. Determine the thickness of each bituminous layer
(Use appropriate tables, Table 4 and 7)
7. Decide on stage or one-stage construction
(Refer to para. 13)
If yes, prepare stage construction design
8. Make an economic analysis of the various solutions
(Refer to para. 14)
9. Select the final design
5. TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
In a pavement design the traffic volume should be expressed in terms of Equivalent

Standard Axles (ESA=ITA) and not in number of vehicles. Furthermore, the traffic volume
of ESA should be calculated for the whole design period assumed (cumulative traffic
volume) and it should refer to the design lane, per direction of traffic flow.
For the determination of the cumulative number of ESA ( (ESA) per direction in the design
lane the following equation is used:
(ESA) = (ESAdaily) x PTDL x 365 x CF (6)
where ESAdaily= number of daily ESA, per direction, in the year of

opening to traffic (base year)
PTDL = percentage of traffic in the design lane
CF = Cumulative factor (= [(1+r)n -1]/r)
r = mean annual increase of traffic (i.e. 0,03 for 3% mean annual
increase)
n = design life, years

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DETERMINATION DETERMINATION DETERMINATION

OF ESA OF CBR FOR SUBGRADE OF MAAT
(Paragraph 5) (Paragraph 6) (Paragraph 7)
YES Capping
layer ?
(Para. 8)
Determination
of thickness NO
(Para. 8)
Determination of
sub-base/base
thickness (Para. 9)
Determination of
bituminous layers
thickness (Para. 10)
Choose the appropriate

antiskidding layer (Para.11)
Adjust, if necessary, the

underlying
bituminous layers
YES Stage
construction
(Para. 13)
Determine
pavement for
Stage I & II
Economic
analysis (Para. 14)
FINAL
RESULT
Figure 2 Flow diagram of the pavement design guide

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a) Determination of ESAdaily
In general, for the determination of the number of equivalent standard axles per day, per
direction (ESAdaily) the designer must determine (or know) the following:
a) the number of commercial vehicles per day, per direction

b) the percentage classification of commercial vehicles into five categories: Buses, Semi-
tracks, Trucks, Heavy trucks and Other vehicles, in the year of opening the road to
traffic, and
c) the equivalent wear factor per vehicle category.
The commercial vehicle (gross weight >1,5 ton) is defined as any vehicle apart from a
passenger car. The description of the commercial vehicle categories, as mentioned above, is:
Buses : all buses and coaches

Semi trucks (or light trucks) : all vehicles with two axles
Trucks : all vehicles with three fixed axles or three axles articulated
Heavy trucks : all vehicles with four or more axles, fixed or articulated
Other vehicles : Any other vehicle which is not included in the above four
categories, except passenger car (such vehicles: agricultural
vehicles or construction mobile machines)
For the purpose of designing a pavement in Egnatia road, a table has been prepared which
gives the total daily number (in both directions of flow) of commercial vehicles per link of
road (project), for the opening year 2000 (assumed), Table C-1, column 11, Appendix C.
This table was produced from data resulted from the recent traffic simulation study carried
out by EOAE11. It must be noted that the extracted data, and also all the others which will
be mentioned later on, are for the scenario of median GDP growth (i.e. mean annual GDP
growth 3%) with generated traffic. This choise was made because this scenario was
considered to be the most likely to occur in the next years.
The sensitivity analysis that was carried out concluded that even if one of the other two
scenarios materialize, (i.e. mean annual GDP growth of 2,5% or 3,5%) it will not affect the
pavement thickness determined by the median scenario to a great extent. In particular, the
maximum decrease of the daily ESA, if the scenario of 2,5% GDP growth materialize, will
be -5,64%. This decrease is expected to result in a maximum decrease of the pavement
thickness (asphaltic layers) of 0,9mm.
Respectively, the maximum increase of the daily ESA, if the scenario of 3,5% GDP growth
materialize, will be +7,97%. In this case, the maximum increase of the pavement thickness
(asphaltic layers) is expected to be 1,25mm.
Finally, it must be mentioned that the typical commercial/passenger vehicles ratio adopted
was that of the year 2025.
Additionally, a table has also been prepared which gives the composition of commercial
vehicles, in percentage, per classes determined and for each link of road (project), Appendix
C, Table C-2, columns (5) to (9). The percentages per vehicle category shown in Table C-2
have been derived by an approximation from the work presented by Nikolaides and

15
Mintsis12. The designer may use different traffic composition, if he proves (by analytical
traffic studies) that the assumed traffic composition is not representative of the area.
With the help of the data obtained from Tables C-1 and C-2, Table C-3 has been prepared
which gives the total daily number of commercial vehicles (column 5), the daily number of
commercial vehicles per category (columns 6 to 10) and the number of daily ESA (column
11) (all results per one direction of traffic).
For the determination of commercial vehicles per direction it was assumed that the traffic is
equally split in each direction, i.e. 50% and 50%. The designer may use different percentage
of split, if he has more accurate traffic information of the area.
The determination of the number of daily ESA (ESAdaily) per direction, (Table C-3), was
carried out using the following general formula:
ESAdaily = CV1xEWF1 + CV2xEWF2 + CV3xEWF3 + CV4xEWF4 + CV5xEWF5 (7)
where CV1, CV2, CV3, CV4 and CV5 = the number of commercial vehicles per category
1,2,3 and 4, respectively
EWF1, EWF2, EWF3, EWF4, EWF5 = the equivalent wear factor for each vehicle
category 1,2,3 and 4, respectively (Table 3)
The equivalent wear factors per vehicle category are given in Table 3. The equivalent wear
factors given in Table 3 are those proposed by the work presented by Nikolaides and
Mintsis12. In this work, the proposed equivalent wear factors for Greece were derived from
the similar ones proposed and used in the British pavement design methodology13.
Table 3 Equivalent wear factors
Vehicle category Equiv. Wear Factor

(EWF)
1 Buses 1,3
2 Semi-trucks 0,34
3 Trucks 1,5
4 Heavy trucks 3,025
5 Other vehicles 0,026
6 Passenger cars 0,0
The equivalent wear factor represents the structural damage caused to the pavement by a
vehicle category in relation to the structural damage caused by the standard axle. In other
words, the damage caused by one bus is 1,3 times more than the damage caused by one
standard axle. For clarification and comparison purposes, the structural damage caused by a
passenger car is negligible and is considered to be equal to zero.

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b) Determination of PTDL
In the case that the road has two traffic lanes per direction, in most cases Egnatia road has
two lanes per direction, it is unrealistic to assume that all traffic will use only the one lane.
However, more commercial vehicles will use the slow inner lane than the outer fast lane.
The distribution of traffic per lane depends primarily on the volume of traffic and on the
number of traffic lanes available. Other factors, such as type and classification of road
(urban or rural, motorway, principal or secondary road, etc.) may also influence the
distribution of traffic per lane.
Taking into account that Egnatia road is a ‘homogenous’ type of road (rural motorway),
hence the factors mentioned in the last sentence do not apply, the percentage of traffic in the
design lane (PTDL), for the sections having more than two lanes, can be determined from
Figure 3.
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
100 1000 10000 100000
Commercial vehicles per day in one direction
Figure 3 Determination of the percentage of commercial vehicles in the design lane13
c) Determination of mean annual increase of traffic
Traffic flow from day one of opening the road is going to increase, or decrease, or even stay
constant, year by year until throughout the design life selected. It is important, though
difficult, to estimate as accurately as possible, the mean annual percentage increase of
traffic. Any great diversions from the resulted percentage may result in an under designed or
over designed pavement.
For the purpose of pavement design for Egnatia road, Table C-4, Appendix C, has been
prepared which gives the mean annual increase of traffic for each link of Egnatia road, Table

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C-4 (column 8). The designer, for the time being, may use these annual increases when he
designs a pavement for up to 20 or 30 years. He may also use these figures for designing a
pavement for 40 years, in absence of any other very long term forecast traffic data.
Summarizing the procedure for determining the cumulative number of ESA the steps to
follow are as follows:
a) Use equation 6
b) For the determination of ESAdaily use values given in Table C-3, column 11
If there are more representative data for commercial vehicles distribution and knowing
the total number of commercial vehicles per day, calculate the ESAdaily from equation 7
using equivalent wear factors given in Table 3
c) For the determination of percentage of traffic in the design lane, use Figure 3
d) For the determination of annual increase of traffic use values given in Table C-4, column
8
e) The design life, in years, is determined by the designer
5.1 Examples for calculating the cumulative number of ESA
Example 1
Calculate the cumulative number of ESA in the link, say Ladochori-Neochori, for a design
period of 30 years. No traffic data are available other than the ones given in the Appentices
of the design methodology.
Solution
For the determination of cumulative number of ESA equation 6 will be used.
From Table C-3, column 11, the daily number of ESA per direction (ESAdaily), at the year of
opening, is 300 ESA.
The number of commercial vehicles per day/direction is 392, Table C-3, col. 5.
Hence, from Figure 3, the percentage of traffic in the design lane (PTDL) for 392
commercial vehicles per day/direction, is 95,5%.
From Table C-4, the average annual increase of traffic in this link is 4,3%.
Thus, the cumulative factor (CF) for a design period of 30 years is:
CF = [(1+0,043)30 - 1] /0,043 = 59
Therefore, using equation 6, the cumulative number of ESA ( )) during the design
period of 30 years will be:
(ESA) = 300 x 0,955 x 365 x 59 = 6,17x106 ESA, or 6,2x106 ESA

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Example 2
Calculate the cumulative number of ESA in the link, say Diavata-Efkarpia, for a design
period of 20 years, when it is known (assumptions made) that the daily traffic at the time of
opening the road is: 6000 passenger cars and 3600 commercial vehicles. The distribution of
commercial vehicles into categories is not known. However, it is known that in the eastward
direction the percentage of traffic flow is 55% of the total traffic flow. The average annual
increase of traffic has been forecast to be 3,2%.
Solution
The ESAdaily will be determined from equation 7.
Since the distribution of commercial vehicles is not known, data given in the Appendices of
the design methodology will be used.
From Table C-2, col. 5 to 9, assuming that the distribution of commercial vehicles is valid:
from a total 31,2% of traffic flow being commercial vehicles, 2% is buses, 11% is semi-
trucks, 12,7% is trucks, 5% is heavy trucks and 0,5% is other vehicles.
The percentage of commercial vehicles of the total traffic according to the data given is
3600/9600 = 37,5%. Thus, the previously given distribution of traffic has to be adjusted for
the 37,5%. The commercial vehicle distribution then becomes: 2,4% buses, 13,2% semi-
trucks, 15,3% trucks, 6% heavy trucks and 0,6% other vehicles.
Using the above figures and the fact that in the eastward direction (the most heavily
trafficked direction) the percentage of traffic is 55% of the total, i.e. 1980 in eastward
direction, the number of commercial vehicles for this direction is:
1980 x (2,4/37,5) = 127 buses,

1980 x (13,2/37,5) = 697 semi-trucks,
1980 x (15,3/37,5) = 808 trucks,
1980 x (6/37,5) = 316 heavy trucks and
1980 x (0,6/37,5) = 32 other vehicles
Thus, from equation 7 and using the above figures and the equivalent wear factors from
Table 3, the ESAdaily is equal to:
ESAdaily = 127x1,3 + 697x0,34 + 808x1,5 + 316x3,025 + 32x0,026 = 2571 ESA
From Figure 3 and when the number of commercial vehicles per direction is 1980, the
percentage of traffic flow in the design lane (PTDL) is: 88%.
The cumulative factor (CF) for 20 years design period and 3% annual increase becomes
equal to: [(1+0,03)20 - 1]/0,03 = 26,87
Therefore, the cumulative number of ESA is:
(ESA) = 2571 x 0,88 x 365 x 26,87 = 2,22x107 ESA, or 2,2x107 ESA

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6. SUBGRADE ASSESSMENT
The strength of the subgrade is of great importance in a pavement design. Weak subgrade
will require greater thickness of overlying layer, in comparison to high strength subgrade, in
order the resulted traffic stresses at the formation level to be reduced to a level sustained by
the subgrade. The strength of the subgrade, in this design methodology, is determined in
terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
The CBR should be tested in the laboratory according to the Greek specifications E 105-86
(in soaked condition) but in all cases, as a representative CBR value for the design, the CBR
value corresponding to the 90% of the maximum dry density determined by the modified
Proctor test should be taken. As an exception, and only, in the case of an undisturbed
naturally cemented soil material in a cut with low water table (>1m down), the CBR
corresponding to the 95% of the maximum dry density by modified Proctor test may be
taken.
However, it must be stated that the 90% compaction used for the determination of the
design CBR should not be confused with compaction requirements of the subgrade during
construction. This should always be aimed to be greater or equal to the value determined
for field compaction (i.e. 95% or any other value, of the maximum dry density determined
by Proctor test).
The design CBR of the subgrade layer, in all cases (cut or embankments), should be
determined from the worst material found within 600mm down from the decided formation
level. It is clearly stated that, the range of CBR values of the subgrade layer (bearing
capacity of the subgrade) given in Table 4.5.1 of OSMEO can only be used as indication
values and only in a preliminary design. The designer, for the final detailed design, should
always use the CBR laboratory values from representative samples taken of the materials
going to be used in the construction. In case of no uniformity of the materials, the value
obtained from the worst material is the one to be used for further calculations. The content
of this paragraph should always be related with capping layer requirements and its
thickness, paragraph 8.
In other words, for a pavement going to be constructed in a cut where the subgrade within
600mm depth from the formation level consists of materials type E2 and E1, the designer, if
he wishes to carry out preliminary design, may use the lowest corresponding value of CBR
for each material, given in Table 4.5.2, i.e. >5% (say 5,1%) and >3% (say 3,1%)
respectively, and the design CBR for preliminary design will be 3,1%.
For final detailed design, the designer should always use the laboratory CBR values and the
design CBR will be the lowest of the two materials tested, i.e. if the CBR of material type
E2 was 7% and the CBR for material E1 was 3,5%, the design CBR value is 3,5%. In this
particular case, according to the requirements of the methodology, a capping layer is also
needed, refer to paragraph 8.
For a pavement going to be constructed on an earth or rock embankment, taking into

account that the top layers of the embankment are forming the subgrade layer, all items
mentioned in the previous paragraphs are also valid.

20
Exemption to all the above is when the pavement is constructed in a cut of rocky ground.
Here the designer may choose subgrade CBR values between 15% or 20%, depending on
the soundness of the rock and the material used in the regulating course. For sound quality
rock and a very good quality regulating course use CBR value equal to 20%. For weathered
rock with a good quality regulating course, use CBR value equal to 15%. However, these
cases may not frequently arise since the final thickness of the pavement most probably will
be dictated from the design of the adjacent embankments.
When a drainage layer is used, the design CBR should always be that of the material found
immediately below the drainage layer. In other words the effect of using granular material in
the drainage layer is not taken into account. The same applies in case of using a frost
protection layer.
Water table and preservation of constant moisture content of the subgrade

The water table should always be kept at least 50 cm from the formation level. To obtain
that refer to paragraph 3.8.3.2 of OSMEO.
In situ testing during construction

In situ testing during construction must be carried out in order to check the compliance with
the design during construction. It is not intended for altering the design. The in situ tests
are, primarily: a) the compacted field density determination (by sand cone or nuclear density
apparatus) and b) the moisture content determination of the soil to be compacted. Refer
also to relevant articles of the T .
It is advised to carry out Proctor test every time there is a noticeable change in material.
Field CBR test may be carried out, but the design CBR should always be the one
determined in the laboratory as mentioned earlier on.
7. ASSESSMENT OF MEAN ANNUAL AIR TEMPERATURE (MAAT)
Air temperature greatly affects the stiffness modulus of the asphaltic layers. It is therefore
necessary to assess the mean annual air temperature and use the appropriate nomographs
for the determination of the thickness of the asphaltic layers.
The assessment of the mean annual air temperature can be done by examining long term
statistical data collected by the nearest to the project meteorological station.
For the purpose of developing appropriate design charts, the MAAT over 10 years (1981-
1991) of four distinct locations/cities have been considered along Egnatia road. These
locations were:
Ioannina, with MAAT = 14,4 oC

Kozani, with MAAT = 13,0 oC
Thessaloniki, with MAAT = 15,8 oC
Alexandroupolis, with MAAT = 14,9 oC

21
It was assumed that the above locations cover well the temperature variations that may
occur along the Egnatia road. As a result two distinct sets of nomographs have been
prepared, one for 13 oC (the lowest) and one for 16 oC (the highest).
The designer, depending on the location of the project, has to assess the representative
MAAT of the area and use one of the two available sets of nomographs. In the case of an
intermediate temperature, he has to interpolate the pavement thickness by using a third set
of nomographs, showing all design curves together, Appendix A, Figures A-7 to A-9 (only
for 50/70pen bitumen).
8. DETERMINATION OF CAPPING LAYER
Capping layer is required when the CBR of the subgrade is less than 5%. The thickness of
the capping layer is determined by the CBR value of the subgrade. This design methodology
distinguishes two CBR values and hence two required thickness’ of capping layer.
Specifically when:
• CBR is less or equal to 2,5%, the thickness of the capping layer should be 600mm
• CBR is greater than 2,5% and less or equal to 5%, the thickness of the capping layer
should be 300mm
The above required thicknesses of the capping layer are related to the thickness of the sub-
base and base layer. Therefore, refer to Table 4 also.
The design CBR value in the cases that the subgrade CBR is less than 3% will be taken as
equal to 3%. In all other cases, i.e. when the subgrade CBR 3% -5%, the design CBR is
determined by the measured CBR of the subgrade.
In the cases that a capping layer in needed and the natural moisture content of the soil is
relatively high during construction, more specifically when the CBR is <2,5%, a
geosynthetic material, placed on the exposed surface of the subgrade, after removing the
top 600mm or 300m, may be useful.
If the soil is cohesive, a lime treatment may also be another alternative for improving the
bearing capacity of the subgrade. Subject to soil suitability this solution may prove to be
more economic compared to capping layer with graded material.
For materials used in capping layer refer to Part 3.
9. DETERMINATION OF SUB-BASE AND BASE LAYER
The layers of the sub-base and base are seen as one layer of unbound material. For practical
reasons, the thickness of the unbound layer was chosen to have three distinct values:
400mm, 300mm and 200mm. Therefore, the designer has to choose one of the three
proposed thicknesses in order to carry one further the determination of the bituminous
layers.

22
However, the thickness of the unbound layer is related to the type of the subgrade. Hence
the choice of an appropriate thickness should be made according to Table 4.
Table 4 Required and recommended thickness of sub-base/base layer (unbound

layer)
Subgrade CBR Capping layer Unbound layer

(%) thickness thickness
(mm) (mm)
Required thickness
≤ 2,5 600 400
2,6 - 5,0 300 400
5,1 - 10,0 0 400
Recommended thickness
10,1 - 20,0 0 300
> 20,0 0 200
The granular material used for the construction of the unbound layer, should comply with
the PTP -155 and Article 67 of TSY.
Allowances for the thickness of 400mm can be made so as, the first layer, overlying the
subgrade, of 200mm may be constructed from natural granular uncrushed or semi-crushed
material complying with PTP -150 and Article 66 of TSY, and the second 200mm layer of
material complying with the PTP -155 and Article 67. However, even in this case, when
the design life in cumulative traffic loading is greater than 1x107 cumulative ESA, or in
locations where sub-zero temperatures are predominant during winter months, (in this case
regardless of traffic loading), it is recommended to use, exclusively, only material complying
with PTP -155 and Article 67 of TSY.
Cement treated sub-base or/and base

The sub-base and the base layer could be constructed with cement treated material
according to Article 26 and 27 of TSY. In case cement treated materials are used, the
methodology recommends that the thickness of the treated sub-base or/and base should be
the same as the thickness of the unbound layers.
As far as the effect of using cement treated materials, instead of unbound materials, to the
thickness of the bituminous layers is concerned, the following arguments must be stated.
Theoretically, a strength increase of the materials used in the sub-base/base layer will result
in thinner bituminous layers.
However, taking into account the resulted strength of the treated mixtures, as described
above (compressive strength of 7 MPa and 3 MPa, respectively, for 7-day curing), the
stresses generated by construction traffic and temperature in the cemented layer will cause it
to crack. The severity and extent of cracking will be influenced by the amount of
construction traffic, the environmental temperature during construction and the stiffness of
the subgrade. Long construction sections with few exit/entry points to the construction site,

23
carry appreciable amount of construction traffic. Construction during days with relatively
high air temperatures and on sites with relatively weak subgrade, will act adversely to the
development of the cracks. The degree of subsequent deterioration of the cement treated
sub-base/base and hence their contribution to the structural performance, under less severe
stress regime of the completed pavement, is uncertain and extremely difficult to simulate
and analyze.
Internationally, there is no common acceptance that cement treated sub-base/base layer of

this magnitude of strength, can result in a satisfactory structural performance of the
pavement, if the thickness of the bituminous layer is reduced. On the contrary, it is
commonly acceptable and usual practice, in the absence of acceptable quality material for
sub-base/base layer, cement treatment to be used, in order to utilize the marginal or
unacceptable available material. Nevertheless, research is carried out, which, it must be
stated, should be confirmed by trial road sections, on whether the use of cement or
lime/cement stabilized material, with compressive strengths up to 7MPa, can result in a
reduction of overlying bituminous layers.
Taking into account the above, and considering that:
a) there is very little structural experience in this country,

b) the maintenance works in Egnatia road, being a future major highway, should be as less
frequent as possible,
c) there is no shortage of good granular material for sub-base/base construction, in the
vicinity of most sections to be constructed
d) higher cost will be resulted from the use of cement treated materials, certainly when no
reduction of the bituminous layers is not anticipated,
e) investment will be required by the contractors for new machinery and training of the
people to lay these mixtures,
the methodology recommends that cement treated material, as per Articles 26 and 27, may
be used as a substitute to the sub-base and/or base unbound granular material, without any
reduction to the thickness of the bituminous layers. The possible better performance of the
pavement, will be a bonus in terms of extended service life.
10. DETERMINATION OF BITUMINOUS LAYERS THICKNESS
The thickness determination of the bituminous layer can be carried out by nomographs
showing design curves at different CBR values. Figures A-1 to A-15, Appendix A.
Description of the design curves

Two basic sets of nomographs have been developed: one for mean annual air temperature
(MAAT) of 13 oC, Figures A-1 to A-3, and one set for mean annual air temperature
(MAAT) of 16 oC, Figure A-4 to A-6. Each set contains nomographs for three different
base/sub-base thickness of 400mm, 300mm and 200mm.
The determination of the thickness for temperatures other than 13 oC and 16 oC is carried
out by interpolation of the results. To facilitate the interpolation procedure, corresponding

24
design curves obtained for 13 oC and 16 oC were plotted on three additional nomographs.
This nomographs are shown in Figures A-7 to A-9.
All the design curves developed are valid for dense asphaltic concrete mixtures (AC),
complying with PTP A265 and PTP A260, with 50/70pen type of bitumen.
In case, type 40/50pen bitumen is decided to be used for the production of all asphaltic
concrete mixtures, nomographs shown in Figures A-10 to A-15 should be used. It must be
stated that the use of harder bitumen is primarily seen as to reduce the expected permanent
deformation of the asphaltic layers due to the inherent properties of the bitumen. The use of
40/50pen bitumen may arise in areas with very heavy traffic loading. Environmental
temperature may also affect this decision. When high mean annual air temperature is
expected (15 oC & 16 oC) the bituminous layers are expected to exhibit more permanent
deformation compared to environment with MAAT of 13 oC or 14 oC.
In case the designer wishes to design a pavement where the wearing course or the top
50mm of the binder course is to be constructed with 40/50pen bitumen (this may arise only
in the case of using porous friction course), the pavement thickness is determined from the
basic nomographs, i.e. Figures A-1 to A-9.
To facilitate the decision where and when type 40/50pen bitumen may be used, a protocol
shown in Table 5 has been prepared and may be used. This protocol has been drawn on the
basis of the predicted permanent deformations estimated, for the thickness determined from
the design curves developed. The predicted estimated permanent deformation using various
scenarios is shown in Appendix D, Figure D-1 and Figure D-2. The criterion used was that
the bituminous layers should not exhibit excessively more than, approximately, 25mm of
rutting at the end of the design period.
Table 5 Protocol for using the appropriate nomograph
Cumulative Mean annual Type of Which layers will Which

traffic air temperature bitumen be constructed with nomograph will
ESA (MAAT) a certain type of be used
bitumen
≤ 1x107 13oC to 16oC 50/70 pen All Fig. A-1 to A-9
1x107 - 5x107 13oC to 14oC 50/70 pen All Fig. A-1 to A-9
15oC to 16oC 40/50 pen The top layer only Fig. A-1 to A-9
> 5x107 13oC to 14oC 40/50 pen Top layer only Fig. A-1 to A-9
15oC to 16oC 40/50 pen All Fig. A-10 to A-15
The designer may also use modified bitumen, instead of conventional bitumen 40/50pen, for
the construction of the top layer. In this case, i.e. use of modified bitumen only at the top
layer (40mm or 50mm), the determination of the thickness is carried out by the same
nomographs, as given in Table 5.
Finally, if the designer wishes to use bitumen 80/100pen for the production of the mixtures
for the asphaltic base, only, he has to increase the resulted thickness of the asphaltic base

25
layer by 7%. The latter is not recommended by the methodology, certainly in situations
were the MAAT is >15 oC or the cumulative traffic loading is >1x107 ESA irrespective of
MAATs.
How to use the nomographs

Knowing the cumulative number of ESA and the CBR of the subgrade, the total thickness
of all bituminous layers, i.e. wearing course, binder course (base course) and asphaltic base
(road base), can easily be determined, see Figure A-1. The final result should always be
rounded up to the nearest higher 5mm.
In case design CBR value is between those that appear on the relevant nomograph, round
up the value to the nearest lower integer number, i.e. if CBR is 6,7% round it up to 6,0%.
For intermediate CBR values, between those shown in the nomographs use linear
interpolation.
For the determination of the thickness of each individual bituminous layers together with the
suggested type of asphaltic mixture, per case, use Table 6.

26
Table 6 Thickness determination of individual bituminous layers
Total
thickness of Wearing course Binder course Asphaltic base
asphaltic (Base course) (Road base)
layers
Thickness Type of Thickness Type of Thickness
Type of
(mm) (mm)(1,2) mix (mm) mix(3) mix(3)
(mm)
100 - - 60
A260-D
(N 19,0)
125 - - 85 A260-D
40mm (N 19,0)
150 50 265-C/Bind. 60 260-D
or Refer (N12,5) (N 19,0)
200 50 265-C/Bind. 110 260-D
less, (N12,5) (N 19,0)
250 50 265-C/Bind. 160 260D
depending to (N12,5) (N 19,-0)
300 100 265- /Bind. 160 260-C
on the (N19,0) (N 25.0)
350 100 265- /Bind. 210 260-C
type of Table 7 (N19,0) (N 25.0)
400 100 265- /Bind. 260 260-C
mixture (N19,0) (N 25.0)
450 100 265- /Bind. 310 260-C
used(1) (N19,0) (N 25.0)
500 100 265- /Bind. 360 260-C
(N19,0) (N25.0)
550 100 265- /Bind. 410 260-C
(N19,0) (N25.0)
For interim values of total asphaltic layers thickness, the difference is added to the
asphaltic base
(1) The thickness of the wearing course with antiskidding properties may be as low as,
approximately, 10mm. If, in all cases, its thickness is less than 30mm it is simply added on top,
increasing the total thickness of the pavement by the same amount. The underlying layer in this
case should be 40mm of dense asphaltic concrete type A265B (N12.5). Otherwise, if the
thickness of the antiskidding layer is ≥30mm, add the remaining thickness (≤10mm) to the
thickness of the binder course or the asphaltic base. The above are applied in conjunction with
the requirements of Table 7.
(2) The thickness of the ACfc, PA or Ogfc, for a new construction, is recommended to be 40mm in
all cases.
(3) Mixtures characterized with the letter N are proposed new mixtures, subject to approval by
EOAE, for details, refer to Part 3

27
11. ANTISKIDDING LAYERS
11.1 Provision of wearing course with antiskidding properties
The surface of the top layer of a flexible pavement should always have good and lasting
antiskidding properties. The designer has five alternative bituminous mixtures to choose
which can provide a good antiskidding surface. These mixtures are called friction course
mixtures or mixtures for antiskidding layers and are as follows:
• Dense asphaltic concrete for friction course (ACfc),

• Open graded mixture for friction course (OGfc)
• Porous asphalt (PA)
• Stone mastic asphalt (SMA)
• Slurry seal - microsurfacing (SLms)
Some of the above mixtures have different structural capacity and different air permeability
than the dense asphaltic concrete mixture, taken as representative mixture for developing
the design curves. Therefore, when they are chosen (in a new construction), slight
modification on the total thickness of the asphaltic layers and the type of underlying layer is
necessary and it should be made. The required changes in the total thickness of the asphaltic
layers and in some cases the type of underlying layer, are summarized in Table 7.
Table 7 Required changes due to different friction courses used
Friction course Required change in thickness Required change to the underlying

mixture layer
ACfc None None
In all cases, the first 50mm of
(OGfc) Increase total thickness of underlying layer should be of a
or asphaltic layers by 20mm dense AC mixture, type A265-B (or
PA N 12,5) for wearing course
(see also note 1 & 3)
SMA None None
The underlying wearing course is
SLms None constructed with dense AC
mixture, type A265-B (or N12,5)
for wearing course
(see also note 2 & 3)
Notes:
1. When the total thickness of all asphaltic layers is <150mm, see Table 6, introduce a
binder course of 40mm of dense asphaltic concrete type A265/B for wearing course (N
12,5) and make the corresponding adjustment to the thickness of the asphaltic base
layer
2. SLms has a thickness of approximately 10mm which does not contribute at all to the
structural capacity of the pavement, it is simply added on top of the wearing course
3. The A265-B (or N12,5) mix is produced with crushed limestone aggregates
More details on the friction course mixtures can be found in Part 3.

28
However, the designer may consider any other mixture, apart from the above mentioned,
proven to be suitable for antiskidding layer.
11.2 The choice of friction course
The choice of the type of friction course depends on various parameters which may change
from project to project. So, it is left to the designer, after considering carefully all of them,
to decide which friction course he will propose to be used.
The main parameters he has to consider are:
a) skid resistance
b) cost (material and construction cost but taking also into consideration the contribution or
no contribution to the structural capacity of the pavement, since it is a new construction.
This means that the resulted effective cost must be taken into account)
c) market availability
d) economizing on hard aggregate (in relation to availability of hard aggregates and
preservation of natural resources)
e) life expectancy
f) noise reduction
g) easiness to renew or maintain
To facilitate the designer in choosing the most appropriate antiskidding layer, the following
procedure is recommended:
Firstly, each mixture is rated in relation to each one of the parameters previously mentioned
on a scale of 1 to 5. Number 5 characterizes the mixture with the highest skid resistance, the
less costly, the most readily available on the market, the lowest requirement for hard
aggregate, the highest life expectancy, highest noise reduction and the easiest to renew and
maintain. The rating of the antiskidding layers considered, according to the team of experts,
is as shown in Table 8.
Table 8 Rating of the friction courses
Type of Skid Cost Market Econo- Life Noise Easy

resistance availabi- mising on expectany reduction to
friction
lity hard
course renew
aggregate
ACfc 2 5 5 1 4 1 3
OGfc 4 2 3 2 2 5 2
PA 5 2 3 2 3 5 2
SMA 4 3 1 1 5 3 3
SLms 4 4 5 5 1 2 5
Secondly, it is determined which of the above mentioned parameters is most important in a

particular project. The parameters are ranked in a descending order of significance and a

29
weighing factor, from 7 to 1, is assigned to each one of them. For instance, if the order of
significance for a particular project is: skid resistance, cost, economy on hard aggregate
natural resulted, life expectancy, market availability, reduction of noise and easiness to
renew, the weighing factors are from 7, the most important parameter, to 1, the least
important parameter.
The cumulative product of the rates of each parameter, for each antiskidding layer, and the
respective weighing factor is the decision making factor for each antiskidding layer:
DM = ∑ (WFI ) i x ( RF ) i (8)
where DM = decision making factor for choice of friction course

WFI = weighing factor, from 1 to 7
RF = ranking factor, from Table 8
i = parameter concerned
Comparing the numerical result of DM for each alternative friction course considered, the
choise of the optimum friction course is made in a more objective way. The optimum
friction course for the particular project is the one with the highest value of DM. The above
are exemplified in the example that follows.
It must be stated that the number of parameters considered could be increased, as well as
the number of alternative antiskidding layers. Furthermore, the suggested rating of the
parameters for each antiskidding layer could be slightly modified. Preserving the same basic
principles, though, the procedure for the choise of the optimum antiskidding layer remains
the same.
With the above procedure a more objective choice of antiskidding layer for a particular
project is being succeeded. However, for the final choice and decision it is advised to
consider, also, the results of the economic analysis of the pavement (life cycle cost analysis),
which is explained in paragraph 14. It is believed that this is the most professional way in
decision making.
Example
Assuming that the friction courses to be considered are as those outlined in paragraph 11.1,
choose the best solution (friction course) for the project A to B.
Procedure
Assuming that in a given project in rural area the decisive parameters are ranked in order of
importance as follows:
Skid resistance =7
Cost =6
Life expectancy =5
Economy on hard aggregates =4
Market availability =3
Easy to renew =2
Noise reduction =1

30
Using formula (8) and the ranking factors given in Table 8, the decision making factor
(DM) for each friction course is as follows:
for ACfc : DM1 = 7x2 + 6x5 + 5x4 + 4x1 + 3x5 + 2x3 + 1x1 = 90
for OGfc : DM2 = 7x4 + 6x2 + 5x2 + 4x2 + 3x3 + 2x2 + 1x5 = 76
for PA : DM3 = 7x5 + 6x2 + 5x3 + 4x2 + 3x3 + 2x2 + 1x5 = 88
for SMA: DM4 = 7x4 + 6x3 + 5x5 + 4x1 + 3x1 + 2x3 + 1x3 = 87
for SLms : DM5 = 7x4 + 6x4 + 5x1 + 4x5 + 3x5 + 2x5 + 1x2 = 104
From the above results and for this particular project, the slurry seal micro-surfacing is the
best alternative for a wearing course with antiskidding properties. Second best comes the
asphaltic concrete (ACfc) with marginal difference to PA and SMA.
12. EXAMPLE FOR PAVEMENT THICKNESS DETERMINATION
Determine the thickness of a pavement when:

a) Cumulative number of ESA for 30 years design period with annual increase of 3% was
found to be 7x106
b) CBR of the subgrade is 5,3%
c) Mean annual air temperature (MAAT) is 16 oC
Solution
From Table 4, since CBR is >5%, no capping layer is required and the thickness of the
base/sub-base layer should be 400mm.
Since CBR is 5,3%, use CBR=5% for all other calculations
From Table 5, since cumulative number of ESA=7x106 and MAAT=16 oC, the
determination of the thickness of all asphaltic layers will be carried out from one of the
nomographs shown in Figures A-1 to A-9 and the top layer of the wearing course is advised
to be with 50/70pen bitumen. Elimination of relevant figure: since MAAT=16 oC and
base/sub-base thickness = 400mm, use Figure A-4.
From Figure A-4, for ESA=7x106 and CBR=5%,

total thickness of bituminous layers = 283mm, rounded up: 285mm
According to Table 6, for a total thickness of 285mm, the thickness of the individual layers
are:
Wearing course = 40mm

Binder course = 50mm
Asphaltic base = 195mm [=160+(285-250)] (see bottom of Table 6)

31
Here, the designer should decide which type of antiskidding layer is going to propose. For
the choise of the appropriate antiskidding layer the designer follows the guidelines of
paragraph 11.
Say that the decision was made to use porous friction course.
Referring to Table 7, the following adjustments are necessary: a) to increase the total
thickness of the asphaltic layers by 20mm and b) to provide a 50mm dense AC layer (type
A265-B (or N 12,5)) for wearing course with crushed limestone aggregates and preferably
with 50/70pen bitumen), underneath the porous friction course.
Due to the above, the final design is as follows:
Porous friction course = 40 mm

Wearing course = 50 mm
Binder course = 50 mm
Asphaltic base = 165 mm
Total of asph. layers = 305 mm
Base/sub-base = 400 mm
Total pavement thickness = 705 mm
Alternatively, Slurry sealing-microsurfacing could be chosen as antiskidding layer. In this

case, according to Table 7, the underlying layer should be a dense AC mixture type A265-B
for wearing course, with limestone aggregates and preferably with 50/70pen bitumen.
Hence, the final design is as follows:
Slurry seal-microsurfacing = (~10 mm)

Wearing course = 40 mm
Asphaltic layer = 195 mm
Total of asph. layers = 285 mm
Finally, if dense AC friction course or SMA was chosen, the final design would be:
ACfc or SMA = 40 mm
Asphaltic base = 195 mm
Total asph. layers = 285 mm

32
13. PLANNED STAGE CONSTRUCTION
13.1 General
In this stage it is examined whether a planned stage construction is preferable than the one
stage construction. Planned stage construction is the construction of the bituminous layers
in two, most usual, stages according to design and to a predetermined time schedule.
Planned stage construction may be preferable:
a) when there is not enough capital to construct the full design thickness (say for 20 or 30
years), and
b) when there is a difficulty or uncertainty, in estimating the traffic for the design period
considered
In addition to the above, some authorities experience better pavement performance when
pavements are overlaid after they had been subjected to traffic, than new pavements of
equal design.
However, it must be emphasized that, in case of planned stage construction, the required
capital for further works at a later stage must always be readily available. Meanwhile, it is
also important, to monitor the traffic, between the first and second stage of construction,
and to make frequent assessments on the structural condition of the pavement. The latter
gives the opportunity to intervene earlier in case the pavement starts to deteriorate earlier.
In all cases, the planned second stage construction must always take place at a stage when
the pavement is still in sound condition.
Summarizing, the decision for a stage construction, is a decision with commitments and the
actual determination of the second stage of construction by no means is as simple as it
looks.
The design of planned stage construction should not be confused with the design of major
maintenance or reconstruction work of the existing pavement.
13.2 The design method
The design method outlined is similar to the one recommended by the Asphalt Institute of
USA. It involves three steps: i) first stage design, ii) preliminary design of second stage
overlay and iii) final design of second stage overlay.
i) First stage construction

The first stage design is based on the remaining life concept14. In this concept, the first stage
is designed for a design period less than that which causes fatigue failure. This design period
is considered as 60% of the design period that represents a one stage design. To use this
concept, the estimated number of ESA, for the first stage design period, ESA1, must be
adjusted to provide for the necessary life remaining at the end of the first stage design
traffic,
i.e. the adjusted ESA, (AdjESA1) =100/60xESA1 = 1,67xESA1.

33
Having determined the traffic for the first stage construction, design the pavement for this
traffic and construct. Say that the thickness of the pavement for the first stage of
construction is h1 (consider only the thickness of the asphaltic layers).
ii) Preliminary design of second stage overlay

The thickness of the overlay is also selected on the basis of the remaining life concept. The
idea is to estimate, at the time the original design is prepared, the thickness of the overlay
that will ensure the final pavement structure will last for the whole design period (first and
second design periods). This is done by first adjusting the estimated second stage design
ESA2, so as to use the remaining life provided for in the first stage design. In this procedure
the remaining life is 100-60 = 40%.
Thus, the adjusted preliminary second stage traffic (AdjESA2) =100/40xESA2 = 2,5xESA2
With the adjusted preliminary second stage traffic determine the thickness of the pavement,
say h2 (consider only the thickness of the asphaltic layers)
The thickness of the second stage overlay (hov) is determined by:
hov = h2 - h1 (9)
The thickness of the overlay must be constructed as planned and before the pavement shows
any serious signs of distress. It may also be used for further economic analysis in order to
estimate future expenditures. However, because of the random nature of pavement
performance, the pavement may be in a better or worse condition at the end of the first
stage time period. For this reason the final design of second stage is considered.
iii) Final design of second stage overlay

The final design of second stage overlay takes care of the possible diversion in the expected
(assumed) condition of the pavement at the end of the first stage design period. For this
reason, one year before the end of the first stage design period conduct a condition survey
of the pavement (use any method adopted by EOAE).
If the pavement is showing little distress with few or no visible cracks or distortion and in
general there is some remaining life, program another survey in the next year or any other
appropriate time.
When it appears that the pavement is approaching a level of deterioration, but still in
reasonable condition, then, either, apply the overlay as determined in the second preliminary
stage of design or design a new overlay using any approved overlay design procedure.
All the above are exemplified in the following example.
Example
Apply planned stage construction in a region with 13 oC MAAT and a subgrade CBR of
7,2%. The pavement should last for 20 years and the cumulative ESA during the first stage
of construction (5 years) was estimated to be 1,1x106 ESA and 4,7x106 ESA during the
following 15 years period.
Solution

34
i) First stage design
The adjusted first stage traffic (AdjESA1) is: 1,1x106x1,67 = 1,84x106 ESA.
From Figure A-1, the thickness of the bituminous layers is: 170 mm
Hence, construct a pavement having 170 mm bituminous layers and 400 mm base/sub-base.
ii) Preliminary design of second stage overlay

The adjusted preliminary second stage traffic (AdjESA2) is: 2,5x4,7x106 = 1,18x107 ESA
From the same Figure A-1, the thickness of the bituminous layers is: 250 mm
Hence, for the preliminary second stage the thickness of the overlay (hov) is:
hov = 250 - 170 = 80 mm
iii) Final design of second stage overlay

On the 4th year, after construction, conduct a pavement condition survey and decide
whether the overlay will be placed on the 5th year. If not, arrange another condition survey
in the next year or any other appropriate time. Keep monitoring the condition of the
pavement for any signs of unexpected distress, prior to the 2nd survey. Depending on the
way the condition of the pavement is determined (visually or by suitable monitoring
equipment, i.e. falling weight deflectometer, Benkelman beam), construct the overlay either
with a depth of 80 mm or with a depth determined by overlay analytical design.
14. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
A highway construction must be considered as capital investment. It is therefore necessary

to conduct an economic comparison between alternative pavement designs. A pavement
design may be affected by the design life considered, i.e. for how many years the pavement
is assigned to serve the public, or by the materials and techniques used to build the
pavement. The designer should always examine all the design options in order to come up
with the most economic or appropriate solution. The procedures followed are general
accounting practice usually applied to capital investments.
There are two basic methods for an analysis of project costs. The first involves all costs
pertaining to the complete construction (highway or pavement alone) and is normally used
to assess the cost of the construction for short term banking. The second method takes into
account not only the construction cost but also the maintenance and/or the reconstruction,
the user cost resulting from delays during road works, possible accidents’ cost and any
other cost that may arise throughout the analysis period, in which the pavement is going to
function. Only the latter method is useful and is needed to evaluate and compare alternative
pavement designs to determine the most appropriate design for a specific section of a
highway. This type of economic analysis is known as life cycle cost analysis (LCCA).
For a LCCA the basic factors required to be known are:

a) the initial cost of the pavement structure (you may or may not include drainage,
shoulders, safety barriers, lighting etc.)

35
b) the cost of future maintenance, strengthening overlays, reconstruction and other similar
activities
c) the time, in years, from initial construction until each major activity takes place
d) the analysis period
e) the interest, inflation or discount rate, and
f) the salvage value of the last activity or the salvage value of the pavement
The most commonly used method to carry out a LCCA is the Present Worth method.
14.1 Present worth (value) method
In the present worth analysis all expenditures involved are represented in terms of present
day values.
The basic formula for the analysis by present worth method is:
∑
t =n
= + t=0
EEi , t [ KAt + K t + KX t ]− EEi , n YA
where = Total present value

= Initial construction cost
EEi,t = Discount coefficient for discount rate i in year t, = 1/(1+i)t
KAi = Reconstruction cost in the year t, expressed in present values
t = Maintenance cost in the year t, expressed in present values
t = User cost in the year t during which maintenance or reconstruction
works are carried out, expressed in present values
= Salvage value
n = analysis period, in years
Initial cost
The initial cost, in this particular case, may be considered only the cost for constructing the
pavement. However the designer may include any other initial cost he may wish.
Discount coefficient - Discount rate

The discount coefficient (also known as present worth factor) is to adjust the present day
cost of an activity which will be performed at some future date and is related to the discount
rate.
The discount rate reflects the real rate of return on invested money and is interrelated to
inflation rate and interest rate. However, the discount rate used in the LCCA of a pavement
does not express the real rate of return of each alternative antiskidding layer because the
objective in a LCCA is to compare the total discounted cost of an alternative against
another, during the selected analysis period.

36
User cost
The user cost in most cases is very difficult to be determined or even estimated. Because of
this difficulty quite often it is not included in a LCCA. However, this is wrong, and every
effort must be made to estimate this cost and include it in the analysis. One design option,
although more expensive than others, in terms of present worth, it may be less expensive
when the user cost is incorporated. For example, if a road work activity in a busy
motorway, requires more time to be completed than another, although it may be less
expensive as construction cost, it may at the end become more expensive, if the user cost is
incorporated.
Analysis period
The analysis period is the length of time (in years) that is selected for consideration of the
life cycle costs. It is not the design life of the pavement and it should not be confused
(although some times may be so). The selection of the design period should be such that: a)
it is not biased in favor of any particular design or maintenance strategy and b) it should not
extend beyond the period of reliable forecasting. Most agencies frequently opt for 20, 30 or
40 years in their life cycle costing analysis. It is customary to designate the final year of new
construction as ‘year 0’ and the following years of operation as ‘year 1’, ‘year 2’, etc.
Salvage value
Salvage value (or also called residual value) is the remaining value of the pavement at the
end of the analysis period. At the end of the analysis period some of the materials
incorporated into the pavement still have some value, the sum of which gives the salvage
value of the pavement. With conservation of materials and energy in mind, the salvage value
of pavement materials for recycling should be taken into account in a LCCA. The
assessment of the salvage value is not an easy task. However, one way of doing so is to
consider the cost of the materials and deduct the cost of reclaiming those materials (by
taking into account the loss or waste), all expressed in present day values.
In conclusion, LCCA is recommended in every pavement design. The analysis period is

recommended to be either 20, 30 or 40 years and the discount rate to vary between 5% to
12%, with the 7% being the most realistic figure in a stable economy.

37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Shell International Petroleum Co. Ltd. BISAR-PC, Stresses and strains calculations
in pavement models, Release R1.0, 1987
2. Shell International Petroleum Co. Ltd., SPDM-PC, Shell pavement design method
for use on a personal computer, Release 2.0, 1994
3. Asphalt Institute, Thickness design, Asphalt pavements for highways and streets,
Manual Series No.1 (MS-1), Lexington, USA, 1981
4. TRRL LR 1132, The structural design of bituminous roads, Transport Research

Laboratory, Crownthorn, 1984
5. Shell International Petroleum Company, Shell pavement design manual, London,

1978 Addendum 1985
6. AASHTO, Guide for design of pavement structures, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, 1986
7. The Department of Transport, Design manual for roads and bridges, Vol.7,
Pavement design and Maintenance, Section 2, Part 2: HD 25/94, London, 1994
8. Bonnaure F., Gest G., Gravois A. and Uge P., A new method of predicting the
stiffness of asphalt paving mixtures, Proceedings of the Asphalt Paving
Technologists, Vol. 46, p.66, 1977
9. Van der Poel C., A general system describing the visco-elastic properties of
bitumen and its relation to rutting test data, journal of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 4,
p.221, 1954
10. C.P. Valkering and F.D.R. Stapel, The Shell pavement design method on a personal
computer, 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, p. 351,
Nottingham, 1992
11. Traffic study of Egnatia Road, 1997
12. Nikolaides A. and Mintsis G., Conversion of traffic volume of all Greek road
network into standard axle loads, 2nd National Conference of Asphaltic Mixtures and
Pavements, Thessaloniki, 1996
13. The Department of Transport, Design manual for roads and bridges, Vol.7,
Pavement design and Maintenance, Section 2, Part 1: HD 24/94, London, 1994
14. Aphalt Institute, Research and development of the Aspahlt Institute’s thickness
design manual, RR-82-2, 1982


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Part II Pavement Design Guide

PART II : PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD

2. DESIGN CRITERIA AND PRINCIPLES

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3. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS, MATERIALS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED

3.1 Elastic modulus of the subgrade

subgrade = 17,6 x CBR0,64 (1)

The above equation is considered to by applicable to materials expected to have CBR

3.2 Elasticity modulus of the sub-base/base layer

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where k = 0,2x(hsb/b)0,45 (limits of k: 2<k<4) (3)

3.3 Subgrade strain criterion

The allowable maximum subgrade compressive (vertical) strain to be developed is directly

where c = maximum allowable compressive strain to be developed at the surface of

3.4 Stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures

The stiffness modulus of the bituminous mixtures is determined automatically by the

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3.5 Fatigue of bituminous mixtures

. = (0.856V . +1,08)(S . )-0,36 x (N . )-0,2 (5)

where = horizontal tensile strain

3.6 Representative bituminous mixtures

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Table 2 Composition properties of hot mixtures for antiskidding layers

3.7 Types of bitumen

3.8 Other data and variables used

Confidence level : 85%

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1. Determine the input data

In a pavement design the traffic volume should be expressed in terms of Equivalent

(ESA) = (ESAdaily) x PTDL x 365 x CF (6)

where ESAdaily= number of daily ESA, per direction, in the year of

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DETERMINATION DETERMINATION DETERMINATION

Choose the appropriate

Adjust, if necessary, the

Figure 2 Flow diagram of the pavement design guide

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a) the number of commercial vehicles per day, per direction

Buses : all buses and coaches

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ESAdaily = CV1xEWF1 + CV2xEWF2 + CV3xEWF3 + CV4xEWF4 + CV5xEWF5 (7)

Table 3 Equivalent wear factors

Vehicle category Equiv. Wear Factor

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Figure 3 Determination of the percentage of commercial vehicles in the design lane13

c) Determination of mean annual increase of traffic

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5.1 Examples for calculating the cumulative number of ESA

(ESA) = 300 x 0,955 x 365 x 59 = 6,17x106 ESA, or 6,2x106 ESA

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1980 x (2,4/37,5) = 127 buses,

ESAdaily = 127x1,3 + 697x0,34 + 808x1,5 + 316x3,025 + 32x0,026 = 2571 ESA

Therefore, the cumulative number of ESA is:

(ESA) = 2571 x 0,88 x 365 x 26,87 = 2,22x107 ESA, or 2,2x107 ESA

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For a pavement going to be constructed on an earth or rock embankment, taking into

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Water table and preservation of constant moisture content of the subgrade

In situ testing during construction