II PU CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

Solutions:
 No. of Marks: 07
 Q. No. 1 & 2 of part-A
(one mark each)
 Q. No. 28 of part -D
(five mark question, 3+2 or 4+1 )
 One Compulsory Question for 3 or 4 mark:
Numerical problems on colligative properties

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II PU CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

 Homogenous mixtures of two or more

components are called solutions.
 Homogenous mixture means its composition
and properties are uniform (same)
throughout the mixture.
 Binary solution contains two substances and
ternary solution three substances.
 Generally, in binary solution, the component
present in the small amount is known as solute
and component present in large amount is
called solvent.
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Expressing Concentration of Solutions:

i) Mass percentage
ii) Volume percentage
iii) Mass by volume percentage
iv) Parts per million (ppm)
v) Mole fraction
vi) Molarity
vii) Molality

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II PU CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

i) Mass percentage (w/w)

 It is defined as the number of parts by mass of
the component (solute) dissolved in 100 parts by
mass of the (solvent) solution.
 Mass % of a component = Mass of the component × 100
Total mass of the solution
Calculate the mass percentage of ‘A’ and ‘B’. if 8 g of
‘A’ is dissolved in 62 g of ‘B’

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ii) Volume percentage (v/v):

 It is defined as the number of parts by volume
of the component (solute) dissolved in 100 parts
by volume of the solution.
 Volume % = Volume of the component × 100
of a component Total volume of solution
If 30 mL of ethanol is dissolved in 70 mL water.
Calculate volume percentage ethanol.

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iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/v):

 It is defined as the number of parts by mass of
the component (solute) dissolved in 100 parts by
volume of the (solvent) solution.
 Mass by Volume % = Mass of the component × 100
of a component Total volume of solution

 It is commonly used in medicine and pharmacy.

It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of
the solution.

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iv) Parts per million (ppm):

 It is defined as the number of parts of the solute
dissolved in one million (106) parts by mass of
the (solvent) solution.
 ppm = Number of parts of the solute × 106
Total number of parts of the solution

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v) Mole fraction (x) :

 It may be defined as the ratio of the number of
moles of a component to the total number of
moles of all the components present in the
(solvent) solution.
 Mole fraction = No. of moles of individual component
of a component Total no. of moles of all the components

If the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB

respectively, the mole fraction of A will be
 xA = nA
nA + nB 9
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 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in

solution containing 20% by mass in
toluene.
 Mass of benzene = 20%, & Mass of toluene= 80 %
 No. of moles of Benzene = Mass of benzene
Molar mass of benzene
= 20/78 = 0.26 mol
 No. of moles of Toluene = Mass of toluene
Molar mass of toluene
= 80 / 92 = 0.87 mol
Mole fraction of benzene = 0.26 / 1.13 = 0.23
Mole fraction of toluene = 1- 0.23 = 0.77 10
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vi) Molarity (M) :

 It is defined as number of moles of solute
dissolved in one liter of solution.
 Molarity = No. of moles of solute
Volume of solution in liter
 Molarity = Mass of solute / Molar mass of solute

Volume of solution in liter

Molarity = w / M x V …….. mol/L
 Calculate the molarity of solution, if 12g of
Na2CO3 in 900 mL of solution.
Data: w = 12g, M= 106 g, V = 900mL /1000 = 0.9 L
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vii) Molality (m) :

 Molality is defined as the number of moles of the
solute dissolved in one kilogram (kg) of the
solvent.
 Molality (m) = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent in kg
 Molality = Mass of solute / Molar mass of solute

Mass of solvent in Kg
Molality = w / M x M ….. Mol/Kg
Calculate molality of 3.8 g of formic acid in 68 g of
carbon tetrachloride.
Data: w = 3.8 g, Molar Mass of CCl4 = 154g,
Mass of solvent = 68 g = 0.068 Kg 12
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Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid:

 Every solid does not dissolve in a given liquid
 polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and
non-polar solutes in non-polar solvents.
 Dissolution: When a solid solute is added to
the solvent, some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution.
 Crystallization: In saturated solution, some
solute particles in solution collide with the
solid solute particles and get separated out of
solution.
Solute(s) + Solvent(l) Dis
Cry Solution 13
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 Saturated solution : A solution in which no

more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure.
 Unsaturated solution: A solution in which more
solute can be dissolved at the same temperature.
 Effect of temperature:

Solute (s) + Solvent (l) EndoExo Solution ΔH= +ve

As temperature increases always endothermic
reaction takes place, solubility of solid increases in
liquid
Effect of pressure: No effect of pressure on
solubility of solids in liquids. Because solids and 14
liquids are incompressible
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid:

 Many gases dissolve in water.

 Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected

by pressure & temperature.
 Consider a system in which the lower part is
solution and the upper part is gaseous system .
Effect of Pressure:
 Henry’s law states that at a constant
temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid
is directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas. S α p or pαS
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OR Henry’s law states that at

constant temperature, the partial pressure of the
gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the
mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution.
p α x ; p = KH x
Where KH = Henry’s law constant

Effect of Temperature:
Gas + solvent Exothermic Solution ΔH = -ve
As temperature increases always endothermic
reaction take place i.e., dissolution (solubility) of gas
decreases. 16
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Applications of Henry law:

 Henry’s law is used

i) in the preparation of carbonated soft drinks.

ii) by deep sea (scuba) divers for respiration
iii) by mountain climbers for respiration.

Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Liquid in Liquid

Let us consider a binary solution of two volatile
liquids, taken in a closed vessel, both the
components would evaporate and eventually
equilibrium is established between vapour phase
and the liquid phase. 17
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS
 Pressure produced by the vapour which is
equilibrium with its liquid is called vapour
pressure.
 The French chemist, Raoult (1886) gave the
quantitative relationship between vapour pressure
and mole fraction.
 Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile
liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction.
pαx or p = p0 x
where p0 is the vapour pressure of pure
component
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Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions

On basis of Raoult’s law, liquid-liquid solutions
can be classified into ideal and non-ideal
solutions.
Ideal Solutions:
 The solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the
entire range of concentration are known as
ideal solutions.
 Example: n-hexane & n-heptane,

bromoethane & chloroethane,

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II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS
Non-ideal Solution:
 Solution it does not obey Raoult’s law over
the entire range of concentration is called
non-ideal solution.
 Examples: 1) ethanol & acetone.

2) Chloroform & acetone

Differences between Ideal & non-ideal
solutions

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Positive deviation:
 If the vapour pressure of solution is more
than vapour pressure calculated from Raoult’s
law is called positive deviation solution.
 Example: 1) Mixtures of ethanol and acetone
2) carbon disulphide and acetone
Negative deviation:
 If the vapour pressure of solution is less than
vapour pressure calculated from Raoult’s law
is called negative deviation solution.
 Example: 1) Phenol and aniline
2) Chloroform and acetone 21
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS
Differences between positive & negative deviation
solutions

Azeotropes:
Binary liquid mixture having the same composition in
liquid & vapour phase and boils at a constant
temperature is called azeotrope. Example: ethanol 22
& water
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

Minimum boiling azeotrope:

 The solutions which show a large positive
deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Example: Ethanol and water
Maximum boiling azeotrope:
 The solutions that show large negative
deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Ex: 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass,
with a boiling point of 393.5 K.
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II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

Colligative Properties:
 The properties which depend upon the
number of solute particles but not the
nature and composition of solute particles
present in the dilute solution are called
colligative properties.
 Examples:

i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent

ii) Depression of freezing point of the solvent
iii) Elevation of boiling point of the solvent
iv) Osmotic pressure of the solution.
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Determination of Molar Mass:

1) Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure:
Lowering of vapour pressure: (p10 - p1)
Where p10 = V P of pure solvent and
p1= V P of solution containing non-volatile solute
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: = (p10 - p1) / p10
M2 = w2 x M1 p10
w1 (p10 – p1)
 Here w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are
the molar masses of the solvent and solute
respectively. From the above equation, the molar
mass of solute (M2) can be calculated. 25
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

1) When 30 g of non-volatile solute added in 90 g of

water vapour pressure changes from 2.8 kPa to
1.04kpa at 298 K. Molecular mass of water 18 g.
Calculate molar mass of the solute.

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2) Vapour pressure of benzene is 200mm of Hg.

When 2 g of non-volatile solute is dissolved in 78g
of benzene. Benzene has vapour pressure of
195mm Hg. Calculate the molar mass of solute.
(Molar mass of benzene is 78 g mol-1)

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2) Elevation of Boiling Point:

 The temperature at which vapour pressure of
solution is equal to the atmospheric pressure (1
bar) is called boiling point. (B Pt α 1/ V P)
 The boiling point of solution is higher than that of
boiling point of the pure solvent.
i.e., Tb > Tb0 or (Tb− Tb0).
 The difference in the boiling points of the
pure solvent and the solution containing
non-volatile solute is called elevation of
boiling point (ΔTb).
ΔTb = (Tb− Tb0) 28
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

M2 = w2 x 1000 x Kb Where Kb is boiling point

w1 ΔTb (or molal) elevation constant
1) The molecular mass of an organic compound is 45 g
mol-1. Calculate the boiling point of a solution containing
21 g of the solute and 559 g of water. The boiling point of
water at 100 0C, Kb for water is 0.52 K Kg mol-1.

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2) The boiling point of pure solvent is 353.23 K.

When 1.2 g of a non-volatile solute was dissolved
in 60 g of pure solvent, the boiling point is raised
to 354.11 K. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
Kb for solvent is 3.13 K kg mol–1.

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3) Depression of Freezing Point:

 The freezing point of a substance may be defined
as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of
liquid is equal to vapour pressure of its solid.
 (F. Pt. α V P)
 The freezing point of the solution (Tf) is less than
that of the solvent (Tf 0).
 The difference in the freezing point of the pure
solvent and solution containing non-volatile solute
is called depression of freezing point.
ΔTf = (Tf0−Tf)
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M2 = w2 x 1000 x Kf Where Kf is freezing point constant

w1 ΔTf
1) Addition of 0.645 g of a compound to 49 mL of a liquid
(d= 0.985 g/mL) lower the freezing point from 5.510C to
5.040C. Calculate the molar mass of the compound (Kf for
benzene 5.12 K Kg mol-1).

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2) 1g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of

benzene lowered the freezing point of benzene by
0.40 K. The freezing point depression constant of
benzene is 5.12 K kg mol–1. Find the molar mass of
the solute.

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4) Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure:
 Osmosis is defined as a process of flow of solvent
from pure solvent to solution (or lower to higher
concentration) through a semipermeable
membrane.
 Osmotic pressure is defined as “the excess pressure
to be applied on the solution side just to prevent the
flow of solvent into it (solution) through a semi
permeable membrane”
 For dilute solutions, it has been found
experimentally that osmotic pressure (π) is
proportional to the molarity, C of the solution at a
given temperature T
π α CT 34
II P U CHEMISTRY-SOLUTIONS

M2 = w2RT / πV
M2 = Mol. mass of solute in g, w2 = mass of solute in g,
R= gas constant = 0.083 L bar mol-1 K-1,
T= temperature in K,
π = osmotic pressure in bar, V = volume of a solution in L
1) Calculate the osmotic pressure in Pascal’s but a
solution prepared by dissolving 1.0gm of
substance of molar mass 1,85,000 in 450ml of water
at 37oC (R=0.082 L atm)

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2) 100 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein

contains 2.6 g of the protein. The osmotic pressure
of such a solution at 350 K is found to be 3.5×10-3
bar. Calculate the molar mass of the protein
(R=0.083 L bar mol-1).

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 Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at

a given temperature are called isotonic
solutions or iso-osmotic solutions.
 The solution having a higher solute
concentration is known as hypertonic.
Ex: A raw mango placed in concentrated salt
solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into
pickle
 The solution having a lower solute
concentration is known as hypotonic.
Ex: A carrot that has become limp because of
water loss into the atmosphere can be placed
into the water making it firm once again. 37
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Reverse Osmosis:
 The phenomenon of flow of solvent from solution to
pure solvent through the semi permeable
membrane is called reverse osmosis.
 Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea
water.
 Molar mass is either lower or higher than the
normal value is called as abnormal molar
mass.
 Because of association no. of particles decreases
and hence colligative properties increases.
 Because of dissociation no. of particles increases
and hence colligative properties decreases.
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 Van’t Hoff factor(i) : Van’t Hoff introduced a
factor ‘i’ to account for the extent of dissociation or
association known as the van’t Hoff factor. This
factor ‘i’ is defined as:

 In case of association, value of ‘i’ is less than

unity
 In case of dissociation, value of ‘i’ is more than
unity
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