Flow and Storage in Groundwater Systems

William M. Alley, et al.

Science 296, 1985 (2002);
DOI: 10.1126/science.1067123

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 SCIENCE’S COMPASS ● REVIEW
REVIEW: HYDROLOGY

Flow and Storage in Groundwater Systems

William M. Alley,1* Richard W. Healy,2 James W. LaBaugh,1 Thomas E. Reilly1

hydraulic head (water levels) in a groundwa-

The dynamic nature of groundwater is not readily apparent, except where discharge ter system to approach equilibrium after some
is focused at springs or where recharge enters sinkholes. Yet groundwater flow and hydraulic perturbation, such as well pumping
storage are continually changing in response to human and climatic stresses. Wise or a change in recharge rate. This can be
development of groundwater resources requires a more complete understanding of estimated for confined groundwater systems
these changes in flow and storage and of their effects on the terrestrial environment (8) as
and on numerous surface-water features and their biota.
T* ⫽ S sL c2/K (1)
where T* is the hydraulic response time (T)

G
roundwater is a crucial source of fresh with surface water and the land surface are for the basin, Ss is specific storage (L⫺1), Lc is
water throughout the world. More numerous and extend over many different some characteristic length (L) of the basin,

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on February 23, 2010

than 1.5 billion people worldwide (1) time scales. and K is hydraulic conductivity (L/T). The
and more than 50% of the population of the hydraulic conductivity, a measure of perme-
United States (2) rely on groundwater for Dynamics of Groundwater Flow ability, can range over 12 orders of magni-
their primary source of drinking water. Systems tude (8), and the distance between boundaries
Groundwater is an essential part of the hy- A groundwater system comprises the subsurface of groundwater systems can range from
drologic cycle (Fig. 1) and is important in water, the geologic media containing the water, meters to hundreds of kilometers. Using Eq.
sustaining streams, lakes, wetlands, and flow boundaries, and sources (such as recharge) 1, hydraulic response times calculated for
aquatic communities. and sinks (such as springs, interaquifer flow, or two idealized systems (9) are 0.1 day (144
During the past 50 years, groundwater wells). Water flows through and is stored within min) for horizontal flow in a confined stream-
depletion has spread from isolated pockets to the system. Under natural conditions, the travel aquifer system and 4.0 ⫻ 107 days (110,000
large areas in many countries throughout the time of water from areas of recharge to areas of years) for vertical flow in a thick regional
world. Prominent examples include the High discharge can range from less than a day to more low-permeability unit.
Plains of the central United States, where
more than half the groundwater in storage has
been depleted in some areas, and the North
China Plain, where depletion of shallow aqui-
fers is forcing development of deep, slowly
replenished aquifers with wells now reaching
more than 1000 m (3). Groundwater deple-
tion may be the single largest threat to irri-
gated agriculture, exceeding even the buildup
of salts in soil (3). In arid regions, much of
the groundwater removed from storage today
was recharged during wetter conditions in the
last ice age, causing further concerns about
present withdrawal rates. Global groundwater
depletion has been appreciable enough to
contribute to sea-level rise during the past
century as a result of water pumped from
wells that returns to the sea either by runoff
or by evapotranspiration followed by precip-
itation (4).
Many unfamiliar with its dynamic nature
view groundwater as a static reservoir. Even
specialists may overlook its linkages across
the biosphere and consider it an isolated part
of the environment (5). Yet, as discussed
below in general terms and through exam- Fig. 1. Global pools and fluxes of water on Earth, showing the magnitude of groundwater storage
ples, the dynamic aspects of groundwater relative to other major water storages and fluxes. [Reproduced from (82) with permission from the
publisher, Elsevier Science (USA)]
flow systems, their recharge, and interactions

than a million years (6). Water stored within the The time of travel through the system
1
U.S. Geological Survey, 411 National Center, Reston,
VA 20192, USA. 2U.S. Geological Survey, Post Office
system can range in age (7) from recent precip- depends on the spatial and temporal gradi-
Box 25046, Mail Stop 413, Denver Federal Center, itation to water trapped in the sediments as they ents of hydraulic head, hydraulic conduc-
Lakewood, CO 80225, USA. were deposited in geologic time. tivity, and porosity of the system. The time
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E- The variability of aquifer response times of travel through a system is different from
mail: walley@usgs.gov is illustrated by the time required for the the hydraulic response time to approach

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 296 14 JUNE 2002 1985

 SCIENCE’S COMPASS
more sluggish groundwater systems,
such as the Bangkok Basin in Thailand
(13), long-term climate and geologic
change need to be considered in under-
standing the movement of groundwater
over tens of thousands of years. The long-
term movement of groundwater also influ-
ences virtually all geologic processes (14,
15), including diagenesis, ore mineraliza-
tion, and petroleum accumulation.
The time of travel of water is impor-
tant in determining the movement of
contaminants within a groundwater sys-
tem. The large extent of groundwater
contamination worldwide from surface
sources reflects the fact that shallow
groundwater ages are typically a few dec-
ades or less. Hydraulic gradients caused

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on February 23, 2010

by large-capacity wells can further re-
duce the travel times of contaminants to
wells (16).
Water withdrawn from a groundwa-
ter system initially comes from storage.
Over time, the effects of the withdraw-
al are propagated through the system as
heads decrease at greater distances
from the point of withdrawal. Ulti-
mately, the effect of the withdrawal
reaches a boundary (such as a stream)
where either increased recharge to the
groundwater system or decreased dis-
charge from the system occurs. The com-
mon assumption that the rate of groundwa-
ter withdrawal is “safe” or “sustainable” if
it does not exceed the natural rate of
recharge is not correct, because it ignores
these changes in discharge from and re-
charge to the groundwater system (17, 18).
The sources of water supplying pumpage
from 10 major regional aquifer systems in
the United States are shown in Fig. 2.
These illustrate the variability of aquifer
response to long-term pumping and the
Fig. 2. Sources of water that supply withdrawals from major aquifer systems in the United States are
highly variable, as shown by these results from model simulations for various periods (83). The Floridan
extent to which changes in recharge and
and Edwards-Trinity aquifer systems, which equilibrate rapidly after pumping, were simulated as discharge can exceed changes in storage.
steady-state with no long-term change in storage. In contrast, the Southern High Plains (with most Computer models of flow and solute
natural discharge occurring far from pumping wells) and the deeply buried Great Plains aquifer system transport have been integral tools for
have had substantial changes in groundwater storage. The distinction between changes in recharge and evaluation of groundwater resources
changes in discharge is a function of how the system was defined (i.e., a gain to one system may result for many years; they have been applied
in a loss from an adjoining system). For example, groundwater withdrawals from confined aquifers
(Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain, Gulf Coastal Plain) can cause flow to be diverted (recharged) into the
to a wide range of problems, from local
deeper regional flow regime that would otherwise discharge to streams in the outcrop areas or cause contamination to the origin of large
vertical leakage across confining units. Groundwater recharge in a region can be increased as a result of mineral bodies from continental-scale
human modifications, such as return flow of excess irrigation water (California Central Valley). Note that fluid migrations (19). The predictive
the areal extent of the Southeastern Coastal Plain aquifer system overlaps the areal extents of the capability of models permits hypothe-
Floridan and Gulf Coastal Plain aquifer systems. sis testing, which enhances our under-
standing of current conditions, as well
equilibrium. For example, it was calculated porous media systems such as sands and grav- as forecasting of aquifer response to future
above that the hydraulic head in the confined els, and flow velocities through fractured-rock climatic or anthropogenic stresses. Recent
stream-aquifer system responded to a perturba- systems can be relatively fast (11). For exam- linkages of groundwater flow models with
tion in less than a day; however, the time re- ple, travel times of water over distances of land surface–atmosphere models (20) and
quired for water to move through the entire several kilometers have been estimated at less of transport models with geochemical reac-
width of the system is on the order of 30,000 than a year for municipal wells completed in tion models (21) have extended the types of
days (82 years) under natural conditions (10). fractured dolomite in Wisconsin (12). Seasonal problems that can be addressed. Automatic
Fractured-rock systems in bedrock usually have variations in recharge and pumping affect the calibration schemes and uncertainty analy-
smaller effective porosities than unconsolidated variability in travel times in such cases. In sis (22) have enhanced model application,

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 SCIENCE’S COMPASS
and new computer visualization tools have Over the past decade, advances in age quantify. The present discussion is limited to
advanced our understanding of the effects dating and tracking young groundwater recharge to the water table (as opposed to
of variability in aquifer properties on (⬍50 years old) using multiple tracers have interaquifer recharge). Recharge can occur in
groundwater flow patterns. been major breakthroughs in understanding response to individual precipitation events in
Accuracy of model predictions is con- the dynamics of groundwater systems. For regions having shallow water tables. In con-
strained by the correctness of the model (i.e., example, multiple tracers have been used to trast, unsaturated zone water in some desert
proper representation of relevant processes) define the amount and locations of river regions is estimated to have infiltrated the
and uncertainty in model parameters. The water recharging the Upper Floridan aqui- soil surface as long as 120,000 years ago
latter uncertainty is due to the limited accu- fer and causing deterioration of well-water (29). Perhaps nowhere is the importance and
racy with which parameter values can be quality near Valdosta, Georgia (25), to con- difficulty of estimating recharge more appar-
measured and, more important, to the sub- strain groundwater flow models in the At- ent than in the assessment of the suitability of
stantial heterogeneity inherent in aquifer lantic Coastal Plain (26 ), and to help ex- Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as a repository for
characteristics. The inability to describe and plain unusual nutrient regimes from high-level radioactive waste. More than 15
represent this heterogeneity adequately is a groundwater inputs to Florida Bay (27 ). years and tens of millions of dollars have
fundamental problem in been spent to estimate re-
groundwater hydrology and charge rates and locations
will continue, even with im- through the thick, fractured
proved models, to place lim- volcanic tuffs at this site un-

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on February 23, 2010

its on the reliability of model der past, current, and future
predictions. The links be- climates (30).
tween spatial heterogeneity Recharge can be diffuse
and model uncertainty also or localized. Diffuse recharge
depend on the type of ques- refers to the widespread
tions being asked. For exam- movement of water from land
ple, reasonable estimation of surface to the water table as a
head distributions in an aqui- result of precipitation over
fer may require only limited large areas infiltrating and
understanding of spatial het- percolating through the
erogeneity. On the other unsaturated zone. Localized
hand, confidence in predic- recharge refers to the move-
tions of chemical concentra- ment of water from surface-
tions at a specific location water bodies to the ground-
can be very sensitive to minor water system and is less
uncertainty in the spatial dis- uniform in space than diffuse
tribution of hydraulic proper- recharge. Most groundwater
ties, even for relatively ho- systems receive both diffuse
mogeneous porous media. and localized recharge. In
Tracer techniques have general, the importance of
been widely applied for es- diffuse recharge decreases as
timating the residence time the aridity of a region in-
of subsurface waters, as creases (31). For example, in
well as the amounts and tim- semiarid parts of Niger,
ing of recharge and dis- localized recharge from natu-
charge (23). Most tracer Fig. 3. Annually averaged atmospheric concentrations during the past 60 years of rally occurring runoff-collec-
some environmental tracers used to determine groundwater ages. Environmental
techniques require knowl- tracers due to industrial production and release are CFCs (CFC-11, CFC-12, and tion ponds accounts for virtu-
edge (or assumption) of the CFC-113), SF , and 85Kr. Environmental tracers produced by nuclear tests in ally all recharge (32).
6
time history of tracer appli- addition to natural production are 3H, 36Cl, and 14C. Units: TU, tritium units in Typically, most water
cation at the land surface or precipitation at Washington, DC; mBq m⫺3, millibecquerels per cubic meter; pptv, from precipitation that infil-
the water table (Fig. 3). This parts per trillion by volume; pmc, percent modern carbon [(23); CFC-11 and trates does not become re-
temporal pattern is then cor- CFC-113 data from L. N. Plummer and E. Busenberg, U.S. Geological Survey]. charge. Instead, it is stored in
related to a concentration- the soil zone and is eventual-
depth pattern in the subsurface at a point in Determining the time that water has been ly returned to the atmosphere by evaporation
time. Other approaches [e.g., the 3H/3He flowing within the groundwater system is and plant transpiration. The percentage of
technique (24 )] use information on decay particularly useful in understanding the op- precipitation that becomes diffuse recharge is
products to determine age. Tracers can be eration of highly heterogeneous aquifer highly variable, being influenced by factors
naturally occurring (the stable isotopes 2H systems. However, special care should be such as weather patterns, properties of sur-
and 18O, Cl, heat), can occur in the atmo- taken in interpretations of tracer concentra- face soils, vegetation, local topography,
sphere as a result of anthropogenic activi- tions in these settings, because the concen- depth to the water table, and the time and
ties [tritium, 36Cl, chlorofluorocarbons trations may be affected greatly by hydro- space scales over which calculations are
(CFCs)], or can be applied intentionally on dynamic dispersion and diffusion into the made. For example, over a 6-year period,
the land surface (N and P fertilizers, organ- rock matrix (28). recharge in the Great Bend area of central
ic pesticides). Isotopes of elements dis- Kansas was estimated to be 10% of the an-
solved from host rocks (222Rn, 87Sr/86Sr) Recharge nual precipitation of 585 mm; however, in
can also be used to estimate residence times Recharge is an important factor in evaluating some years, no recharge occurred (33).
and interactions with surface water. groundwater resources but is difficult to Magnitudes of recharge fluxes are gen-

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 296 14 JUNE 2002 1987

 SCIENCE’S COMPASS
Interactions with Surface Water
The interactions of surface-water bod-
ies with groundwater are governed by
the positions of the water bodies rela-
tive to the groundwater flow system,
the characteristics of their beds and
underlying materials, and their climatic
setting (45). Whereas the geologic
framework affects the flow paths
through which groundwater flows, the
type of sediments at the interface be-
tween groundwater and surface water
can dictate the spatial variability of dis-
charge to surface water and, in turn,
affects the distribution of biota at the
interface. For example, silty stream
beds with minimal groundwater ex-
change may support a less diverse suite

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on February 23, 2010

of biota than do sandy or gravelly
stream beds with large groundwater ex-
change (46). Discharge from springs
can provide habitat for unique species
that are dependent on adequate ground-
water flow (47 ). In some cases, biota
related to groundwater discharge have
been used to identify locations where
focused discharge occurs into surface
Fig. 4. Local geomorphic features such as stream bed topography, stream bed roughness, meandering, and
heterogeneities in sediment hydraulic conductivities can give rise to localized flow systems within stream waters (48).
beds and banks. The near-stream subsurface environment with active exchange between surface water Exchange of water across the inter-
and groundwater commonly is referred to as the hyporheic zone, although the transition between face between surface water and
groundwater and surface water represents a hydrologic continuum, preventing a precise separation. groundwater can result from down-
stream movement of water in and out
erally quite low and are difficult to measure to an order of magnitude increase in re- of stream beds and banks (Fig. 4), tides, wave
directly. Measurement of fluxes can be charge rates in areas such as the Niger action, filling or draining of reservoirs, or
complicated by preferential flow (i.e., Basin in Africa (32). Irrigation has resulted transpiration of water by vegetation at the
macropore or unstable flow) in the unsat- in increased recharge rates (Fig. 2) as well edges of wetlands and other surface waters
urated zone, although preferential flow as salinization of soils and aquifers, such as (45). Water exchange across the surface wa-
paths are of greatest concern as potential in the Nile River delta (40). Urbanization ter–groundwater interface has been explored
conduits for rapid contamination of aqui- has modified natural recharge processes ap- in some detail in the past decade, with most
fers. The above factors, in addition to tem- preciably but does not usually lead to de- studies focused on streams (49), and is in-
poral and spatial variability, greatly com- creased recharge (41), as is often assumed. creasingly studied with respect to effects on
plicate estimation of basin-wide recharge Enhanced runoff from built-up and paved the chemical composition of surface and sub-
rates. Estimation methods include use of areas may be channeled to a retention basin surface water and the distribution of biota
water budgets, tracers, geophysics, and or infiltration gallery, resulting in reloca- (46, 50). Once thought to be of little conse-
simulation models (34 ). Recent develop- tion of recharge areas and the transition quence and thus ignored, the interactions of
ments include improved age-dating tech- from slow, diffuse recharge to rapid, local- groundwater with lakes, wetlands, estuaries,
niques (23); geophysical monitoring, such ized recharge. Canals, leaky water mains, and oceans now are recognized as important
as time-domain reflectometry and ground- and sewers are other artifacts of develop- processes. For example, discharge of saline
penetrating radar (35); land- and possibly ment that influence recharge processes. For springs contributes to the salinity of Lake
satellite-based gravity measurements to es- example, it is estimated that 26% of the Kinneret, Israel (51); peat wetlands can alter-
timate changes in subsurface water mass water transmitted through water mains in nate between recharge and discharge status
over length scales of tens to thousands of Göteborg, Sweden, is lost to leakage (42). because of flow reversals (52); coastal
km (36, 37 ); the linking of watershed and The effects of climate change on re- groundwater discharge is equivalent to as
groundwater flow models (38); and use of charge also are difficult to assess. Areas of much as 40% of riverine input in summer
piezometers completed in thick clay layers high or low recharge in past climates can along the coast of South Carolina, USA (53);
to measure changing geostatic loads perhaps be mapped (43), and groundwaters and groundwater input from the Ganges-
associated with mass changes in subsurface that infiltrated many thousands of years ago Brahmaputra delta is an important factor af-
water (39). Because of inherent uncertain- have been identified, but quantification of fecting the marine strontium isotope record
ties in any method, it is recommended that recharge rates during past climatic periods (54).
multiple techniques be applied for any has been attempted only in isolated arid Thermal effects also play a role in the
study. regions such as the western United States, distribution of biota and biogeochemical pro-
Identifying human practices that influ- where, as estimated from tracer data from cesses. For example, thermal effects of
ence recharge is straightforward; quantify- the unsaturated zone, recharge rates 15,000 groundwater discharge in inland waters have
ing effects of these practices is more diffi- years ago were about 20 times the current been directly related to fish habitat, both in
cult. Clearing of native vegetation has led rates (44 ). terms of spawning areas and refuge for adults

1988 14 JUNE 2002 VOL 296 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

 SCIENCE’S COMPASS
when ice forms in colder environments (55). the more compressible fine-grained silt and timing, magnitudes, and patterns of seasonal
Thermal differences between groundwater clay layers (aquitards) interbedded within or deformations that may occur in response to
and surface water also are used to provide adjacent to the aquifers. The resulting subsi- seasonal changes in pumping and large-scale
information on location and amount of re- dence can severely damage structures and artificial recharge (68); have been used to
charge (56 ) and discharge (57), and these creates problems in design and operation of estimate the elastic storage coefficient of an
data enable indirect determination of geother- facilities for drainage, flood protection, and aquifer system at locations where contempo-
mal properties of groundwater flow systems, water conveyance. Examples of areas with raneous groundwater level observations were
particularly from data gathered at springs large subsidence include the California Cen- available (69); have been used as an obser-
(58). tral Valley, Houston, and Mexico City (64 ). vational constraint for inverse modeling of
When salt water and fresh water are The low permeability of thick aquitards regional groundwater flow and aquifer-
present, a dynamic interface is present both in (65) can cause vertical drainage to adjacent system compaction (70); and have provided
the ground and at the discharge boundary of pumped aquifers to proceed slowly and to lag new insights into how subsidence is con-
fresh groundwater into salty surface water. In far behind changing water levels in these trolled by geologic structures and sediment
relatively homogeneous porous media, the aquifers (Fig. 5). The drainage and compac- composition (71).
denser salt water tends to remain separated tion in response to a given stress in thick
from the overlying fresh water by a transition aquitards may require decades or centuries to Future Challenges
zone, known as the zone of diffusion or approach completion. Numerical modeling Future success in understanding the dynamic
dispersion. In coastal plain areas where the has successfully simulated complex transient nature of groundwater systems will rely on

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on February 23, 2010

porous media is heterogeneous in nature, a histories of compaction observed in response continued and expanded data collection at
system of layered mixing zones can form. to measured water-level fluctuations at the various scales, improved methods for quanti-
Advances in geophysical techniques, such as site scale (66), but considerable challenges fying heterogeneity in subsurface hydraulic
direct-current resistivity and transient electro- remain at the regional scale to simulate com- properties, enhanced modeling tools and un-
magnetic induction (59), have enabled better paction histories of groundwater systems derstanding of model uncertainty, and greater
definition of the three-dimensional distribu- with thick aquitards. understanding of the role of climate and in-
tion of salty water in the subsurface. Technologies to measure the sometimes teractions with surface water.
Large groundwater withdrawals can cause subtle and slow changes in land-surface ele- Water-level measurements from wells re-
salt water to move into areas of use in coastal vations caused by groundwater withdrawals main the principal source of information on
(60) and some inland (61) areas and decrease have evolved considerably from borehole ex- the effects of hydrologic stresses on ground-
the volume of fresh water water systems. Advances
available. The important Compaction progresses Further water-level declines in instrumentation now
role of fresh groundwater steadily despite do not cause enable the collection of
water-level recoveries accelerated compaction
discharge to coastal eco- real-time water-level data,
130
systems is also increasing- allowing us to observe di-
ly being recognized (62). Seasonal high water levels urnal and seasonal trends
The time required for the 135 0 from well networks across
DEPTH TO WATER, IN FEET
BELOW LAND SURFACE

salt water–fresh water in- large areas. To understand

terface and freshwater dis- the true nature of change
COMPACTION, IN FEET
charge to respond to hu- 140 0.10 in a groundwater system
man and natural changes and to differentiate be-
can range from almost in- tween natural and human-
145 0.20
stantaneously to thou- induced changes, we re-
sands of years. In some quire records of water-
Aquifer-system compaction
coastal areas, such as New 150 0.30 level measurements over
Jersey, USA, and Suri- substantial periods (72).
Seasonal low water levels
name, South America Despite their importance,
(63), relatively fresh 155 0.40 groundwater-level data
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
groundwaters located far Year
have received little atten-
off the coast are hypothe- tion in concerns expressed
sized to be remaining Fig. 5. The hydrodynamic lag of fluid-pressure changes between aquifers and thick, about the continuity of
slowly draining aquitards in Antelope Valley, California, causes continued compaction
from the last ice age, that is relatively independent of the effects from seasonal and annual fluctuations in global water data, primar-
when sea levels were water levels (66). ily because such concerns
much lower. have focused on more vis-
tensometry and terrestrial geodetic [spirit lev- ible surface-water monitoring networks (73).
Interactions with the Land Surface eling and Global Positioning System (GPS)] Because aquifers smooth out short-term
When groundwater is removed from storage surveys to remote-sensing using space-based fluctuations of climate signals, analyses of
in groundwater systems, hydraulic heads are radar imaging (64 ). Interferometric synthetic groundwater systems typically have under-
lowered, and a portion of the mechanical aperture radar (InSAR) uses repeat radar sig- played the role of climate. Effects of decadal-
support for the overlying sediments and sub- nals from satellites to measure deformation of scale fluctuations in wet and dry cycles, such
surface water previously provided by pore- Earth’s crust at an unprecedented level of as those hypothesized from the Pacific Dec-
fluid pressure is transferred to the granular spatial detail (changes in elevation on the adal Oscillation (74), may have large effects
skeleton of the aquifer system. If enough order of 10 mm or less) and a high degree of on groundwater systems, but these are rela-
water is withdrawn, the pore-fluid pressure measurement resolution (tens of meters). In- tively unexplored, as are the effects of possi-
can be reduced enough so that the granular SAR results have provided detailed regional ble future climate change on the shallow
skeleton of the aquifer is irreversibly com- maps of land subsidence at seasonal and aquifers that supply much of the water in
pressed, causing permanent compaction of longer time scales (67 ); have revealed the streams, lakes, and wetlands. A greater un-

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 SCIENCE’S COMPASS
derstanding of feedbacks between water lev- 8. P. A. Domenico, F. W. Schwartz, Physical and Chem- 44. F. M. Phillips, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 15 (1994).
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interannual scales is also needed (20). Be- density groundwater basin and is derived from the 46. P. Marmonier et al., in Subterranean Ecosystems, H.
cause conditions at the time of recharge in- diffusion equation [(8), p. 72]. The system represen- Wilkens, D. C. Culver, W. F. Humphreys, Eds., vol. 30
fluence the geochemical composition of wa- tative of horizontal flow in a confined stream-aquifer of Ecosystems of the World (Elsevier, Amsterdam,
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ter percolating into the subsurface, aquifers alluvium in Iowa (80), has a characteristic length of 47. J. M. Sharp Jr., J. L. Banner, in The Earth Around Us:
may prove to be invaluable archives of past 1000 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 10 m/day. Maintaining a Livable Planet, J. L. Schneiderman, Ed.
climate and environmental change (75). The system representative of vertical flow in a thick (Freeman, New York, 2000), pp. 154 –165.
regional low-permeability unit, the Pierre Shale in 48. D. O. Rosenberry, R. G. Striegl, D. L. Hudson, Ground
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creasingly as the limiting factor to the long- 200 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 10⫺9 m/day. A 49. J. A. Jones, P. J. Mulholland, Eds., Streams and Ground-
term use of groundwater resources, yet the specific storage of 10⫺6 m⫺1 was assumed to be water (Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 2000).
representative of both systems. 50. A. J. Boulton, Ecosyst. Health 6, 108 (2000).
distinctly different temporal and spatial 10. The time of travel for the confined, stream-aquifer 51. R. J. G. Mortimer, M. D. Krom, D. R. Boyle, A. Nishri,
scales at which groundwater and surface- system (80) is obtained by dividing the characteristic Limnol. Oceanogr. 44, 1802 (1999).
water systems operate present major chal- length of 1000 m by the velocity of the fluid move- 52. C. J. D. Fraser, N. T. Roulet, M. Laffleur, J. Hydrol. 246,
ment. The velocity (v) of the fluid movement is 142 (2001).
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