Building Codes and Construction in The United States 1949

May, 1949.] NATIONALBUREAU OF STANDARDS NOTES.
509
The experimental procedures by which the scale is to be realized are

substantially unchanged; but certain refinements, based upon experi-
ence, have been incorporated to make the scale more uniform and
reproducible.
Two revisions in the 1927 definitions of the scale result in appreciable
changes in the numerical values assigned to measured temperatures.
One of these is the change in the v a l u e for the silver point from 960.5°
to 960.8° C., which affects temperatures measured with the standard
thermocouple. Thus, in the range between 630° and 1063° C., numeri-
cal values of temperature are higher than on the 1927 scale, the maxi-
m u m difference being a b o u t 0.4 degree near 800° C. The adoption
of a new v a l u e (1.438 cm.-deg.) for the constant c2 in the radiation for-
mulas changes all temperatures above the gold point. In the new
scale, P l a n c k ' s radiation formula is specified instead of W i e n ' s for
calculating temperatures above the gold point as observed with an
optical pyrometer. Since P l a n c k ' s law is consistent with the thermo-
dynamic scale even at high temperatures, this change removes the
u p p e r l i m i t to the scale formerly imposed by the use of Wien's law.
T h e r e are several o t h e r i m p o r t a n t modifications in the scale w h i c h
cause little or no change in numerical values for temperatures, but serve
to make the temperatures more definite and reproducible. For example,
the standard platinum resistance thermometer is to be used as a refer-
ence instrument from the oxygen point to the freezing point of a n t i m o n y
(about 630° C.), r a t h e r than over the range from -190 ° to +660° C.
Platinum of higher p u r i t y is also specified for the standard resistance
thermometer and standard thermocouple, and smaller permissible
limits are given for the electromotive force of the standard thermo-
couple at the gold point.
BUILDING C O D E S AND CONSTRUCTION I N THE U N I T E D STATES.
The housing shortage in the U n i t e d States has focused attention on

two problems relating to building codes: first, the present status of
building codes and, second, the relation of existing codes to the rate of
construction.
The present status of building codes has been studied by the Building
Technology Division of the National B u r e a u of Standards. The Divi-
sion m a i n t a i n s an index of municipalities with populations of 2,500 and
over, records the dates of local building codes in effect, and compiles
o t h e r information concerning building regulation. Recently, a survey
was undertaken to provide a check on the information at hand and to
furnish more complete coverage. The facts disclosed by the survey
confirm the general impression that a considerable n u m b e r of codes have
not had a m a j o r overhauling for some time. When arranged according
to the dates attributed to them by local authorities, codes now in effect
can be classified into the following six groups in T a b l e I :
5IO N A ' r I O N A L J~UREAU OF .%TANDAR1)S NlYI'F.S. [J. I;'. 1.
TABLE I.--Age of D a t e d Codes.

Age Group Number ~1 Cities l'ercentage
Up t o 5 years 574 27
6 to 10 years 366 17
11 t o 15 years 244 11
16 t o 20 years 377 18
21 t o 25 years 327 15
Over 25 years 264 12
Total 2,152 100
S o m e difference of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p o s s i b l e in the t a b l e a b o v e . A
c o d e m a y be a s s i g n e d a date a s of the time it was officially a d o p t e d and
y e t be m o r e m o d e r n t h a n this date w o u l d i n d i c a t e b e c a u s e of the e f f e c t
of the n u m b e r of a m e n d m e n t s . On the o t h e r h a n d , a c o d e of r a t h e r
a n c i e n t v i n t a g e m a y o f t e n be r e i s s u e d with a r e c e n t date on its c o v e r ,
p e r h a p s i n d i c a t i n g a d e l i b e r a t e reaffirmation of the old r e q u i r e m e n t s but
m o r e p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g a r e p r i n t i n g w i t h o u t critical r e - e x a m i n a t i o n .
T h e fact t h a t a m e n d m e n t s h a v e been a d d e d d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y
m e a n t h a t the c o d e s h a v e b e e n a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t u p - t o - d a t e . F i r s t ,
m o s t a m e n d m e n t s tend t o be m i n o r . S e c o n d , e v e n m a j o r a m e n d m e n t s
u s u a l l y do n o t a c h i e v e the r e s u l t s a t t a i n a b l e by c o m p l e t e a n d t o t a l re-
v i s i o n . T h i r d , d e s i g n e r s a n d b u i l d e r s have difficulty in d e t e r m i n i n g
w h a t is a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d in a c o d e w h e r e n u m e r o u s a m e n d m e n t s h a v e
b e e n s u p e r i m p o s e d on it.
It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t 29 per cent of the m u n i c i p a l i t i e s h a v e no type
of b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s . S o m e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s do n o t h a v e c o d e s but
do h a v e r u d i m e n t a r y o r d i n a n c e s r e q u i r i n g p e r m i t s in o r d e r t o do
b u i l d i n g or s e t t i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s w i t h i n w h i c h s o m e t y p e s of
c o m b u s t i b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y n o t be e r e c t e d . O t h e r s m a k e u s e of
s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s . I n f o r m a t i o n of this kind is s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e
1 I, w h i c h f o l l o w s :
TABLE I I . - - D a t a o n M u n i c i p a l i t i e s w i t h C o d e s o r D a t e d C o d e s .
Code Information Number of Municipalities
1. No Code ................................................... 990
2. P e r m i t Ordinance ............................................ 183
3. Fire L i m i t s Ordinance ....................................... 164
4. S t a t e R e g u l a t i o n s Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5. No Code Age Given . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6. No Report on Code S t a t u s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
T h e a b s e n c e of c o d e s in s u c h m u n i c i p a l i t i e s s u g g e s t s t h a t in t h e s e
a r e a s n e w m a t e r i a l s , c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s , and d e s i g n s m a y be u s e d .
On the o t h e r h a n d , the a b s e n c e of c o d e s r e p r e s e n t s a real h a z a r d t o the
p u b l i c s a f e t y a n d o f t e n t o the e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t of p r o p e r t y o w n e r s .
D a t a for the e n t i r e c o u n t r y show t h a t 71 per cent of m u n i c i p a l i t i e s
h a v e s o m e s o r t of r e g u l a t i o n . In c e r t a i n s t a t e s all m u n i c i p a l i t i e s of
May, I 9 4 9 . 1 N A T I O N A L BUREAU OF STANDARDS NOTES. 511
2 , 5 0 0 p o p u l a t i o n or over h a v e s o m e form of b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n ; in o t h e r s
p r a c t i c a l l y all are c o v e r e d ; in s t i l l o t h e r s c o v e r a g e d r o p s well b e l o w h a l f .
M a n y s t a t e s h a v e m i s c e l l a n e o u s legislation a p p l y i n g t o c e r t a i n
b u i l d i n g s t h r o u g h o u t the s t a t e , a n d o t h e r s h a v e s t a t e b u i l d i n g c o d e s .
T h e fact t h a t a m u n i c i p a l i t y d o e s n o t h a v e a c o d e does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
m e a n t h a t it is a l t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n .
R e s p o n s e t o the q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r r e v i s i o n was g o i n g on or con-
t e m p l a t e d p r o v i d e s a n i n d i c a t i o n of the c o n c e r n of l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s
a b o u t b r i n g i n g the c o d e s u p - t o - d a t e . T h e r e p l i e s are s u m m a r i z e d in
the f o l l o w i n g T a b l e III.
TABLI~ III.--Prospective Code Changes.
Kind Number of Cities

1. Revising ................................................... 213
2. Planning Revision ........................................... 32
3. Drafting Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4. Contemplating Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
T h e s t a t u s of p r e s e n t b u i l d i n g c o d e s r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n
in view of the d i s p a r i t y in age, type a n d s c o p e of r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d
v a r i o u s l o c a l f a c t o r s . M o s t c o d e s are, in v a r y i n g w a y s , o u t - o f - d a t e ,
n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d of the m u n i c i p a l i t i e s lack p r o p e r r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d s o m e
k o d e s are n o t r i g o r o u s e n o u g h , r a i s i n g the q u e s t i o n of the p u b l i c s a f e t y .
R e v i s i o n of old c o d e s is c o m p l i c a t e d by a t l e a s t two f a c t o r s : (1) T e s t i n g
a n d e v a l u a t i o n p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in the a p p r a i s a l of n e w m a t e r i a l s
a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s for r e v i s i o n of c o d e s are m a n y a n d c o m p l e x , a n d
e x c e e d the facilities of m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . (2) D i v e r s i t y of g e o g r a p h i c a n d
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e s v a r i a t i o n s in the d e t a i l e d r e g u l a -
t i o n s of c o d e s . H o w e v e r , g r e a t e r u n i f o r m i t y in c o d e s is f e a s i b l e , a n d
s u c h u n i f o r m i t y w o u l d a c h i e v e e c o n o m i e s in c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s i m p l i f y
the p r o b l e m s of d e s i g n e r s , b u i l d e r s , a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
D e l a y s in c o d e r e v i s i o n are p a r t l y due t o lack of s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s
of t e s t i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in m a t e r i a l s , m e t h o d s , a n d
d e s i g n . L o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s e n g a g e d in b u i l d i n g - c o d e r e v i s i o n have a
n u m b e r of s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n t o w h i c h they c a n t u r n : O r g a n i z a t i o n s
of b u i l d i n g officials, fire u n d e r w r i t e r s ' associations, a n d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n
b o d i e s , a s well a s the N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s a n d o t h e r G o v e r n -
m e n t a g e n c i e s . T h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n by s u c h
o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the
a p p l i c a t i o n of n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n field a n d t o the
m a i n t e n a n c e of p r o p e r s a f e t y m e a s u r e s .
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the B u r e a u , e x t e n d i n g over a p e r i o d of n e a r l y 50
y e a r s , c o v e r the e n t i r e field of b u i l d i n g t e c h n o l o g y . D a t a r e l a t i n g t o
p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s , w h e t h e r a c q u i r e d as a p a r t of the b u i l d i n g
t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m or in the o t h e r p r o g r a m s of the B u r e a u , are com-
p i l e d a n d i n t e g r a t e d for this p u r p o s e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of s u c h syn-
512 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS NOTt;S. [J. F. I.
thesis stems from the fact that thousands of materials and p r o d u c t s are
utilized in construction.
There is some d a n g e r that the effect of codes on the current rate of
construction may be overemphasized, and this d a n g e r is a very real one
in a period in which the housing shortage is acute. The cost of housing
is determined above all by the cost of materials and labor, but another
element enters the situation: American concepts of what constitutes
adequate housing have changed in the direction of demanding more
expensive housing.
In many cases research contributes to lower costs; on the o t h e r hand
research developments increase the n u m b e r of problems faced by
building code officials. W h e r e a l a r g e variety of new materials and
methods is involved, the magnitude of testing and evaluation problems
is formidable. For this reason the Bureau has not only pursued a
vigorous program of research, but of testing and developing methods of
evaluation as well.
One of the factors apt to be slighted in considering housing research
is the inter-relationship with research in the whole construction field
and in fields apparently completely divorced from housing. For years
the investigations of approximately one hundred sections of the Bureau
in physics, chemistry, engineering, and mathematics have produced
valuable results which were desired initially for purposes o t h e r than
construction but which were invaluable in the building technology
program.
Further and more extensive work in research, test methods, testing
and evaluation and modernization of codes is clearly needed.

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May, 1949.] NATIONALBUREAU OF STANDARDS NOTES.

The experimental procedures by which the scale is to be realized are

BUILDING C O D E S AND CONSTRUCTION I N THE U N I T E D STATES.

The housing shortage in the U n i t e d States has focused attention on

TABLE I.--Age of D a t e d Codes.

Total 2,152 100

Kind Number of Cities

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