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E_7 (mathematics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation <#mw-head> Jump to search <#searchInput>
Algebraic structure <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_structure>
→ *Group theory*
Group theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory>
Cyclic group.svg <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyclic_group.svg>
Basic notions[show] <#>

* Subgroup <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgroup>
* Normal subgroup <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_subgroup>

* Quotient group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_group>

* (Semi-) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semidirect_product>direct
product <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups>
/Group homomorphisms <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_homomorphism>/

* kernel
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(algebra)#Group_homomorphisms>
* image <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)>
* direct sum <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_sum_of_groups>

* wreath product <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreath_product>

* simple <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group>
* finite <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_group>

* infinite <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_group>
* continuous <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_group>
* multiplicative <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_group>

* additive <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_group>
* cyclic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_group>
* abelian <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group>
* dihedral <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_group>

* nilpotent <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilpotent_group>
* solvable <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvable_group>

* Glossary of group theory

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_group_theory>
* List of group theory topics
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_group_theory_topics>

Finite groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_group>[show] <#>

Classification of finite simple groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups>

* cyclic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_group>
* alternating <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_group>
* Lie type <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Lie_type>
* sporadic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporadic_group>

* Cauchy's theorem
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%27s_theorem_(group_theory)>
* Lagrange's theorem
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange%27s_theorem_(group_theory)>

* Sylow theorems <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylow_theorems>

* Hall's theorem <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_subgroup>

* p-group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-group>
* Elementary abelian group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_abelian_group>

* Frobenius group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frobenius_group>

* Schur multiplier <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schur_multiplier>

* Symmetric group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group> S_/n/

* Klein four-group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_four-group> V

* Dihedral group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_group> D_/n/
* Quaternion group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion_group> Q
 * Dicyclic group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicyclic_group> Dic_/n/

* Discrete groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_group>

* Lattices <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(discrete_subgroup)>

[show] <#>

* Integers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer> (*Z*)

* Free group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_group>

Modular groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_group>

* PSL(2,*Z*)
* SL(2,*Z*)

* Arithmetic group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_group>

* Lattice <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(group)>
* Hyperbolic group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_group>

Topological <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_group> and Lie

groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group>[hide] <#>

* Solenoid <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid_(mathematics)>
* Circle <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_group>

* General linear <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_group>

GL(/n/)

* Special linear <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_linear_group>

SL(/n/)

* Orthogonal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_group> O(/n/)

* Euclidean <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_group> E(/n/)

* Special orthogonal
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_orthogonal_group> SO(/n/)

* Unitary <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_group> U(/n/)

* Special unitary
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_unitary_group> SU(/n/)

* Symplectic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplectic_group> Sp(/n/)

* G_2 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_(mathematics)>
* F_4 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4_(mathematics)>
* E_6 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6_(mathematics)>
* E_7
* E_8 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)>

* Lorentz <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_group>
* Poincaré <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group>
* Conformal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_group>

* Diffeomorphism <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffeomorphism>
* Loop <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_group>

Infinite dimensional Lie group

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_dimensional_Lie_group>

* O(∞)
* SU(∞)
* Sp(∞)

Algebraic groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_group>[show] <#>

* Linear algebraic group

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebraic_group>

* Reductive group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductive_group>

* Abelian variety <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_variety>

* Elliptic curve <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve>

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Group_theory_sidebar>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Group_theory_sidebar>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Group_theory_sidebar&action=edit>

Lie groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group>

E8Petrie.svg <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:E8Petrie.svg>
Classical groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_group>[show] <#>

* General linear <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_group>

GL(/n/)
* Special linear <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_linear_group>
SL(/n/)
* Orthogonal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_group> O(/n/)
* Special orthogonal
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_orthogonal_group> SO(/n/)
* Unitary <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_group> U(/n/)
* Special unitary
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_unitary_group> SU(/n/)
* Symplectic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplectic_group> Sp(/n/)

Simple Lie groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group>[hide] <#>

* List of simple Lie groups

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_simple_Lie_groups>

Classical

* A_/n/ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group#A_series>
* B_/n/ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group#B_series>
* C_/n/ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group#C_series>
* D_/n/ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group#D_series>

Exceptional

* G_2 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_(mathematics)>
* F_4 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4_(mathematics)>
* E_6 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6_(mathematics)>
* E_7
* E_8 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)>
Other Lie groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_Lie_groups>[show] <#>

* Circle <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_group>
* Lorentz <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_group>
* Poincaré <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group>
* Conformal group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_group>
* Diffeomorphism <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffeomorphism>
* Loop <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_group>
* Euclidean <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_group>

Lie algebras <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_algebra>[show] <#>

* Lie group–Lie algebra correspondence

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group%E2%80%93Lie_algebra_correspondence>
* Exponential map
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_map_(Lie_theory)>
* Adjoint representation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint_representation>
*
o Killing form <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_form>
o Index <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_a_Lie_algebra>
* Lie point symmetry <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_point_symmetry>
* Simple Lie algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_algebra>

Semisimple Lie algebra

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semisimple_Lie_algebra>[show] <#>

* Dynkin diagrams <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynkin_diagram>

* Cartan subalgebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan_subalgebra>
*
o Root system <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_system>
o Weyl group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl_group>
*
o Real form <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_form_(Lie_theory)>
o Complexification
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexification_(Lie_group)>
* Split Lie algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_Lie_algebra>
* Compact Lie algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Lie_algebra>

Representation theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory>[show] <#>

* Lie group representation

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_of_a_Lie_group>
* Lie algebra representation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_algebra_representation>
* Representation theory of semisimple Lie algebras

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_semisimple_Lie_algebras>
* Theorem of the highest weight
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem_of_the_highest_weight>
* Borel–Weil–Bott theorem
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borel%E2%80%93Weil%E2%80%93Bott_theorem>

Lie groups in physics <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics>[show] <#>

* Particle physics and representation theory

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics_and_representation_theory>
 * Lorentz group representations
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group>
* Poincaré group representations
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Poincar
%C3%A9_group>
* Galilean group representations
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Galilean_group>

Scientists[show] <#>

* Sophus Lie <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophus_Lie>

* Henri Poincaré <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9>
* Wilhelm Killing <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Killing>
* Élie Cartan <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lie_Cartan>
* Hermann Weyl <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Weyl>
* Claude Chevalley <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chevalley>
* Harish-Chandra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harish-Chandra>
* Armand Borel <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Borel>

* Glossary
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Lie_groups_and_Lie_algebras>
* Table of Lie groups <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_Lie_groups>

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Lie_groups>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Lie_groups>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Lie_groups&action=edit>

In mathematics <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics>, *E_7 * is

the name of several closely related Lie groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group>, linear algebraic groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_group> or their Lie algebras
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_algebra> *e*_7 , all of which have
dimension 133; the same notation E_7 is used for the corresponding root
lattice <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_lattice>, which has rank
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_of_a_Lie_group> 7. The designation
E_7 comes from the Cartan–Killing classification
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_form> of the complex simple Lie
algebras <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_algebra>, which fall
into four infinite series labeled A_/n/ , B_/n/ , C_/n/ , D_/n/ , and
five exceptional cases
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exceptional_simple_Lie_group> labeled E_6
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6_(mathematics)>, E_7 , E_8
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)>, F_4
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4_(mathematics)>, and G_2
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_(mathematics)>. The E_7 algebra is
thus one of the five exceptional cases.

The fundamental group of the (adjoint) complex form, compact real form,
or any algebraic version of E_7 is the cyclic group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_group> *Z*/2*Z*, and its outer
automorphism group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_automorphism_group> is the trivial
group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivial_group>. The dimension of
its fundamental representation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_representation> is 56.

Contents
 * 1 Real and complex forms <#Real_and_complex_forms>
* 2 E_7 as an algebraic group <#E7_as_an_algebraic_group>
* 3 Algebra <#Algebra>
o 3.1 Dynkin diagram <#Dynkin_diagram>
o 3.2 Root system <#Root_system>
+ 3.2.1 An alternative description <#An_alternative_description>
o 3.3 Weyl group <#Weyl_group>
o 3.4 Cartan matrix <#Cartan_matrix>
* 4 Important subalgebras and representations
<#Important_subalgebras_and_representations>
o 4.1 E_7 Polynomial Invariants <#E7_Polynomial_Invariants>
* 5 Chevalley groups of type E_7 <#Chevalley_groups_of_type_E7>
* 6 Importance in physics <#Importance_in_physics>
* 7 See also <#See_also>
* 8 Notes <#Notes>
* 9 References <#References>

Real and complex forms[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=1>]

There is a unique complex Lie algebra of type E_7 , corresponding to a

complex group of complex dimension 133. The complex adjoint Lie group
E_7 of complex dimension
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_dimension> 133 can be considered
as a simple real Lie group of real dimension 266. This has fundamental
group *Z*/2*Z*, has maximal compact
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_space> subgroup the compact form
(see below) of E_7 , and has an outer automorphism group of order 2
generated by complex conjugation.

As well as the complex Lie group of type E_7 , there are four real forms
of the Lie algebra, and correspondingly four real forms of the group
with trivial center (all of which have an algebraic double cover, and
three of which have further non-algebraic covers, giving further real
forms), all of real dimension 133, as follows:

* The compact form (which is usually the one meant if no other

information is given), which has fundamental group *Z*/2*Z* and has
trivial outer automorphism group.
* The split form, EV (or E_7(7) ), which has maximal compact subgroup
SU(8)/{±1}, fundamental group cyclic of order 4 and outer
automorphism group of order 2.
* EVI (or E_7(-5) ), which has maximal compact subgroup
SU(2)·SO(12)/(center), fundamental group non-cyclic of order 4 and
trivial outer automorphism group.
* EVII (or E_7(-25) ), which has maximal compact subgroup SO(2)·E_6
/(center), infinite cyclic fundamental group and outer automorphism
group of order 2.

For a complete list of real forms of simple Lie algebras, see the list
of simple Lie groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_simple_Lie_groups>.

The compact real form of E_7 is the isometry group

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometry_group> of the 64-dimensional
exceptional compact Riemannian symmetric space
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_symmetric_space> EVI (in
Cartan's classification
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_symmetric_space#Classification_of_Riemann
ian_symmetric_spaces>).
It is known informally as the "quateroctonionic projective plane
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quateroctonionic_projective_plane>"
because it can be built using an algebra that is the tensor product of
the quaternions <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion> and the
octonions <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octonion>, and is also known as
a Rosenfeld projective plane
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenfeld_projective_plane>, though it
does not obey the usual axioms of a projective plane. This can be seen
systematically using a construction known as the /magic square
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudenthal_magic_square>/, due to Hans
Freudenthal <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Freudenthal> and Jacques
Tits <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Tits>.

The Tits–Koecher construction

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tits%E2%80%93Koecher_construction>
produces forms of the E_7 Lie algebra from Albert algebras
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_algebra>, 27-dimensional
exceptional Jordan algebras <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_algebra>.

E_7 as an algebraic group[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=2>]

By means of a Chevalley basis

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevalley_basis> for the Lie algebra, one
can define E_7 as a linear algebraic group over the integers and,
consequently, over any commutative ring and in particular over any
field: this defines the so-called split (sometimes also known as
“untwisted”) adjoint form of E_7 . Over an algebraically closed field,
this and its double cover are the only forms; however, over other
fields, there are often many other forms, or “twists” of E_7 , which are
classified in the general framework of Galois cohomology
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_cohomology> (over a perfect field
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_field> /k/) by the set /H/^1
(/k/, Aut(E_7 )) which, because the Dynkin diagram of E_7 (see below
<#Dynkin_diagram>) has no automorphisms, coincides with /H/^1 (/k/, E_7,
ad ).^[1] <#cite_note-1>

Over the field of real numbers, the real component of the identity of
these algebraically twisted forms of E_7 coincide with the three real
Lie groups mentioned above <#Real_and_complex_forms>, but with a
subtlety concerning the fundamental group: all adjoint forms of E_7 have
fundamental group *Z*/2*Z* in the sense of algebraic geometry, meaning
that they admit exactly one double cover; the further non-compact real
Lie group forms of E_7 are therefore not algebraic and admit no faithful
finite-dimensional representations.

Over finite fields, the Lang–Steinberg theorem

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lang%E2%80%93Steinberg_theorem> implies
that /H/^1 (/k/, E_7 ) = 0, meaning that E_7 has no twisted forms: see
below <#Chevalley_groups_of_type_E7>.

Algebra[edit
 <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=3>]

Dynkin diagram[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=4>]

The Dynkin diagram <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynkin_diagram> for

E_7 is given by Dynkin diagram type E7.svg
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dynkin_diagram_type_E7.svg>.

Root system[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=5>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gosset_2_31_polytope.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gosset_2_31_polytope.svg>
The 126 vertices of the 2_31 polytope
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_31_polytope> represent the root vectors
of E_7 , as shown in this Coxeter plane
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxeter_plane> projection
Coxeter–Dynkin diagram
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxeter%E2%80%93Dynkin_diagram>: CDel
nodea 1.pngCDel 3a.pngCDel nodea.pngCDel 3a.pngCDel branch.pngCDel
3a.pngCDel nodea.pngCDel 3a.pngCDel nodea.pngCDel 3a.pngCDel nodea.png
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3_21_E7_to_3D_H3_symmetry_concentric_hulls.png>

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3_21_E7_to_3D_H3_symmetry_concentric_hulls.png>
Shown in 3D projection using the basis vectors [u,v,w] giving H3 symmetry:
u = (1, /φ/, 0, -1, /φ/, 0,0)
v = (/φ/, 0, 1, /φ/, 0, -1,0)
w = (0, 1, /φ/, 0, -1, /φ/,0)
The projected 2_31 polytope
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_31_polytope> vertices are sorted and
tallied by their 3D norm generating the increasingly transparent hulls
of each set of tallied norms. These show:
1) 2 points at the origin
2) 2 icosahedrons
3) 1 icosadodecahedron
4) 2 dodecahedrons
5) 1 icosadodecahedron
for a total of 126 vertices.

Even though the roots span a 7-dimensional space, it is more symmetric

and convenient to represent them as vectors lying in a 7-dimensional
subspace of an 8-dimensional vector space.

The roots are all the 8×7 permutations of (1,−1,0,0,0,0,0,0) and all the
( 8 4 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}8\\4\end{pmatrix}}}
{\begin{pmatrix}8\\4\end{pmatrix}} permutations of (½,½,½,½,−½,−½,−½,−½)

Note that the 7-dimensional subspace is the subspace where the sum of
all the eight coordinates is zero. There are 126 roots.

The simple roots

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_root_(root_system)> are
 (0,−1,1,0,0,0,0,0)
(0,0,−1,1,0,0,0,0)
(0,0,0,−1,1,0,0,0)
(0,0,0,0,−1,1,0,0)
(0,0,0,0,0,−1,1,0)
(0,0,0,0,0,0,−1,1)
(½,½,½,½,−½,−½,−½,−½)

They are listed so that their corresponding nodes in the Dynkin diagram
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynkin_diagram> are ordered from left to
right (in the diagram depicted above) with the side node last.

An alternative description[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=6>]

An alternative (7-dimensional) description of the root system, which is

useful in considering E_7 × SU(2) as a subgroup of
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)#Subgroups> E_8 , is the
following:

All 4 × ( 6 2 ) {\displaystyle 4\times

{\begin{pmatrix}6\\2\end{pmatrix}}} 4\times
{\begin{pmatrix}6\\2\end{pmatrix}} permutations of (±1,±1,0,0,0,0,0)
preserving the zero at the last entry, all of the following roots with
an even number of +½

( ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 , ± 1 2 )
{\displaystyle \left(\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over
2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over
{\sqrt {2}}}\right)} \left(\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1
\over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1 \over 2},\pm {1
\over {\sqrt {2}}}\right)

and the two following roots

( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , ± 2 ) . {\displaystyle
\left(0,0,0,0,0,0,\pm {\sqrt {2}}\right).} \left(0,0,0,0,0,0,\pm
{\sqrt {2}}\right).

Thus the generators consist of a 66-dimensional *so*(12) subalgebra as

well as 64 generators that transform as two self-conjugate Weyl spinors
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl_spinor> of *spin*(12) of opposite
chirality, and their chirality generator, and two other generators of
chiralities ± 2 {\displaystyle \pm {\sqrt {2}}} \pm {\sqrt {2}}.

Given the E_7 Cartan matrix

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan_matrix> (below) and a Dynkin
diagram <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynkin_diagram> node ordering of:
DynkinE7.svg <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DynkinE7.svg>

one choice of simple roots

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_root_(root_system)> is given
by the rows of the following matrix:
[ 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 − 1 2 − 1 2 − 1 2 − 1 2 − 1 2 − 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 − 1 0
] . {\displaystyle
{\begin{bmatrix}1&-1&0&0&0&0&0\\0&1&-1&0&0&0&0\\0&0&1&-1&0&0&0\\0&0&0&1&-
1&0&0\\0&0&0&0&1&1&0\\-{\frac
{1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac
{1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&{\frac {\sqrt
{2}}{2}}\\0&0&0&0&1&-1&0\\\end{bmatrix}}.}
{\begin{bmatrix}1&-1&0&0&0&0&0\\0&1&-1&0&0&0&0\\0&0&1&-1&0&0&0\\0&0&0&1&-
1&0&0\\0&0&0&0&1&1&0\\-{\frac
{1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&-{\frac
{1}{2}}&-{\frac {1}{2}}&{\frac {{\sqrt
{2}}}{2}}\\0&0&0&0&1&-1&0\\\end{bmatrix}}.

Weyl group[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=7>]

The Weyl group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl_group> of E_7 is of

order 2903040: it is the direct product of the cyclic group of order 2
and the unique simple group <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group>
of order 1451520 (which can be described as PSp_6 (2) or PSΩ_7 (2)).^[2]
<#cite_note-2>

Cartan matrix[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=8>]

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:E7HassePoset.svg>
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:E7HassePoset.svg>
Hasse diagram <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasse_diagram> of E7 root
poset <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_system#The_root_poset> with
edge labels identifying added simple root position

[ 2 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 − 1 2 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 − 1 2 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 − 1 2 − 1
0 − 1 0 0 0 − 1 2 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 − 1 2 0 0 0 0 − 1 0 0 2 ] .
{\displaystyle
{\begin{bmatrix}2&-1&0&0&0&0&0\\-1&2&-1&0&0&0&0\\0&-1&2&-1&0&0&0\\0&0&-1&2&-
1&0&-1\\0&0&0&-1&2&-1&0\\0&0&0&0&-1&2&0\\0&0&0&-1&0&0&2\end{bmatrix}}.}
{\begin{bmatrix}2&-1&0&0&0&0&0\\-1&2&-1&0&0&0&0\\0&-1&2&-1&0&0&0\\0&0&-1&2&-
1&0&-1\\0&0&0&-1&2&-1&0\\0&0&0&0&-1&2&0\\0&0&0&-1&0&0&2\end{bmatrix}}.

Important subalgebras and representations[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=9>]

E_7 has an SU(8) subalgebra, as is evident by noting that in the

8-dimensional description of the root system, the first group of roots
are identical to the roots of SU(8) (with the same Cartan subalgebra
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan_subalgebra> as in the E_7 ).

In addition to the 133-dimensional adjoint representation, there is a

56-dimensional "vector" representation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)#Subgroups>, to be found
in the E_8 adjoint representation.

The characters of finite dimensional representations of the real and

complex Lie algebras and Lie groups are all given by the Weyl character
formula <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl_character_formula>. The
dimensions of the smallest irreducible representations are (sequence
A121736 <https://oeis.org/A121736> in the OEIS
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences>):

_1_, 56, _133_, 912, _1463_, _1539_, 6480, _7371_, _8645_, 24320,
27664, _40755_, 51072, 86184, _150822_, _152152_, _238602_,
_253935_, _293930_, 320112, 362880, _365750_, _573440_, _617253_,
861840, 885248, _915705_, _980343_, 2273920, 2282280, 2785552,
_3424256_, 3635840...

The underlined terms in the sequence above are the dimensions of those
irreducible representations possessed by the adjoint form of E_7
(equivalently, those whose weights belong to the root lattice of E_7 ),
whereas the full sequence gives the dimensions of the irreducible
representations of the simply connected form of E_7 . There exist
non-isomorphic irreducible representation of dimensions 1903725824,
16349520330, etc.

The fundamental representations

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_representation> are those
with dimensions 133, 8645, 365750, 27664, 1539, 56 and 912
(corresponding to the seven nodes in the Dynkin diagram
<#Dynkin_diagram> in the order chosen for the Cartan matrix
<#Cartan_matrix> above, i.e., the nodes are read in the six-node chain
first, with the last node being connected to the third).

E_7 Polynomial Invariants[edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=10>]

E_7 is the automorphism group of the following pair of polynomials in 56

non-commutative variables. We divide the variables into two groups of
28, (/p/, /P/) and (/q/, /Q/) where /p/ and /q/ are real variables and
/P/ and /Q/ are 3×3 octonion <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octonion>
hermitian matrices. Then the first invariant is the symplectic invariant
of Sp(56, *R*):

C 1 = p q − q p + T r [ P Q ] − T r [ Q P ] {\displaystyle
C_{1}=pq-qp+Tr[PQ]-Tr[QP]} C_{1}=pq-qp+Tr[PQ]-Tr[QP]

The second more complicated invariant is a *symmetric* quartic polynomial:

C 2 = ( p q + T r [ P ∘ Q ] ) 2 + p T r [ Q ∘ Q ~ ] + q T r [ P ∘ P
~ ] + T r [ P ~ ∘ Q ~ ] {\displaystyle C_{2}=(pq+Tr[P\circ
Q])^{2}+pTr[Q\circ {\tilde {Q}}]+qTr[P\circ {\tilde {P}}]+Tr[{\tilde
{P}}\circ {\tilde {Q}}]} C_{2}=(pq+Tr[P\circ Q])^{2}+pTr[Q\circ
{\tilde {Q}}]+qTr[P\circ {\tilde {P}}]+Tr[{\tilde {P}}\circ {\tilde
{Q}}]

Where P ~ ≡ det ( P ) P − 1 {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}\equiv

\det(P)P^{-1}} {\tilde {P}}\equiv \det(P)P^{{-1}} and the binary circle
operator is defined by A ∘ B = ( A B + B A ) / 2 {\displaystyle A\circ
B=(AB+BA)/2} A\circ B=(AB+BA)/2.

An alternative quartic polynomial invariant constructed by Cartan uses

two anti-symmetric 8x8 matrices each with 28 components.

C 2 = T r [ ( X Y ) 2 ] − 1 4 T r [ X Y ] 2 + 1 96 ϵ i j k l m n o p
( X i j X k l X m n X o p + Y i j Y k l Y m n Y o p ) {\displaystyle
 C_{2}=Tr[(XY)^{2}]-{\dfrac {1}{4}}Tr[XY]^{2}+{\frac {1}{96}}\epsilon
_{ijklmnop}\left(X^{ij}X^{kl}X^{mn}X^{op}+Y^{ij}Y^{kl}Y^{mn}Y^{op}\right)}
C_{2}=Tr[(XY)^{2}]-{\dfrac {1}{4}}Tr[XY]^{2}+{\frac {1}{96}}\epsilon
_{{ijklmnop}}\left(X^{{ij}}X^{{kl}}X^{{mn}}X^{{op}}
+Y^{{ij}}Y^{{kl}}Y^{{mn}}Y^{{op}}\right)

Chevalley groups of type E_7 [edit

<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=11>]

The points over a finite field

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field> with /q/ elements of the
(split) algebraic group E_7 (see above <#E7_as_an_algebraic_group>),
whether of the adjoint (centerless) or simply connected form (its
algebraic universal cover), give a finite Chevalley group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Lie_type>. This is closely
connected to the group written E_7 (/q/), however there is ambiguity in
this notation, which can stand for several things:

* the finite group consisting of the points over *F*_/q/ of the simply
connected form of E_7 (for clarity, this can be written E_7,sc (/q/)
and is known as the “universal” Chevalley group of type E_7 over
*F*_/q/ ),
* (rarely) the finite group consisting of the points over *F*_/q/ of
the adjoint form of E_7 (for clarity, this can be written E_7,ad
(/q/), and is known as the “adjoint” Chevalley group of type E_7
over *F*_/q/ ), or
* the finite group which is the image of the natural map from the
former to the latter: this is what will be denoted by E_7 (/q/) in
the following, as is most common in texts dealing with finite groups.

From the finite group perspective, the relation between these three
groups, which is quite analogous to that between SL(/n/, /q/), PGL(/n/,
/q/) and PSL(/n/, /q/), can be summarized as follows: E_7 (/q/) is
simple for any /q/, E_7,sc (/q/) is its Schur cover
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schur_multiplier>, and the E_7,ad (/q/)
lies in its automorphism group; furthermore, when /q/ is a power of 2,
all three coincide, and otherwise (when /q/ is odd), the Schur
multiplier of E_7 (/q/) is 2 and E_7 (/q/) is of index 2 in E_7,ad
(/q/), which explains why E_7,sc (/q/) and E_7,ad (/q/) are often
written as 2·E_7 (/q/) and E_7 (/q/)·2. From the algebraic group
perspective, it is less common for E_7 (/q/) to refer to the finite
simple group, because the latter is not in a natural way the set of
points of an algebraic group over *F*_/q/ unlike E_7,sc (/q/) and E_7,ad
(/q/).

As mentioned above, E_7 (/q/) is simple for any /q/,^[3] <#cite_note-3>

^[4] <#cite_note-4> and it constitutes one of the infinite families
addressed by the classification of finite simple groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups>.
Its number of elements is given by the formula (sequence A008870
<https://oeis.org/A008870> in the OEIS
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences>):

1 g c d ( 2 , q − 1 ) q 63 ( q 18 − 1 ) ( q 14 − 1 ) ( q 12 − 1 ) (
q 10 − 1 ) ( q 8 − 1 ) ( q 6 − 1 ) ( q 2 − 1 ) {\displaystyle {\frac
{1}{\mathrm {gcd}
(2,q-1)}}q^{63}(q^{18}-1)(q^{14}-1)(q^{12}-1)(q^{10}-1)(q^{8}-1)(q^{6}-1)
(q^{2}-1)}
{\frac {1}{{\mathrm
{gcd}}(2,q-1)}}q^{{63}}(q^{{18}}-1)(q^{{14}}-1)(q^{{12}}-1)(q^{{10}}-1)(q^{8}-
1)(q^{6}-1)(q^{2}-1)

The order of E_7,sc (/q/) or E_7,ad (/q/) (both are equal) can be
obtained by removing the dividing factor gcd(2, /q/−1) (sequence A008869
<https://oeis.org/A008869> in the OEIS
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences>).
The Schur multiplier of E_7 (/q/) is gcd(2, /q/−1), and its outer
automorphism group is the product of the diagonal automorphism group
*Z*/gcd(2, /q/−1)*Z* (given by the action of E_7,ad (/q/)) and the group
of field automorphisms (i.e., cyclic of order /f/ if /q/ = /p^f / where
/p/ is prime).

Importance in physics[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=12>]

/N/ = 8 supergravity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergravity> in

four dimensions, which is a dimensional reduction
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_reduction> from 11
dimensional supergravity, admit an E_7 bosonic global symmetry and an
SU(8) bosonic local symmetry
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_symmetry>. The fermions are in
representations of SU(8), the gauge fields are in a representation of
E_7 , and the scalars are in a representation of both (Gravitons are
singlets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singlet_state> with respect to
both). Physical states are in representations of the coset E_7 / SU(8).

In string theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory>, E_7

appears as a part of the gauge group
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_group> of one the (unstable and
non-supersymmetric <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetric>)
versions of the heterotic string
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotic_string>. It can also appear in
the unbroken gauge group E_8 × E_7 in six-dimensional compactifications
of heterotic string theory, for instance on the four-dimensional surface
K3 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K3_(surface)>.

See also[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=13>]

* En (Lie algebra) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_(Lie_algebra)>

* ADE classification <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADE_classification>
* List of simple Lie groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_simple_Lie_groups>

Notes[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=14>]

1. *^ <#cite_ref-1>* Platonov, Vladimir; Rapinchuk, Andrei (1994)

[1991], /Algebraic groups and number theory/
<https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0125581807>, Pure and Applied
 Mathematics, *139*, Boston, MA: Academic Press
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press>, ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 978-0-12-558180-6
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-558180-6>,
MR <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)> 1278263
<https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1278263>(original
version: Платонов, Владимир П.; Рапинчук, Андрей С. (1991).
/Алгебраические группы и теория чисел/. Наука. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 5-02-014191-7
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-02-014191-7>.),
§2.2.4
2. *^ <#cite_ref-2>* Conway, John Horton
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horton_Conway>; Curtis, Robert
Turner; Norton, Simon Phillips
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_P._Norton>; Parker, Richard A
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_A._Parker>; Wilson, Robert
Arnott <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Arnott_Wilson> (1985).
/Atlas of Finite Groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_of_Finite_Groups>: Maximal
Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups/. Oxford
University Press. p. 46. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 0-19-853199-0
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-853199-0>.
3. *^ <#cite_ref-3>* Carter, Roger W.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Carter_(mathematician)> (1989).
/Simple Groups of Lie Type/. Wiley Classics Library. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 0-471-50683-4
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-50683-4>.
4. *^ <#cite_ref-4>* Wilson, Robert A.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Arnott_Wilson> (2009). /The
Finite Simple Groups/. Graduate Texts in Mathematics
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Texts_in_Mathematics>.
*251*. Springer-Verlag
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag>. ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 1-84800-987-9
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84800-987-9>.

References[edit
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=E7_(mathematics)&action=edit&section=15>]

* Adams, J. Frank (1996), /Lectures on exceptional Lie groups/

<https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0226005275>, Chicago Lectures
in Mathematics, University of Chicago Press
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press>, ISBN
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)> 978-0-226-00526-3
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-00526-3>,
MR <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)> 1428422
<https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1428422>
* John Baez <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Baez>, /The
Octonions/, Section 4.5: E_7 , Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. *39* (2002),
145-205
<http://www.ams.org/bull/2002-39-02/S0273-0979-01-00934-X/home.html>. Online
HTML version at http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/octonions/node18.html
<http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/octonions/node18.html>.
* E. Cremmer and B. Julia, /The N = 8 Supergravity Theory. 1. The
Lagrangian/, Phys.Lett.B80:48,1978. Online scanned version at
 http://ac.els-cdn.com/0370269378903039/1-s2.0-0370269378903039-main.pdf?
_tid=79273f80-539d-11e4-a133-
00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1413289833_5f3539a6365149b108ddcec889200964
<http://ac.els-cdn.com/0370269378903039/1-s2.0-0370269378903039-main.pdf?
_tid=79273f80-539d-11e4-a133-
00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1413289833_5f3539a6365149b108ddcec889200964>.

show

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Exceptional_Lie_groups>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Exceptional_Lie_groups>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Exceptional_Lie_groups&action=edit>

Exceptional Lie groups

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_group#Exceptional_cases>

* G_2 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_(mathematics)>
* F_4 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4_(mathematics)>
* E_6 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6_(mathematics)>
* E_7
* E_8 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)>

show

* v <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:String_theory_topics>
* t <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:String_theory_topics>
* e
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:String_theory_topics&action=edit>

String theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory>

Background

* Strings <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(physics)>
* History of string theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_string_theory>
o First superstring revolution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_superstring_revolution>
o Second superstring revolution
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_superstring_revolution>
* String theory landscape
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory_landscape>

Calabi-Yau-alternate.png
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calabi-Yau-alternate.png>
Theory

* Nambu–Goto action
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambu%E2%80%93Goto_action>
* Polyakov action <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyakov_action>
* Bosonic string theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory>
* Superstring theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstring_theory>
o Type I string <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_I_string_theory>
o Type II string
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_string_theory>
 + Type IIA string
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_string_theory>
+ Type IIB string
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_string_theory>
o Heterotic string
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotic_string_theory>
* N=2 superstring <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%3D2_superstring>
* F-theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-theory>
* String field theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_field_theory>
* Matrix string theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_string_theory>
* Non-critical string theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-critical_string_theory>
* Non-linear sigma model
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linear_sigma_model>
* Tachyon condensation
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon_condensation>
* RNS formalism <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNS_formalism>
* GS formalism <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GS_formalism>

String duality <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_duality>

* T-duality <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-duality>
* S-duality <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-duality>
* U-duality <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-duality>
* Montonen–Olive duality
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montonen%E2%80%93Olive_duality>

Particles and fields

* Graviton <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton>
* Dilaton <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilaton>
* Tachyon <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon>
* Ramond–Ramond field
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramond%E2%80%93Ramond_field>
* Kalb–Ramond field
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalb%E2%80%93Ramond_field>
* Magnetic monopole <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_monopole>
* Dual graviton <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_graviton>
* Dual photon <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_photon>

Branes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brane>

* D-brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-brane>
* NS5-brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS5-brane>
* M2-brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2-brane>
* M5-brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M5-brane>
* S-brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-brane>
* Black brane <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_brane>
* Black holes <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole>
* Black string <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_string>
* Brane cosmology <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brane_cosmology>
* Quiver diagram <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiver_diagram>
* Hanany–Witten transition
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanany%E2%80%93Witten_transition>

Conformal field theory

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_field_theory>
 * Virasoro algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virasoro_algebra>
* Mirror symmetry
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_symmetry_(string_theory)>
* Conformal anomaly <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_anomaly>
* Conformal algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_symmetry>
* Superconformal algebra
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconformal_algebra>
* Vertex operator algebra
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_operator_algebra>
* Loop algebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_algebra>
* Kac–Moody algebra
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kac%E2%80%93Moody_algebra>
* Wess–Zumino–Witten model
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wess%E2%80%93Zumino%E2%80%93Witten_model>

Gauge theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory>

* Anomalies <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomaly_(physics)>
* Instantons <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instanton>
* Chern–Simons form
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_form>
* Bogomol'nyi–Prasad–Sommerfield bound
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomol%27nyi%E2%80%93Prasad
%E2%80%93Sommerfield_bound>
* Exceptional Lie groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exceptional_Lie_group> (G_2
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_(mathematics)>, F_4
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F4_(mathematics)>, E_6
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E6_(mathematics)>, E_7 , E_8
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)>)
* ADE classification <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADE_classification>
* Dirac string <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_string>
* /p/-form electrodynamics
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-form_electrodynamics>

Geometry

* Kaluza–Klein theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory>
* Compactification
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactification_(physics)>
* Why 10 dimensions <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_10_dimensions>?
* Kähler manifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4hler_manifold>
* Ricci-flat manifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricci-flat_manifold>
o Calabi–Yau manifold
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi%E2%80%93Yau_manifold>
o Hyperkähler manifold
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperk%C3%A4hler_manifold>
+ K3 surface <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K3_surface>
o G_2 manifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_manifold>
o Spin(7)-manifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin(7)-manifold>
* Generalized complex manifold
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_complex_structure>
* Orbifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbifold>
* Conifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifold>
* Orientifold <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientifold>
* Moduli space <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moduli_space>
* Hořava–Witten domain wall
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C5%99ava%E2%80%93Witten_domain_wall>
 * K-theory (physics) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-theory_(physics)>
* Twisted K-theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_K-theory>

Supersymmetry <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry>

* Supergravity <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergravity>
* Superspace <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superspace>
* Lie superalgebra <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_superalgebra>
* Lie supergroup <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_supergroup>

Holography <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography>

* Holographic principle
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle>
* AdS/CFT correspondence
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence>

M-theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory>

* Matrix theory <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_theory_(physics)>

* Introduction to M-theory
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_M-theory>

String theorists

* Aganagić <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mina_Aganagi%C4%87>
* Arkani-Hamed <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nima_Arkani-Hamed>
* Atiyah <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Atiyah>
* Banks <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Banks_(physicist)>
* Berenstein <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Berenstein>
* Bousso <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Bousso>
* Cleaver <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_B._Cleaver>
* Curtright <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Curtright>
* Dijkgraaf <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbert_Dijkgraaf>
* Distler <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Distler>
* Douglas <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._Douglas>
* Duff <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Duff_(physicist)>
* Ferrara <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Ferrara>
* Fischler <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Fischler>
* Friedan <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Friedan>
* Gates <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates>
* Gliozzi <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_Gliozzi>
* Gopakumar <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajesh_Gopakumar>
* Green <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Green_(physicist)>
* Greene <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Greene>
* Gross <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gross>
* Gubser <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Gubser>
* Gukov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Gukov>
* Guth <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Guth>
* Hanson <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_J._Hanson>
* Harvey <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_A._Harvey>
* Hořava <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr_Ho%C5%99ava_(theorist)>
* Gibbons <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Gibbons>
* Kachru <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamit_Kachru>
* Kaku <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michio_Kaku>
* Kallosh <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renata_Kallosh>
* Kaluza <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Kaluza>
* Kapustin <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Kapustin>
* Klebanov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Klebanov>
* Knizhnik <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadim_Knizhnik>
* Kontsevich <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_Kontsevich>
* Klein <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Klein>
* Linde <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Linde>
* Maldacena <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Mart%C3%ADn_Maldacena>
* Mandelstam <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Mandelstam>
* Marolf <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Marolf>
* Martinec <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Martinec>
* Minwalla <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiraz_Minwalla>
* Moore <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Moore_(physicist)>
* Motl <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubo%C5%A1_Motl>
* Mukhi <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunil_Mukhi>
* Myers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Myers_(physicist)>
* Nanopoulos <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitri_Nanopoulos>
* Năstase <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hora%C8%9Biu_N%C4%83stase>
* Nekrasov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Nekrasov>
* Neveu <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Neveu>
* Nielsen <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen>
* van Nieuwenhuizen
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_van_Nieuwenhuizen>
* Novikov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Novikov_(mathematician)>
* Olive <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Olive>
* Ooguri <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosi_Ooguri>
* Ovrut <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Ovrut>
* Polchinski <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Polchinski>
* Polyakov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov>
* Rajaraman <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvind_Rajaraman>
* Ramond <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Ramond>
* Randall <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Randall>
* Randjbar-Daemi <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seifallah_Randjbar-Daemi>
* Roček <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Ro%C4%8Dek>
* Rohm <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Rohm>
* Scherk <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk>
* Schwarz <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Schwarz>
* Seiberg <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Seiberg>
* Sen <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoke_Sen>
* Shenker <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Shenker>
* Siegel <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Siegel>
* Silverstein <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Silverstein>
* Sơn <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A0m_Thanh_S%C6%A1n>
* Staudacher <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Staudacher>
* Steinhardt <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Steinhardt>
* Strominger <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Strominger>
* Sundrum <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Sundrum>
* Susskind <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind>
* 't Hooft <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft>
* Townsend <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Townsend>
* Trivedi <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandip_Trivedi>
* Turok <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Turok>
* Vafa <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumrun_Vafa>
* Veneziano <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Veneziano>
* Verlinde <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Verlinde>
* Verlinde <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Verlinde>
* Wess <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wess>
* Witten <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Witten>
* Yau <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau>
* Yoneya <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamiaki_Yoneya>
* Zamolodchikov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zamolodchikov>
* Zamolodchikov <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Zamolodchikov>
 * Zaslow <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Zaslow>
* Zumino <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Zumino>
* Zwiebach <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barton_Zwiebach>

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Categories <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category>:

* Algebraic groups
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Algebraic_groups>
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