DECLARATION

I hereby declare/ascertain that this compressive report was compiled by me (Promesse

NIYIBIZI) and entails precisely what I have done during my Industrial Attachment at
EDYS CONSULTANTS.

I declare that this report or its content has not been anteriorly submitted to this or any other
institution of learning for the purpose of consummating the requisites for the award of any
degree. All citations and sources of information’s and research are acknowledged by
betokens of references.

Promesse NIYIBIZI ...................................................................

i
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this to my almighty God the Provider of all things that I would ever need in my industrial
attachment.
I dedicate this to my lovely and caring parents of all time. They didn’t support only in financial
aspect but also beyond that. They gave me Motivation, Advices, Love, care, and many deeply
touching acts that I could ever ask for.
I dedicate this to my lovely Brothers (Trust, Vertu and Assifiwe) who never ceased to make a
warm and enjoyable environment after such an uneasy day in the office and sometimes at the site.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I can never stop appreciating every loving acts that Almighty God does for me.

I appreciate my Parents for everything, I really do mean Everything.

I appreciate Engineer Edward MWANGI, a very knowledgeable man who had a very busy

schedule but still managed to give the full attention on us as Interns. I couldn’t ask for more.

I also appreciate the Bright Engineers in EDYS Consultants (Eng. Jake, Eng. Jules, Eng. Mike,

Eng. JMV) who helped me to learn what I had to learn also despite their busy schedule.

Last but not least, I appreciate my all friends who were close to me in the 4 months of my internship

and anyone who has contributed either directly or indirectly, I do appreciate him or her.

iii
 ABSTRACT

The Report aims to summarize the amazing experience gained during my three and a half
months’ internship (University of Rwanda’s Industrial Attachment) in EDYS
CONSULTANTS with highlights majorly on Civil Engineering, Structural Works,
Building Construction and Project Management, giving a full enlightenment on various
components of Building design steps and processes, giving a bright picture of the student
involvement in all operational activities carried out in the construction firm.

iv
 Table of Contents

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and necessity of the training......................................................................... 1
1.2 Training objectives .............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Training pre-requisites ....................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Training benefits and motivation ...................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 3
2.1 CLASS THEORIES RELATED TO SITE TRAINING ................................................. 3
2.1.1 SLAB DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 BEAM DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 20
2.1.3 COLUMN DESIGN ................................................................................................... 22
2.1.4 STAIR DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 25
2.1.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN/BASE AREA DESIGN .................................................. 28
2.1.6 BAR BENDING SCHEDULE................................................................................... 32
2.1.7 BILLS OF QUANTITY ............................................................................................. 35
2.1.8 BREAKDOWN OF PRICES .................................................................................... 36
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF TRAINING ACTIVITIES ............................................................ 36
2.2.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A REINFORCED CONCRETE RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING .......................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.2 BILLS OF QUANTITY ............................................................................................. 54

v
 2.2.3 BREAKDOWN OF PRICES .................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER THREE: CIVIL ENGINEERING IN TECHNOLOGY ERA ........................... 56
3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 56
3.2 SOFTWARES................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER FOUR: MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................. 63
4.1 Company Description ....................................................................................................... 63
4.1.1 Company Localization ............................................................................................... 63
4.1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPANY ....................................................... 64
4.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SITE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS ............................... 64
4.2.1 SITE VISITS .............................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER 5: TRAINING OUTCOMES ................................................................................. 70
5.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAINING ACTIVITIES ................................................... 70
5.2 DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSIS OF THE TRAINING WORKS ............................. 71
5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE TRAINING ................................................ 71
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................. 72
6.1 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................. 72
6.2 RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................................... 73
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 74

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Basic span/effective depth ratio for rectangular or flanged beams (Table 3.9, BS
8110) ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Table 2: Values of design concrete shear stress, υc (N/mm2) for fcu = 25 N/mm2 concrete
(Table 3.8, BS 8110) ...................................................................................................................... 8
Table 3: Form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs (Table 3.16, BS 8110) ............ 8
Table 4: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs with simple
end supports (Table 3.12, BS 8110) ........................................................................................... 11
Table 6: Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces ................................................ 21
Table 7: My Ratings On Design Softwares That I Used .......................................................... 62

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Floor slab as a series of beams connected and Various applications for slabs in
reinforced concrete structures (Arya, 2009) ............................................................................... 5
Figure 2: Plan of two-way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provided ly/lx ≤ 2 slab will span (Arya, 2009) in two directions as indicated. ............................ 6
Figure 3: Effective span of simply supported slab (Arya,2009) ................................................... 7
Figure 4: Definition of panels and bays (Fig. 3.7, BS 8110). .................................................... 11
Figure 5: (a) Ribbed slab; (b) ribbed slab with hollow blocks ................................................... 12
Figure 6: (a) Floor plan of a flat slab; (b) section of a flat slab ................................................ 15
Figure 7: a. Flat Plate and Flat slab without drop b. Flat Slab with drop ................................ 15
Figure 8: Column head dimensions and the effective dimension for some cases (Allen, 2001)
....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 9: Division of Panels of Flat slab (Allen, 2001) ............................................................. 18
Figure 10: Shear stress on a failure zone 1.5d from the face of the column (Choo & MacGinley,
2014) ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 11: (a) Building column; (b) column construction (Choo & MacGinley, 2014) .......... 22
Figure 12: (a) Braced frame; (b) unbraced frame. (Choo & MacGinley, 2014) ....................... 24
Figure 13: Stairs (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)............................................................................. 26
Figure 14: (a) Transverse section; (b) longitudinal section; (c) assumptions for design ......... 27
Figure 15: (a) Stair Reinforcements Detail, (b) Stair plan ........................................................ 27
Figure 16: Shear Failures ........................................................................................................... 31
Figure 17: One of pages of a BBS done by Me .......................................................................... 35
Figure 18: One of pages of a BoQ done by me ........................................................................... 54
Figure 19: One of the pages of a Breakdown of prices done by me .......................................... 55
Figure 20: Google Map Directions from UR-CST Nyarugenge Campus to EDYS
CONSULTANTS Office ("Google Maps", 2019) ....................................................................... 63
Figure 21: Scaffold Framework .................................................................................................. 65
Figure 22: Showing a Loader ...................................................................................................... 66
Figure 22: Concrete Mixer .......................................................................................................... 66

vii
Figure 23: Concrete Levelling Machine ..................................................................................... 67
Figure 24: wheelbarrow machine ............................................................................................... 67
Figure 25: Site Visit at BUMBOGO NURSERY SCHOOL ....................................................... 68
Figure 26: ROBA Site At Free zone ............................................................................................ 69
Figure 27: Structural layout of a G+2 residential building designed by me. ............................ 70

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BoQ ……………………………… Bills of Quantity

BBS………………………………. Bar Bending Schedule
STAAD ……………………………Structural Analysis And Design

viii
 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and necessity of the training

An Industrial Attachment is a structured, credit-bearing work experience in a professional work

setting during which the student applies and acquires knowledge and skills. It involves the
application of learned skills in an organization related to the students’ major. An Industrial
Attachment should challenge the student to examine the values of the organization involved in the
experience, and to assess the student's education as it relates to the Industrial Attachment.

Necessity or Benefits of Industrial Attachment

1. Exploring Career Interests,

2. Learning New Skills,
3. Gaining Work Experience,
4. Developing A Professional Network And
5. Understanding Workplace Expectations

1.2 Training objectives

1. It provides an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial
skills and experience during their course of study.
2. It exposes Students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in their institutions.
3. It makes the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students’
contact for later job placements and a chance to evaluate companies for which they might
wish to work.
4. It provides students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real
work and industrial situations, there by bridging the gap between theory and practice.
5. The program teaches the students on how to interact effectively with other
workers and supervisors under various conditions in the organization.
1
 1.3 Training pre-requisites
As stated by the company All We needed was the clear understanding about the following
Modules:
▪ Engineering Drawing
▪ Reinforced Concrete Design I & II
▪ Structural Analysis I & II
1.4 Training benefits and motivation
Both education and training are important; there cannot be effective education without some
training input and there cannot be effective training without some educational input. The
productive individual, particularly in this millennium, must be able to combine and utilise the
outcomes from the two forms of learning (Know-How Ability and Do-How Capability) for
production of goods and services which is crucial in pursuing careers in science, engineering and
technology (SET) disciplines.
Before attending an industrial attachment, I never knew how important it was to the life of any
student especially from University of Rwanda until I faced it myself as a degree program
requirement.
Attending this one, however, was not just an academic eye opener in terms of grades but also a
great exposure to the outside world. First of all, the opportunity given to each student by the school
to go out there and find places for attachment by themselves has a great impact towards improving
the confidence of students and creating a network with others outside school.
I was among those who were successful in finding a place for attachment in EDYS
CONSULTANTS in Kigali city, Kicukiro District. When going for my attachment, I expected to
leave it with at least the ability; to do a Structural Design Of at least a G+2 Building, knowing
how to put on ground what I just designed in the office and nurture ethical and interpersonal
skills for a successful career development in a Construction firm.

2
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CLASS THEORIES RELATED TO SITE TRAINING

What Is Civil Engineering?
Civil engineering is arguably the oldest engineering discipline. It deals with the built environment
and can be dated to the first time someone placed a roof over his or her head or laid a tree trunk
across a river to make it easier to get across.

The built environment encompasses much of what defines modern civilization. Buildings and
bridges are often the first constructions that come to mind, as they are the most conspicuous
creations of structural engineering, one of civil engineering's major sub-disciplines. Roads,
railroads, subway systems, and airports are designed by transportation engineers, another category
of civil engineering. And then there are the less visible creations of civil engineers. Every time you
open a water faucet, you expect water to come out, without thinking that civil engineers made it
possible. New York City has one of the world’s most impressive water supply systems, receiving
billions of gallons of high-quality water from the Catskills over one hundred miles away. Similarly,
not many people seem to worry about what happens to the water after it has served its purposes.
The old civil engineering discipline of sanitary engineering has evolved into modern
environmental engineering of such significance that most academic departments have changed
their names to civil and environmental engineering.

These few examples illustrate that civil engineers do a lot more than design buildings and bridges.
They can be found in the aerospace industry, designing jetliners and space stations; in the
automotive industry, perfecting the load-carrying capacity of a chassis and improving the
crashworthiness of bumpers and doors; and they can be found in the ship building industry, the
power industry, and many other industries wherever constructed facilities are involved. And they
plan and oversee the construction of these facilities as construction managers.

3
Civil engineering is an exciting profession because at the end of the day you can see the results of
your work, whether this is a completed bridge, a high-rise building, a subway station, or a
hydroelectric dam. ("What Is Civil Engineering?", 2019)
Main Activities Done
Nevertheless, I underlined my priorities into the following , even if I know that there is more to
learn but I apprehended this one’s so tight;
 SLAB DESIGN
 BEAM DESIGN
 STAIR DESIGN
 COLUMN DESIGN
 FOUNDATION DESIGN/BASE AREA DESIGN
 BAR BENDING SCHEDULES
 QUANTITY SURVEYING (BILLS OF QUANTITY, BREAKDOWN OF PRICES AND
PLANNING OF WORKS)
 TENDER PREPARATION
2.1.1 SLAB DESIGN
If a series of very wide, shallow rectangular beams were placed side by side and connected
transversely such that it was possible to share the load between adjacent beams, the combination
of beams would act as a slab (Fig. 1).
Reinforced concrete slabs are used to form a variety of elements in building structures such as
floors, roofs, staircases, foundations and some types of walls (Fig. 2). Since these elements can be
modelled as a set of transversely connected beams, it follows that the design of slabs is similar, in
principle, to that for beams. The major difference is that in slab design the serviceability limit state

4
of deflection is normally critical, rather than the ultimate limit states of bending and shear.

Figure 1: Floor slab as a series of beams connected and Various applications for slabs in
reinforced concrete structures (Arya, 2009)
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SLAB :
Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry uniformly
distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over one or more supports and
are classified according to the method of support as follows (Choo & MacGinley, 2014):
1. spanning one way between beams or walls
2. spanning two ways between the support beams or walls
3. flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams
▪ SOLID SLABS :
o One Way Spanning Slab
o Two Way Spanning Slab
▪ RIBBED ( HOLLOW BLOCK) SLABS
o ONE WAY RIBBED SLAB
o TWO WAY RIBBED SLAB ( WAFFLE SLAB )
▪ FLAT SLABS
▪ FLAT PLATE

SOLID SLAB

5
DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SPANNING SOLID SLAB

Figure 2: Plan of two-way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provided ly/lx ≤ 2 slab will span (Arya, 2009) in two directions as indicated.
The general procedure to be adopted for slab design is as follows:
1. Determine A Suitable Depth of Slab.
2. Calculate Main and Secondary Reinforcement Areas.
3. Check Critical Shear Stresses.
4. Check Detailing Requirements
Depth of slab (clause 3.5.7, BS 8110)
Solid slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of l metre width. The effective span
of the slab is taken as the smaller of
i. The distance between centers of bearings, A, or
ii. the clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the slab (Fig. 4).

6
Figure 3: Effective span of simply supported slab (Arya,2009)

The deflection requirements for slabs, which are the same as those for beams, will often control
the depth of slab needed. The minimum effective depth of slab, dmin, can be calculated using dmin
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
dmin=𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑥 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The basic (span/effective depth) ratios are given in Table 1. The modification factor is a function
of the amount of reinforcement in the slab which is itself a function of the effective depth of the
slab. Therefore, in order to make a first estimate of the effective depth, dmin, of the slab, a value
of (say) 1.4 is assumed for the modification factor. The main steel areas can then be calculated and
used to determine the actual value of the modification factor. If the assumed value is slightly
greater than the actual value, the depth of the slab will satisfy the deflection requirements in BS
8110. Otherwise, the calculation must be repeated using a revised value of the modification factor.
Table 1: Basic span/effective depth ratio for rectangular or flanged beams (Table 3.9, BS
8110)

Steel areas (clause 3.5.4, BS 8110)

7
The overall depth of slab, h, is determined by adding allowances for cover and half the (assumed)
main steel bar diameter to the effective depth. The self-weight of the slab together with the dead
and live loads are used to calculate the design moment, M.
The ultimate moment of resistance of the slab, Mu, is calculated using equation below,
𝑀𝑢 = 0.156𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2
If Mu ≥ M, which is the usual condition for slabs, compression reinforcement will not be required
and the area of tensile reinforcement, As, is determined using equation following
𝑀 𝐾
𝐴𝑠 = , where 𝑧 = 𝑑 [ 0.5 + √0.25 − ]
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.9

Secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse direction and this is usually based on
the minimum percentages of reinforcement (As min) given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110:
As min = 0.24% Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2
As min = 0.13% Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2, where Ac is the total area of concrete.
Shear (clause 3.5.5 of BS 8110)
Shear resistance is generally not a problem in solid slabs subject to uniformly distributed loads
and, in any case, shear reinforcement should not be provided in slabs less than 200 mm deep.
(Arya,2009)

Table 2: Values of design concrete shear stress, υc (N/mm2) for fcu = 25 N/mm2 concrete
(Table 3.8, BS 8110)

Table 3: Form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs (Table 3.16, BS 8110)
8
 Reinforcement details (clause 3.12, BS 8110)
For reasons of durability the code specifies limits in respect of:
1. minimum percentage of reinforcement
2. spacing of reinforcement
3. maximum crack widths.
1. Reinforcement areas (clause 3.12.5, BS 8110): The area of tension reinforcement, As, should
not be less than the following limits:
As ≥ 0.24%Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2
As ≥ 0.13%Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2 where Ac is the total area of concrete.
2. Spacing of reinforcement (clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110): The clear distance between tension
bars, sb, should lie within the following limits: hagg + 5 mm or bar diameter ≤ sb ≤ 3d or 750 mm
whichever is the lesser where hagg is the maximum aggregate size.
3. Crack width (clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110): Unless the actual crack widths have been checked
by direct calculation, the following rules will ensure that crack widths will not generally exceed
0.3 mm. This limiting crack width is based on considerations of appearance and durability.
(i) No further check is required on bar spacing if either:
(a) fy = 250 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 250 mm,
or
(b) fy = 500 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 200 mm,
or
(c) the reinforcement percentage (100As/bd )
< 0.3%.

9
(ii) Where none of conditions (a), (b) or (c) apply and the percentage of reinforcement in the slab
exceed 1 per cent, then the maximum clear distance between bars (Smax) given in Table 3.28
of BS 8110 should be used, namely:
Smax ≤ 280 mm when fy = 250 N/mm2
Smax ≤ 155 mm when fy = 500 N/mm

DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS TWO WAY SPANNING SLAB

The design of continuous one-way spanning slabs is similar to that outlined above for single-span
slabs. The main differences are that (a) several loading arrangements may need to be considered
and (b) such slabs are not statically determinate. Methods such as moment distribution can be
used to determine the design moments and shear forces in the slab .
However, where the following conditions are met, the moments and shear forces can be calculated
using the coefficients in Table 3.12 of BS 8110.
1. There are three or more spans of approximately equal length.
2. The area of each bay exceeds 30 m2
3. The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not exceed
1.25.
4. The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions.

10
Figure 4: Definition of panels and bays (Fig. 3.7, BS 8110).

Table 4: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs with
simple end supports (Table 3.12, BS 8110)

Design Of Two-Way Spanning Restrained Solid Slab Design

The design of two-way spanning restrained slabs supporting uniformly distributed loads is
generally similar to that outlined above for one way spanning slabs. The extra complication arises
from the fact that it is rather difficult to determine the design bending moments and shear forces
in these plate-like structures.
Fortunately, BS 8110 contains tables of coefficients (βsx, βsy, βvx, βvy) that may assist in this
task (Tables 3.14 and 3.15 of BS 8110). Thus, the maximum design moments per unit width of
rectangular slabs of shorter side and longer side are given by
𝑚𝑠𝑥 = 𝛽𝑠𝑥 𝑛𝑙𝑥2
𝑚𝑠𝑦 = 𝛽𝑠𝑦 𝑛𝑙𝑥2
Where, Msx is maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips
of unit width and span lx
Msy is maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips of
unit width and span ly
n = total design ultimate load per unit area = 1.4gk + 1.6qk
𝑣𝑠𝑥 = 𝛽𝑣𝑥 𝑛𝑙𝑥
𝑣𝑠𝑦 = 𝛽𝑣𝑦 𝑛𝑙𝑥
RIBBED SLAB
Ribbed slabs are more economical than solid slabs for long spans with relatively light loads (Choo
& MacGinley, 2014). They may be constructed in a variety of ways as discussed in BS8110: Part
1, section 3.6. Two principal methods of construction are :

11
1. ribbed slabs without permanent blocks
2. ribbed slabs with permanent hollow or solid blocks

Figure 5: (a) Ribbed slab; (b) ribbed slab with hollow blocks
The topping or concrete floor panels between ribs may or may not be considered to contribute to
the strength of the slab. The hollow or solid blocks may also be counted in assessing the strength
using rules given in the code. The design of slabs with topping taken into account but without
permanent blocks is discussed.
Ribbed Slab Proportions
Proportions for ribbed slabs without permanent blocks are set out in section 3.6 of the code. The
main requirements are as follows:
1. The centres of ribs should not exceed 1.5 m;
2. The depth of ribs excluding topping should not exceed four times their average
width;
3. The minimum rib width should be determined by consideration of cover, bar spacing and
fire resistance. Referring to Fig. 3.2 in the code, the minimum rib width is 125 mm;
4. The thickness of structural topping or flange should not be less than 50 mm or onetenth
of the clear distance between ribs (Table 3.18 in the code).

12
Note that, to meet a specified fire resistance period, non-combustible finish, e.g. screed on top or
sprayed protection, can be included to give the minimum thickness for slabs set out in Fig. 3.2 in
the code. See also Part 2, section 4.2, of the code. For example, a slab thickness of 110 mm is
required to give a fire resistance period of 2 h.
Design Procedure And Reinforcement (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)
(a) Shear forces and moments
Shear forces and moments for continuous slabs can be obtained by analysis as set out for solid
slabs by using Table 3.13 in the code.
(b) Design for moment and moment reinforcement
The mid-span section is designed as a T-beam with flange width equal to the distance between
ribs. The support section is designed as a rectangular beam. The slab may be made solid near the
support to increase shear resistance.
Moment reinforcement consisting of one or more bars is provided in the top and bottom of the
ribs. If appropriate, bars can be curtailed in a similar way to bars in solid slabs.
(c) Shear resistance and shear reinforcement
The design shear stress is given in clause 3.6.4.2 by v=V/bvd
where V is the ultimate shear force on a width of slab equal to the distance between ribs,
bv is the average width of a rib and d is the effective depth.
In no case should the maximum shear stress v exceed 0.8fcu1/2 or 5 N/mm2. No shear reinforcement
is required when v is less than the value of vc given in Table 3.9 of the code. Shear reinforcement
is required when v exceeds vc. Clause 3.6.1.3 states that if the rib contains two or more bars links
must be provided for v>vc/2. Nominal links are designed as set out in Table 3.8 in the code. The
spacing should not exceed 0.75d. Links are not required in ribs containing one bar.
(d) Reinforcement in the topping
The code states in clause 3.6.6.2 that fabric with a cross-sectional area of not less than 0.12% of
the area of the topping in each direction should be provided. The spacing of wires should not
exceed one-half the centre-to-centre distance of the ribs. The mesh is placed in the centre of the
topping and requirements for cover given in section 3.3.7 of the code should be satisfied. If the

13
ribs are widely spaced the topping may need to be designed for moment and shear as a continuous
one-way slab between ribs.
Deflection
The deflection can be checked using the span-to-effective depth rules given in section 3.4.6 of the
code.
WAFFLE SLAB
8.6.1 Design procedure
Two-way spanning ribbed slabs are termed waffle slabs. The general provisions for construction
and design procedure are given in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.6. These conditions are set out above
dealing with one-way ribbed slabs. Moments for design may be taken from Table 3.14 of the code
for slabs simply supported on four sides or from Table 3.15 for panels supported on four sides with
provision for torsion at the corners. Slabs may be made solid near supports to increase moment
and shear resistance and provide flanges for support beams. In edge slabs, solid areas are required
to contain the torsion steel.
FLAT SLAB
8.6.1 Design procedure
The flat slab is defined in BS8110: Part 1, clause 1.2.2.1, as a slab with or without drops, supported
generally without beams by columns with or without column heads. The code states that the slab
may be solid or have recesses formed on the soffit to give a waffle slab. Only solid slabs will be
discussed. Flat slab construction is shown in Fig. 7 for a building with circular internal columns,
square edge columns and drop panels. The slab is thicker than that required in T-beam floor slab
construction but the omission of beams gives a smaller storey height for a given clear height and
simplification in construction and formwork. Various column supports for the slab either without

14
or with drop panels are shown in Fig. 8.21. The effective column head is defined in the code.

Figure 6: (a) Floor plan of a flat slab; (b) section of a flat slab

Figure 7: a. Flat Plate and Flat slab without drop b. Flat Slab with drop

General code provisions

The design of slabs is covered in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.7. General requirements are given in
clause 3.7.1, as follows.
1. The ratio of the longer to the shorter span should not exceed 2.

15
2. Design moments may be obtained by
(a) equivalent frame method
(b) simplified method
(c) finite element analysis
3. The effective dimension lh of the column head is taken as the lesser of
(a) the actual dimension lhc or
(b) lh max=lc+2(dh−40)
where lc is the column dimension measured in the same direction as lh. For a flared head lhc is
measured 40 mm below the slab or drop. Column head dimensions and the effective dimension for
some cases are shown in Figure 9 (see also BS8110: Part 1, Fig. 3.11).
4. The effective diameter of a column or column head is as follows:
(a) For a column, the diameter of a circle whose area equals the area of the column
(b) for a column head, the area of the column head based on the effective dimensions
defined in requirement 3
The effective diameter of the column or column head must not be greater than one quarter of the
shorter span framing into the column.
6. Drop panels only influence the distribution of moments if the smaller dimension of the
drop is at least equal to one-third of the smaller panel dimension. Smaller drops provide
resistance to punching shear.
7. The panel thickness is generally controlled by deflection. The thickness should not be less
than 125 mm.

16
Figure 8: Column head dimensions and the effective dimension for some cases (Allen, 2001)
Analysis
The code states that normally it is sufficient to consider only the single load case of maximum
design load, 1.4×dead load+1.6×imposed load on all spans. The following method of analysis is
set out in section 3.7.2 of the code to obtain the moments and shears for design.
(b) Simplified method
Moments and shears may be taken from Table 3.19 of the code for structures where lateral stability
does not depend on slab-column connections. The following provisions apply:
1. Design is based on the single load case mentioned above;
2. The structure has at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction
considered.
The design moments and shears for internal panels from Table 3.19 of the code are given in Table
8.5. Refer to the code for the complete table.
Division of panels and moments

17
(a) Panel division
Flat slab panels are divided into column and middle strips as shown in Fig. 3.12 of the
code. The division is shown in Fig. 8.23 for a slab with drop panels.

Figure 9: Division of Panels of Flat slab (Allen, 2001)

Table 5. Distribution of moments in flat slabs Distribution between column and middle strip
as percentage of total negative or positive moment (Table 3.19 Of BS 8110)

b) Moment division
The design moments obtained from Table 3.19 of the code are divided between column and middle
strips in accordance with Table 3.20 of the code. The proportions are given in Table 5. Refer to
the code for modifications to the table for the case where the middle strip is increased in width.
Design of internal panels and reinforcement details

18
The slab reinforcement is designed to resist moments derived from Tables 3.19 and 3.20 of the
code. The code states in clause 3.7.3.1 for an internal panel that two-thirds of the amount of
reinforcement required to resist negative moment in the column strip should be placed in a central
zone of width one-half of the column strip.
Reinforcement can be detailed in accordance with the simplified rules given in clause 3.12.10.3.1
and Fig. 3.25 of the code (section 8.2.3(d) above).
Design of edge panels
Design of edge panels is not discussed. Reference should be made to the code for design
requirements. The design is similar to that for an interior panel. The moments are given in Table
3.19 of the code. The column strip is much narrower than for an internal panel (Fig. 3.13 of the
code). The slab must also be designed for large shear forces as shown in Fig. 3.15 of the code.
Shear force and shear resistance
The code states is clause 3.7.6.1 that punching shear around the column is the critical consideration
in flat slabs. Rules are given for calculating the shear force and checking shear stresses.
(a) Shear forces
Equations are given in the code for calculating the design effective shear force Veff at a shear
perimeter in terms of the design shear Vt transferred to the column. The equations for Veff include
an allowance for moment transfer, i.e. the design moment transferred from the slab to the column.
The code states that in the absence of calculations it is satisfactory to take Veff=1.15Vt for internal
columns in braced structures with approximately equal spans. To calculate Vt all panels adjacent
to the column are loaded with the maximum design load.
(b) Shear resistance
Shear due to concentrated loads on slabs is given in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.7.7.
(i) Maximum shear stress at the face of the column

where u0 is the perimeter of the column (Fig. 8.24) and V is the design ultimate value of the
concentrated load.
(ii) Shear stress on a failure zone 1.5d from the face of the column

19
 where u is the perimeter of the failure zone 1.5d from the face of the column (Fig.11). If v is
less than the design concrete shear stress given in Table 3.9 of the code, no shear reinforcement
is required. If the failure zone mentioned above does not require shear reinforcement, no further
checks are required. It is not desirable to have shear reinforcement in light or moderately loaded
slabs.

Figure 10: Shear stress on a failure zone 1.5d from the face of the column (Choo & MacGinley,
2014)
Deflection
The code states in clause 3.7.8 that for slabs with drops, if the width of drop is greater than one-
third of the span, the rules limiting span-to-effective depth ratios given in section 3.4.6 of the code
can be applied directly. In other cases span-to-effective depth ratios are to be multiplied by 0.9.
The check is to be carried out for the most critical direction, i.e. for the longest span. The
modification factor for tension reinforcement is based on the total moment at mid-span of the panel
and the average of column strip and middle strip tension steel.
Crack control
The bar spacing rules for slabs given in clause 3.12.11.2.7 of the code apply

2.1.2 BEAM DESIGN

Beams carry lateral loads in roofs, floors etc. and resist the loading in bending, shear and bond.
The design must comply with the ultimate and serviceability limit states.

20
Let’s jump straight to Continuous beams which are mostly found out there plus simply supported
beam are easier to understand for anyone with an introduction to RCD .
Continuous Beams
Continuous beams are a common element in cast-in-situ construction.
Uniformly-loaded continuous beams with approximately equal spans: moments and shears
Table 6 may be used to calculate the design ultimate bending moments and shear forces, subject
to the following provisions:
a) characteristic imposed load Qk may not exceed characteristic dead load Gk;
b) loads should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans;
c) variations in span length should not exceed 15 % of longest.
Table 6: Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces

Design resistance moment of beams

Analysis of sections
In the analysis of a cross-section to determine its ultimate moment of resistance the following
assumptions should be made.
a) The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and the strains in the reinforcement,
whether in tension or compression, are derived from the assumption that plane sections remain
plane.
b) The stresses in the concrete in compression may be derived from the stress-strain curve with γm
= 1.5. Alternatively, the simplified stress block may be used.
c) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
d) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve with γm = 1.05.
e) Where a section is designed to resist only flexure, the lever arm should not be assumed to be
greater than 0.95 times the effective depth. In the analysis of a cross-section of a beam that has to

21
resist a small axial thrust, the effect of the design ultimate axial force may be ignored if it does not
exceed 0.1fcu times the cross-sectional area.
2.1.3 COLUMN DESIGN
Columns are structural members in buildings carrying roof and floor loads to the foundations. A
column stacks in a multistory building is shown in Fig. 12(a). Columns primarily carry axial
loads, but most columns are subjected to moment as well as axial load. Referring to the part floor
plan in the figure 12, the internal column A is designed for axial load while edge columns B and
corner column C are designed for axial load and moment. Design of axially loaded columns is
treated first. Then methods are given for design of sections subjected to axial load and moment.
Most columns are termed short columns and fail when the material reaches its ultimate capacity
under the applied loads and moments. Slender columns buckle and the additional moments
caused by deflection must be taken into account in design. The column section is generally
square or rectangular, but circular and polygonal columns are used in special cases. When the
section carries mainly axial load it is symmetrically reinforced with four, six, eight or more bars
held in a cage by links. Typical column reinforcement is shown in Fig. 12(b).

Figure 11: (a) Building column; (b) column construction (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)

General Code Provisions

22
General requirements for design of columns are treated in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.8.1. The
provisions apply to columns where the greater cross-sectional dimension does not exceed four
times the smaller dimension.
The minimum size of a column must meet the fire resistance requirements given in Fig. 3.2 of the
code. For example, for a fire resistance period of 1.5 h a fully exposed column must have a
minimum dimension of 250 mm. The covers required to meet durability and fire resistance
requirements are given in Tables 3.4 and 3.5 respectively of the code.
The code classifies columns first as
1. Short Columns when the ratios lex/h and ley/b are both less than 15 for braced columns and
less than 10 for unbraced columns and
2. Slender Columns when the ratios are larger than the values given above. Here b is the width of
the column cross-section, h is the depth of the column cross section, lex is the effective height in
respect of the major axis and ley is the effective height in respect of the minor axis.
In the second classification the code defines columns as braced or unbraced. The code states that
a column may be considered to be braced in a given plane if lateral stability to the structure as a
whole is provided by walls or bracing designed to resist all lateral forces in that plane. Otherwise
the column should be considered as unbraced.
Lateral stability in braced reinforced concrete structures is provided by shear walls, lift shafts and
stair wells. In unbraced structures resistance to lateral forces is provided by bending in the columns
and beams in that plane. Braced and unbraced frames are shown in Figs 13(a) and 13(b)
respectively. Clause 3.8.1.4 of the code states that if a column has a sufficiently large section to
resist the ultimate loads without reinforcement, it may be designed similarly to a plane concrete
wall.

23
Figure 12: (a) Braced frame; (b) unbraced frame. (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)

Practical design provisions

The following practical considerations with regard to design of columns are extracted from
BS8110: Part 1, section 3.12. The minimum number of longitudinal bars in a column section is
four. The points from the code are as follows.
(a) Minimum percentage of reinforcement
The minimum percentage of reinforcement is given in Table 3.27 of the code for both grade 250
and grade 460 reinforcement as 100Asc/Acc=0.4 where Asc is the area of steel in compression
and Acc is the area of concrete in compression.
(b) Maximum area of reinforcement
Clause 3.12.6.2 states that the maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the gross
cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps where 10% is permitted.
(c) Requirements for links
Clause 3.12.7 covers containment of compression reinforcement:
1. The diameter of links should not be less than 6 mm or one-quarter of the diameter of the largest
longitudinal bar;
2. The maximum spacing is to be 12 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar;
3. The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and each alternate bar in an outer layer is
supported by a link passing round the bar and having an included angle of not more than 135°. No
bar is to be further than 150 mm from a restrained bar.

d) Compression laps and butt joints

Clause 3.12.8.15 of the code states that the length of compression laps should be 25% greater than
the compression anchorage length. Compression lap lengths are given in Table 3.29 of the code.
(b). Clause 3.12.8.16.1 of the code also states that the load in compression bars may be transferred
by end bearing of square sawn cut ends held by couplers. Welded butt joints can also be made
(clause 3.12.8.17).
9.2 SHORT BRACED AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

24
9.2.1 Code design expressions
Both longitudinal steel and all the concrete assist in carrying the load. The links prevent the
longitudinal bars from buckling. BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.8.4.3, gives the following expression for
the ultimate load N that a short braced axially loaded column can support.
N=0.4fcuAc+0.75Ascfy, where Ac is the net cross-sectional area of concrete in the column and
Asc is the area of vertical reinforcement. The expression allows for eccentricity due to construction
tolerances but applies only to a column that cannot be subjected to significant moments. An
example is column A in Fig. 9.1(a) which supports a symmetrical arrangement of floor beams.
Note that for pure axial load the ultimate capacity Nuz of a column given in clause 3.8.3.1 of the
code is Nuz=0.45fcuAc+0.87fyAsc.
Thus in the design equation for short columns the effect of the eccentricity of the load is taken into
account by reducing the capacity for axial load by about 10%. Clause 3.8.4.4 gives a further
expression for short braced columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of
beams. These beams must be designed for uniformly distributed imposed loads and the span must
not differ by more than 15% of the longer span. The ultimate load is given by the expression
N=0.35fcuAc+0.67Ascfy. (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)
2.1.4 STAIR DESIGN

25
Figure 13: Stairs (Choo & MacGinley, 2014)
Stairways are sloping one-way spanning slabs. Two methods of construction are used.
(a) Transverse spanning stair slabs
Transverse spanning stair slabs span between walls, a wall and stringer (an edge beam), or between
two stringers. The stair slab may also be cantilevered from a wall. A stair slab spanning between
a wall and a stringer is shown in Fig. 8.41(a).
The stair slab is designed as a series of beams consisting of one step with assumed breadth and
effective depth shown in Fig. 8.41(c). The moment reinforcement is generally one bar per step.
Secondary reinforcement is placed longitudinally along the flight.
(b) Longitudinal spanning stair slab
The stair slab spans between supports at the top and bottom of the flight. The supports may be
beams, walls or landing slabs. A common type of staircase is shown in Fig.
8.42.

26
Figure 14: (a) Transverse section; (b) longitudinal section; (c) assumptions for design

Figure 15: (a) Stair Reinforcements Detail, (b) Stair plan

The effective span l lies between the top landing beam and the centre of support in the wall. If the
total design load on the stair is W the positive design moment at mid-span and the negative moment
over top beam B are both taken as Wl/10. The arrangement of moment reinforcement is shown in
the figure. Secondary reinforcement runs transversely across the stair.
A stair case around a lift well is shown in Fig. 8.43. The effective span l of the stair is defined in
the code. This and other code requirements are discussed in section 8.9.3 below. The maximum
moment near mid-span and over supports is taken as Wl/10 where W is the total design load on
the span
8.9.3 Code design requirements
(a) Imposed loading
The imposed loading on stairs is given in BS6399: Part 1, Table 1. From this table the distributed
loading is as follows:
1. dwelling not over three storeys, 1.5 kN/m2

27
2. all other buildings, the same as the floors to which they give access but not less than 3 kN/m2
or more than 5 kN/m2
(b) Design provisions
Provisions for design of staircases are set out in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.10 and are summarized
below.
1. The code states that the staircase may be taken to include a section of the landing spanning in
the same direction and continuous with the stair flight;
2. The design ultimate load is to be taken as uniform over the plan area. When two spans intersect
at right angles the load on the common area can be divided equally between the two spans;
3. When a staircase or landing spans in the direction of the flight and is built into the wall at least
110 mm along part or all of the length, a strip 150 mm wide may be deducted from the loaded area.
4. When the staircase is built monolithically at its ends into structural members spanning at right
angles to its span, the effective span is given by la+0.5(lb1+lb2), where la is the clear horizontal
distance between supporting members, lb1 is the breadth of a supporting member at one end or 1.8
m whichever is the smaller and lb2 is the breadth of a supporting member at the other end or 1.8
m whichever is the smaller.
5. The effective span of simply supported staircases without stringer beams should be taken as the
horizontal distance between centerlines of supports or the clear distance between faces of supports
plus the effective depth whichever is the less;
6. The depth of the section is to be taken as the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of
the stair slab;
7. The design procedure is the same as for beams and slabs.
8. For staircases without stringer beams when the stair flight occupies at least 60% of the span the
permissible span-to-effective depth ratio may be increased by 15%.
2.1.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN/BASE AREA DESIGN
Foundations transfer loads from the building or individual columns to the earth. Types
of foundations are:
1. isolated bases for individual columns
2. combined bases for several columns

28
3. rafts for whole buildings which may incorporate basements
All the above types of foundations may bear directly on the ground or be supported on piles. Only
isolated and combined bases are considered.

The type of foundation to be used depends on a number of factors such as

1. the soil properties and conditions
2. the type of structure and loading
3. the permissible amount of differential settlement
The choice is usually made from experience but comparative designs are often necessary to
determine the most economical type to be used. The size of a foundation bearing directly on the
ground depends on the safe bearing pressure of the soil, which is taken to mean the bearing pressure
that can be imposed without causing excessive settlement. Values for various soil types and
conditions are given in BS8004: Code of practice for foundations. In general, site load tests and
laboratory tests on soil samples should be carried out to determine soil properties for foundation
design.
FOUNDATION DESIGN
Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allowable bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded, or (b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.
The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the design load
divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = < 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be
considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the serviceability
limit state (i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk). The calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the
bending and shear reinforcement should, however, be based on ultimate loads (i.e. l.4Gk + 1.6Qk).
The design of a pad footing only will be considered here. The reader is referred to more specialized
books on this subject for the design of the other foundation types discussed above. However, it

29
should be borne in mind that in most cases the design process would be similar to that for beams
and slabs.
Pad footing
The general procedure to be adopted for the design of pad footings is as follows:
1. Calculate the plan area of the footing using serviceability loads.
2. Determine the reinforcement areas required for bending using ultimate loads.
3. Check for punching, face and transverse shear failures.
FOUNDATION DESIGN (DETAILS)
Bending
The critical section is at the face of the column on a pad footing or the wall in a strip footing. The
moment is taken on a section passing completely across a pad footing and is due to the ultimate
loads on one side of the section. No redistribution of moments should be made.
Distribution of reinforcement
The code states that where lc exceeds (3c/4+9d/4), two-thirds of the required reinforcement for the
given direction should be concentrated within a zone from the centerline of the column to a
distance 1.5d from the face of the column (c is the column width, d is the effective depth of the
base slab and lc is half the spacing between column centers (if more than one) or the distance to
the edge of the pad, whichever is the greater). Otherwise the reinforcement may be distributed
uniformly over lc.
The arrangement of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 11.3(b)
Shear on vertical section across full width of base
The vertical shear force is the sum of the loads acting outside the section considered. The shear
stress is v=V/ld where l is the length or width of the base. Refer to clause 3.4.5.10 (Enhanced shear
strength near supports, simplified approach). If the shear stress is checked at d from the support
and v is less than the value of vc from Table 3.9 of the code, no shear reinforcement is required
and no further checks are needed. If shear reinforcement is required, refer to Table 3.17 of the
code. It is normal practice to make the base sufficiently deep so that shear reinforcement is not
required. The depth of the base is controlled by the design for shear.
Punching shear around the loaded area

30
The punching shear force is the sum of the loads outside the periphery of the critical section. Refer
to clause 3.7.7.6 of the code dealing with the design of flat slabs for shear. The shear stress is
checked on the perimeter at 1.5d from the face of the column. If the shear stress v is less than the
value of vc no shear reinforcement is needed and no further checks are required. If shear
reinforcement is required refer to clause 3.7.7.5 of the code. The critical perimeter for punching
shear is shown in Fig. 17. The maximum shear at the column face must not exceed 0.8fcu1/2 or 5
N/mm2.

Figure 16: Shear Failures

Anchorage of column starter bars

The code states in clause 3.12.8.8 that the compression bond stresses that develop on starter bars
within bases do not need to be checked provided that:
1. the starter bars extend down to the level of the bottom reinforcement
2. the base has been designed for the moments and shear set out above
Cracking
See the rules for slabs in clause 3.12.11.2.7 of the code. The bar spacing is not to exceed 3d or 750
mm.
Minimum grade of concrete
The minimum grade of concrete to be used in foundations is grade 35.
Nominal cover
Clause 3.3.1.4 of the code states that the minimum cover should be 75 mm if the concrete is cast
directly against the earth or 40 mm if cast against adequate blinding.
Table 3.2 of the code classes non-aggressive soil as a moderate exposure condition.

31
 2.1.6 BAR BENDING SCHEDULE
Bar Bending Schedule, commonly referred to as “BBS” is a comprehensive list that describes the
location, mark, type, size, length and number, and bending details of each bar or fabric in
a Reinforcement Drawing of a Structure.

This process of listing the location, type and size, number of and all other details is called
“Scheduling”. In context of Reinforcement bars, it is called bar scheduling. In short, Bar Bending
Schedule is a way of organizing rebar’s for each structural unit, giving detailed reinforcement
requirements. ("Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) | BBS Step by Step Preparation | Sample Excel
Sheet | CivilDigital |", 2019)

General guidelines to be followed in preparing BBS:

 The bars should be grouped together for each structural unit, e.g. beam, column, etc.
 In a building structure, the bars should be listed floor by floor
 For cutting and bending purposes schedules should be provided as separate A4 sheets and not as
part of the detailed reinforcement drawings.
 The form of bar and fabric schedule and the shapes of bar used should be in accordance with BS
8666.
 It is preferable that bars should be listed in the schedule in numerical order.
 It is essential that the bar mark reference on the label attached to a bundle of bars refers uniquely
to a particular group or set of bars of defined length, size, shape and type used on the job.
 This is imperative as a bar mark reference can then point to a class of bar characteristics. Also,
this helps steel fixers and laborers keep track of the type and number of bars needed to complete
a certain work.

Bar Bending Schedule is used by the:

 Detailer
 person checking the drawing
 contractor who orders the reinforcement
 organization responsible for fabricating the reinforcement
32
 steel fixer
 clerk of works or other inspector
 the quantity surveyor

Quantity surveyor is responsible for estimation and costing operations of a project. This kind of
surveying demands a high level of precision. Bar Bending Schedule helps the quantity surveyor
to consolidate the number of bars required of each bar type.

This leads to an estimation of the quantity of steel, which translates to the cost requirements for
steel work. Hence, BBS is used by the contractor who orders the reinforcements as well. Unit
cost of steel is charged by weight of steel purchased.

Clerk of works and other inspectors refer to the BBS to make sure that the reinforcement work in
the site is in tandem with the design requirements as per drawings. It is used as a frame of
reference by the steel fixers firsthand. They can easily make note of the number and kind of rebar
needed for a structural unit. In essence, Bar Bending Schedule subsumes all necessary
information on reinforcements, used by professionals at various stages of the construction
process, right from procurement to finish. ("Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) | BBS Step by Step
Preparation | Sample Excel Sheet | CivilDigital |", 2019).

How to prepare a BBS?

Necessary Columns

 Bar number/Bar Mark Reference

 Bar shape
 Diameter
 Spacing
 Length of bar
 Cutting Length
 Number of bars

33
Most of the information in a BBS can be found in reinforcement drawings of the structural unit.
Bar shape, diameter, length and spacing is directly entered in the schedule just by looking at the
drawings, which will have detailed dimensioning.

Number of bars:

Suppose the spacing of stirrups is 150 c/c and the length along which they are placed is 6800
mm, we can find the number of bars by the formula below

[ Length / Spacing] + 1 = number of bars

[ 6800 / 150] + 1 = 46.33
In this case, we always round up. Hence, we require 47 stirrups.

Cutting Length:

We must remember than steel is ductile in nature and is subject to elongation. Hence, the length
of a bar is increased when bends or hooks are introduced. Hence, certain deductions are needed
to offset this increase in length.

Cutting Length = True Length of a bar – Deductions

For 45 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 1 x Dia of bar x No. of bends

For 90 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 2 x Dia of bar x No. of bends

For stirrups:

90-degree hook:

Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 20 x dia

135-degree hook:

34
Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 24 x dia

Figure 17: One of pages of a BBS done by Me

2.1.7 BILLS OF QUANTITY

The bill of quantities (sometimes referred to as 'BoQ' or 'BQ') is a document prepared by the cost
consultant (often a quantity surveyor) that provides project specific measured quantities of the
items of work identified by the drawings and specifications in the tender documentation.
The quantities may be measured in number, length, area, volume, weight or time. Preparing a bill
of quantities requires that the design is complete and a specification has been prepared.

The bill of quantities is issued to tenderers for them to prepare a price for carrying out the works.
The bill of quantities assists tenderers in the calculation of construction costs for their tender,

35
 and, as it means all tendering contractors will be pricing the same quantities (rather than taking
off quantities from the drawings and specifications themselves), it also provides a fair and
accurate system for tendering. The contractor tenders against the bill of quantities, stating
their price for each item. This priced bill of quantities constitutes the tenderer's offer. As the offer
is built up of prescribed items, it is possible to compare both the overall price and individual
items directly with other tenderers' offers, allowing a detailed assessment of which aspects of
a tender may offer good or poor value. This information can assist with tender negotiations.

The priced bill of quantities will also:

Assist with the agreement of the contract sum with the successful tenderer.

 Provide a schedule of rates assisting with the valuation of variations.

 Provide a basis for the valuation of interim payments.
 Provide a basis for the preparation of the final account.

2.1.8 BREAKDOWN OF PRICES

Total cost of a good, service, or package separated into its elements and listed under suitable
heads such as materials, labor, shipping and handling, taxes, etc. In situations where the cost of
each element (such as customer service, distribution, overheads) is not known but has to be
estimated it is also called price unbundling.
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF TRAINING ACTIVITIES
Following is the structural design report of a G+1 Building designed and reported by me. It was
an assignment given to me after proving that I can design main elements of a building manually.

36
2.2.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A REINFORCED CONCRETE RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING

G+1 BUILDING

Designed by: Promesse NIYIBIZI

19th July 2019

37
 0. INTRODUCTION
The aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being
designed will perform satisfactorily during their intended life. With an appropriate degree
of safety, they should sustain all the loads and deformations of normal construction and use
and have adequate durability and resistance to the effects of misuse and fire.
Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized the design problem
consists of the following:
Idealization of the structure into loadbearing frames and elements for analysis and design
Estimation of loads
Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and shears for design
Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and walls
using the results from 3
Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules
This structural design process has been carried out under use of BS8110 design code of
practice. Especially, computations have been made by use of BS 8110 based spreadsheets;
publication produced by the Reinforced Concrete Council (RCC) as part of its project
'Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and EC2'.\2. ASSUMPTIONS PREFERED
Design standards used
Design standard used to determine section of steel bars of different structural elements of
concerned building are BS 8110
Unities
Volumetric load: kN/m3
Surface load: kN/m2
Linear load: kN/m
Point load: kN
Dead loads
Roof structure: 1.5kN/m2
Reinforced concrete: 25kN/m3

38
Finishes: 1.0kN/m2
Masonry in burnt bricks: 18kN/m3
Coating in cement mortar: 20kN/m3
Masonry in cement blocks: 13.5kN/m3
Imposed load or live load
Residential building: 3 kN/m2
Cover conditions
Slabs and columns [2 hrs Fire Resistance]: 25 mm
Beams [2 hrs Fire Resistance]: 30 mm
Foundation pads [moderate condition]: 40 mm
Soil characteristics
Sandy-gravel subsoil of unit weight: 18kN/m3
Allowable bearing pressure: 300kN/ m2
Mix proportions [BS 5328-2]
Mix ratio: 350 kg/ m3
Elasticity limit for construction materials
Strength of reinforcement:
Hot rolled mild steel: 250 N/mm2
High yield steel (hot rolled or cold worked): 460 N/mm2
Concrete ƒck: 30 N/mm2
Partial safety magnification factors
For dead load: 1.4
For live load: 1.6
Basic span-effective depth ration: 20.8

39
1. LAYOUT OF OVERALL PLAN [STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT]
Faundations, columns, beams, slabs, stairs
Frame

2. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF SLABS:

Critical slabs
SLAB 3,5-A, B

40
Calculation and design

41
42
43
3. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF BEAMS:
Critical beams
Beam B 2-6 Layout

Calculation and design

Type: T beam
Transverse Section of beam
Breadth of the web, bw = 300 mm
L1= 3.85 m
L2=3.9 m
L3=2.55 m

44
Nominal diameter 8 mm links and 16 mm for main bars
Preliminary analysis
The effective breadth bf of flanged beams is given in BS8110:
In the absence of any more accurate determination this should be taken as:
a) For T-beams: web width +lz/5 or actual flange width if less;
b) For L-beams: web width +lz/10 or actual flange width if less;
Where:
lz is the distance between points of zero moment (which, for a continuous beam, may be
taken as 0.7 times the effective span).
A general bf for this continuous beam has been taken as:
𝑙 3900
𝑏𝑓 = 𝑏𝑤 + (0.7 × ) = 300 + (0.7 × ) = 846𝑚𝑚
5 5
Span/effective depth ratio for a rectangular or flanged beam
The basic span/effective depth ratios for beams are given in below. These are based on
limiting the total deflection to span/250 and this should normally ensure that the part of the
deflection occurring after construction of finishes and partitions will be limited to span/500
or 20 mm, whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m. For values of bw/b greater than 0.3,
linear interpolation between the values given in the table below for rectangular sections and
for flanged beams with bw/b of 0.3 may be used.

Where:
bw: average web width of a flanged beam
b: effective width of a rectangular beam, the effective flange width of a flanged beam or the
total average width of the flanges.

45
46
47
48
4. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF COLUMN
Critical columns
Column 3-B Layout

Loads on Column / Influence Area (3.875 * 3.9 = 15.1125 m2)

49
Slab
25 * 0.15 * 15.1125 = 56.67 kN
Roof
1.5 * 15.1125 = 22.668 kN
Beam
25*(3.9+3.875)*0.3*0.3*2 floors = 35 kN
Partition + Finishes
18*(3.9+3.875)*0.2*2.8 = 78.372 Kn
Columns
25*0.3*0.3*3*2 = 13.5 kN
Total Dead Load = 206.21 Kn
Live Load = 15.1125*3 = 45.3375
Design Load = 1.4*206.21 + 1.6*45.3375 = 361.234 Kn
N= 0.4 fcu b h + Asc(0.75 fy – 0.4 fcu)
361.234*103 = 0.4*30*300*300 + Asc(0.75 * 460 – 0.4*30)
Asc = Asc min = (0.4 * 300 * 300)/(100) = 360 mm2
Provide 4T12 = 452 mm2

5. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

Critical foundations

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 Foundation on column 3-E
Computation

6. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF STAIRS

Critical stairs

51
The of practice C P 110 give the standard using in the design of stairs
Input Private building Public building

Rise R Less than 220mm Less than 190mm

Riser G Greater than 220mm Greater than 230mm
Slope S Less 42 degree Less 38 degree
Number of rises/ - Less than 16
span
General design: 700mm>G+2*R>550mm
Computation

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53
 2.2.2 BILLS OF QUANTITY

Figure 18: One of pages of a BoQ done by me

54
 2.2.3 BREAKDOWN OF PRICES

Figure 19: One of the pages of a Breakdown of prices done by me

55
 CHAPTER THREE: CIVIL ENGINEERING IN TECHNOLOGY ERA

“Always remember to check all designs from first principles even in the
technology age. Technology is good but it should not replace you as the
Engineer. Technology is meant to make work easier but not replace the
designer.”
~ Eng. Edward MWANGI,
Managing Director of EDYS CONSULTANTS
Signature …………………………………….
3.1 INTRODUCTION
As Generations ended and came the others, either in this field of mine Civil Engineering or
others, Humans always had a desire to make their work easier. I’d say in Every Human’s nature
there is always a thing that I can even call laziness that led to invention of many new
technologies to ease their work.
Civil Engineering industry is at the cusp of a new era, with technology start-ups creating new
applications and tools that are changing how companies design, plan, and execute projects. By
providing advanced software, construction-focused hardware, and analytics capabilities, these
innovative start-ups are eliminating many of the problems that have dogged the sector for
decades, including difficulties compiling and sharing project information. Such improvements
could not come at a better time, since construction projects are becoming increasingly complex
and expensive, putting managers under greater pressure to improve costs, timelines, and
efficiency.
Many companies have begun incorporating new construction technologies into their daily
activities, but most of their efforts have focused on software tools for digital collaboration. The
reasons for this narrow focus vary, but some players hesitate to expand into any other area
because they have traditionally struggled to deploy new tools at scale, limiting their impact. The
modest returns they’ve seen to date make these companies reluctant to explore additional
productivity-enhancing technologies, especially those requiring substantial investment. Other
companies are simply unfamiliar with tools and solutions in areas beyond digital collaboration.
("The new age of engineering and construction technology", 2019).

56
 3.2 SOFTWARES
CAD is Computer-Aided Design. You can also add another D and have Computer-Aided
Design and Drafting. CAD is simply the use of computer systems to assist with design.
While BIM tools such as Revit are technically CAD programs, the term "CAD" is used
more for drafting programs. In terms of building design, CAD is essentially using a drafting
tool, such as AutoCAD, to create lines and arcs to represent a building design.

DETAILING SOFTWARES:
 AUTODESK AUTOCAD 2019
 AUTODESK REVIT 2017 (It can design too)
DESIGN SOFTWARES:
 MICROSOFT EXCEL (DESIGN SPREADSHEETS)
 PROKON
 STAAD PRO
 CYPE
Actually, the software’s listed above cannot all be mastered in 15 weeks that I just spent in
internship. However, I managed to use and get notion on each one of it, understood what each
software can and can’t do, and made sure I can use it again with no much difficulties.
Let me share with you my experience with each of the software’s above.
AUTODESK AUTOCAD 2019

This is a program developed by AUTODESK. The user works on the application through the
commands, editing or drawing done from the inbuilt command line. AutoCAD is issued free of
cost to students, educators, and institutions.
Characteristics of AUTOCAD (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is a Computer-Aided Design Software
 Mostly used for Detailing or Drafting
 With AutoCAD, the students can even import PDF files for any project reference.
 It has many editing commands

57
Advantages of AUTOCAD (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It has Easy Drafting or Detailing tools
 You can import and export all kinds of files.

 Simple Interface, it comes with a lot of functions and commands that are to the point and
without any confusion
 AutoCAD also has project managing tools that allow users to share information
simultaneously & effectively
Disadvantage of AutoCAD (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is tedious for floor plans drafting
 The cost of the program is quite high due to its license. (For professionals)
 A powerful computer with a good RAM and Hard disk is required for the application to
work with processing speed.
AUTODESK REVIT 2017

This is also a program developed by AUTODESK.

Autodesk Revit is building information modelling software for architects, landscape architects,
structural engineers, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) engineers, designers and
contractors. REVIT is issued free of cost to students, educators, and institutions.
Characteristics of REVIT (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is a Building Information Modeling Software
 Can be used for Architectural and structural designs, drafting or detailing and project
management
 It has its own rendering feature
 Most of its families aren’t built in

58
Advantages of REVIT (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 Dimensions can be changed very easily
 You can import and export many kinds of files.

 Simple Interface, it comes with a lot of functions and commands that are to the point and
without any confusion
Disadvantages of REVIT (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It’s families are not built in. You need to load them in .
 The cost of the program is quite high due to its license. (For professionals)
 A powerful computer with a good RAM and Hard disk is required for the application to
work with processing speed.
DESIGN SPREADSHEETS
These are the templates prepared according to a certain standard with main design parameters
required to design certain elements of a building.
Characteristics of DESIGN SPREADSHEET (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 They are MICROSOFT EXCEL TEMPLATES
 The parameters names are according to a standard or code
 It is very good for design software’s novices like students, ……
Advantages of DESIGN SPREADSHEET (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It has a very user friendly interface
 It is quick to learn if you understood well the first principles.
Disadvantage of DESIGN SPREADSHEET (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It doesn’t produce most cost-effective results
STAAD PRO

STAAD Pro is a program developed by Bentley. STAAD Pro stands for Structural
Analysis And Designing Program. STAAD Pro is one of the most widely used structural analysis
and design software products worldwide. It supports over 90 international steel, concrete, timber

59
& aluminum design codes. Civil engineers with a structural focus are recommended to learn
supporting programs like STAAD Pro.
Characteristics of STAAD Pro (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is a Structural Analysis and Design Software
 The program supports the analysis of a variety of structural elements, such as bridges,
structural beams, floodgates, and much more.
Advantages of STAAD Pro (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 STAAD Pro helps make structural design easier by computing moments, shear forces etc
as we need, based on a model we provide
 STAAD Pro supports the analysis of a variety of structural elements, such as bridges,
structural beams, floodgates, and much more.
Disadvantages of STAAD Pro (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 Old Interface: It’s Interface is not very user friendly to me
CYPE

CYPECAD was brought about to carry out the analysis and design of reinforced concrete and
steel structures, subject to horizontal and vertical forces, for houses, buildings and civil work
projects. Its use guarantees maximum analysis reliability and the best drawing design.
Characteristics of CYPE (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is a Structural Analysis and Design Software
 It carries out the analysis and design of reinforced concrete and steel structures, subject to
horizontal and vertical forces, for houses, buildings and civil work projects.

Advantages of CYPE (MY OBSERVATIONS)

60
  It automatically produces Drawings that can be personalized according to the user’s
needs, as the program allows to configure all the drawing layers and elements and
generate them via DXF, DWG, printer and plotter.
 Automatic job introduction. Using CYPECAD’s Automatic job introduction: DXF,
DWG and CAD/BIM models module, the user has two options which allow for a
structure to be generated automatically: either by means of importing a file in IFC format,
generated by the main CAD/BIM programs (Archicad or Revit Architecture); or by using
a file in DXF or DWG format.
Disadvantages of CYPE (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It has no British Standard.
PROKON

PROKON Structural Analysis and Design is a suite of commercial software for structural
analysis and design. PROKON software is produced by South African company Prokon
Software Consultant Ltd.
Characteristics of PROKON (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 It is a Structural Analysis and Design Software
 The program supports the analysis of a variety of structural elements like beams,
columns, slabs, etc….
Advantages of PROKON (MY OBSERVATIONS)
 PROKON helps make structural design easier by computing moments, shear forces of an
element as we need.
 PROKON is very easy and simple to learn. Its interface is user friendly to me.

Disadvantages of STAAD Pro (MY OBSERVATIONS)

 It requires designing element per element not a structure as a whole
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Table 7: My Ratings On Design Softwares That I Used

MY RATINGS
CONSIDERATIONS
SPREADSHEETS STAAD PRO PROKON CYPE
ANALYSIS SPEED ( /20) 20 16 18 10
MODELLING SYSTEM ( /30) 10 22 12 25
RESULTS( /50) 30 40 35 45
Total ( /100) 60 78 65 80

62
 CHAPTER FOUR: MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 Company Description

4.1.1 Company Localization

Figure 20: Google Map Directions from UR-CST Nyarugenge Campus to EDYS
CONSULTANTS Office ("Google Maps", 2019)

63
 4.1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPANY
In line with the objective of this program, I was privileged to undergo the industrial

training with EDYS CONSULTANTS (Kigali).

EDYS CONSULTANTS is a provider of many related construction services here in

Rwanda and Kenya. With more than a decade of experience, EDYS CONSULTANTS

continued to pursue, erect and design splendidly building structures across Rwanda.

EDYS CONSULTANTS success over the past years is due to its employees ‘dedication

to excellent work, customer service that exceeds expectations. Honesty and open

communication have empowered EDYS CONSULTANTS’s workforce since day One.

The Following are the major projects that are getting done recently:
Project Name Project Description Year Work performed
ROBA MERCHANT  Factory and Warehouse 2019  Design and
 Lower part concrete Supervision
frames
 Upper part steel portal
frames
 Design and Supervision
SEEFAR AFFORDABLE  3 Floor Blocks of RC 2019  Design and
HOUSING Masonry construction Supervision
RWANDA MOTOR  Steel Frame Office 2019  Design
Building
SINGITA  5-STAR HOTEL IN 2019  Redesign and
MUSANZE commissioning

4.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SITE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

1) SCAFFOLD: A Scaffold is a temporary framework used to support people and

material in the construction or repair of buildings and other large structures. It is
usually a modular system of metal pipes, although it can be made out of other
materials. The purpose of a working scaffold is to provide a safe place of work with

64
 safe access suitable for the work being done. All scaffolds must be equipped with a
toe board to eliminate the possibility that tools or debris will be kicked or pushed onto
people below. A scaffold must be designed to support four times the weight of the
workers and the materials resting on it.

Figure 21: Scaffold Framework

2) LOADER is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move aside or
load materials such as asphalt, demolition debris, dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs,
raw minerals, recycled material, rock, sand, woodchips, etc. into or onto another type of
machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car). There are
many types of loader, which, depending on design and application, are called by various
names, including bucket loader, front loader, front-end loader, pay
loader, scoop, shovel, skip loader, wheel loader, or skid-steer.

65
Figure 22: Showing a Loader
3) Concrete Mixer: A concrete mixer (often mistakenly called a cement mixer) is a device
that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form
concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components.

Figure 22: Concrete Mixer

Concrete Leveling Machine : this is the machine which is used to level in-situ concrete after
pouring of it .

66
Figure 23: Concrete Levelling Machine
Wheelbarrow Machine: This is just like a normal wheel barrow but which is automized or
machinized to transport tools and materials

Figure 24: wheelbarrow machine

67
 4.2.1 SITE VISITS
BUMBOGO NURSERY SCHOOL

Figure 25: Site Visit at BUMBOGO NURSERY SCHOOL

68
Figure 26: ROBA Site At Free zone

69
 CHAPTER 5: TRAINING OUTCOMES

5.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAINING ACTIVITIES

As in 2nd year Holidays (Industrial Attachment I) I focused on knowing mainly what’s done on
site, and for this Industrial Attachment II I was very determined to knowing what’s done in the
office.
Briefly The Training activities done are the following:
 Architectural and Structural Design of a G+2 residential house manually.

Figure 27: Structural layout of a G+2 residential building designed by me.

 Learning of some civil engineering software’s like PROKON, STAAD Pro, CYPE,
AutoCAD.

70
  Structural design of a G+1 Residential House using Spreadsheets
 Bills of Quantity
 Bar Bending Schedule
It was described in details back in chapter 3.

5.2 DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSIS OF THE TRAINING WORKS

Office Works
Office works dominated my training period as it occupied a big percentage of my training
period, office works consists of manual design process as well the application of CAD software
as STAAD Pro, Cype, PROKON, Spreadsheets, AUTOCAD, REVIT.
Site visits
As my hosting company is a designing and consultant company, we visited different sites to see
if the contractor is fitting the requirements i.e what was designed. We visited ROBA site. This
has helped me as an intern to develop the ability of generating solutions for different situation
on the site.

5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE TRAINING

The environment was quiet good due to communication my supervisor for day to day support
to me for faced difficulties. Apart from supervisor, the communication between me and my
fellow intern’s architects and civil engineers was good because we used to exchange ideas and
discuss to come up with a positive result. Whichever and whoever I asked, they helped me so that
I remain with something especially in software application.

71
 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSION
This report has been able to x-ray an account of the entire work – experience garnered

by me during my internship program at EDYS CONSULTANTS.

I therefore conclude that Industrial Attachment is of great benefit to students in

institutions like UR. It therefore implies that the proper and effective administration of

Internship in UR will go a long way in boosting and enhancing the competencies of the

workforce of the country. I also concluded that Industrial Attachment II is confronted

with series of challenges and this may have hindered the realization of the goals and

objectives of the scheme and it therefore needs to be given attention by all concerned

stakeholders.

Last but not least, my general relationship with people and also work ethics has increased

greatly.

Generally, this program played an important role because I have improved my level of

structural designing as well drafting from basis obtained in class by getting intense

knowledge from my training supervisor.

72
 6.2 RECOMMENDATION
In view of the relevance of the internship program, it is important that it is sustained by

the as it exposes the student to work tools, facilities, and equipment that may not be

available in their respective institutions in relation to their course of study.

To this end, I recommend that the following under-listed points should be implemented:

i. Industrial Attachment needs to be strengthened by all concerned stakeholder in order

for its objectives to be fully realized.
ii. Regular monthly allowances for students on attachment should be paid promptly.
iii. Organizations should always accept students for internship and subsequently assign
them to relevant jobs.
iv. There should be more funding of the scheme by the government in order for it to be
more effective.
v. The companies should put in place all the necessary facilities needed to enhance the
knowledge of the student in industrial attachment.
vi. If Students started doing Internships earlier, they would get the college degree readier
than before.

73
 REFERENCES

Allen, A. (2001). Reinforced concrete design to BS8110 (pp. 141-168). London: E. & F.N.
Spon.
Arya, C. (2009). Design of structural elements: concrete, steelwork, masonry and timber
designs to British standards and Eurocodes (3rd ed., pp. 94-95). Spon Press.
Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) | BBS Step by Step Preparation | Sample Excel Sheet |
CivilDigital |. (2019). Retrieved 4 November 2019, from https://civildigital.com/bar-
bending-schedule-bbs-bbs-step-step-preparation-sample-excel-sheet/
Choo, B., & MacGinley, T. (2014). Reinforced Concrete (2nd ed., pp. 189-238). Florence:
Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Google Maps. (2019). Retrieved 7 November 2019, from
https://www.google.com/maps/dir/College+Of+Science+And+Technology,+University+o
f+Rwanda,+University+of+Rwanda,+Kigali/-1.9792166,30.1157607/@-
1.9641048,30.0760927,4696m/am=t/data=!3m1!1e3!4m10!4m9!1m5!1m1!1s0x19dca42b
cb4e6d57:0x14dac64a1913aadb!2m2!1d30.0635843!2d-1.9568693!1m1!4e1!3e0
The new age of engineering and construction technology. (2019). Retrieved 5 November
2019, from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/capital-projects-and-infrastructure/our-
insights/the-new-age-of-engineering-and-construction-technology#
What Is Civil Engineering?. (2019). Retrieved 30 October 2019, from
https://civil.columbia.edu/about/what-civil-engineering

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