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United ArAB Emirates

CULTURAL FIELD GUIDE

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 Foreword
The United Arab Emirates Cultural Field Guide is designed to pro-
vide deploying military personnel an overview of UAE’s cultural
terrain. In this field guide, UAE’s cultural history has been syn-
opsized to capture the more significant aspects of the country’s
cultural environment, with emphasis on factors having the greatest
potential to impact operations.
The field guide presents background information to show the UAE
mind-set through its history, language, and religion. It also con-
tains practical sections on lifestyle, customs and habits. For those
seeking more extensive information, MCIA produces a series of
cultural intelligence studies on UAE that explore the dynamics of
UAE culture at a deeper level.
CONTENTS
CULTURAL FIELD GUIDE................................................  i
Foreword......................................................................  iii
Emirates...........................................................................   1
Abu Dhabi....................................................................  3
Dubai............................................................................  4
Sharjah..........................................................................  6
Ras al-Khaimah............................................................ 6
Ajman...........................................................................  7
Umm al-Qaiwain..........................................................  7
Fujairah........................................................................   7
Cultural Narratives................................................   8
British Rule..................................................................   9
Early 20 Century........................................................   13
th

Recent History..............................................................   17
Identity and Affiliations.......................................   19
Tribal and Family.........................................................   19
Religion........................................................................   20
Emirati Rivalries...........................................................   21
National Unity..............................................................   21
Regional Identity..........................................................   23
Foreign Workers...........................................................   23
Foreign Population Composition.........................   24
Discrimination......................................................   25
Foreign Culture....................................................   27
Cultural Disruptions.............................................   27

v
Contents (Continued)
Social Organization ................................................   28
Family/Tribal Structures...............................................   28
Political Institutions.....................................................   30
Federal Influence..................................................   30
Emirate Influence.................................................   32
Judicial.........................................................................   32
Civil Society and Media...............................................   33
Cultural Economy........................................................   34
Pre-oil Economy..................................................   34
Oil.........................................................................   34
Diversified Industries...........................................   37
Traditional Activities............................................   38
Tourism................................................................   39
Black Market........................................................   39
Cultural Division of Labor...................................   40
Customs and Practices............................................   42
Language......................................................................   42
Diet...............................................................................  42
Dress.............................................................................   43
Camel Racing...............................................................   44
Poetry...........................................................................   45
Dwellings.....................................................................   45

Illustrations
Desert in UAE  . ................................................................. 2
Abu Dhabi Skyline  . .......................................................... 4
Sheikh Zayed Road, Dubai  ............................................... 5
Fahiri Fort  ......................................................................... 10

vi
Contents (Continued)

Dubai Rotana Hotel  .......................................................... 13

Zayed Mosque is Indicative of UAE’s Oil Wealth.  . ......... 16
Hallway in Zayed Mosque  ................................................ 16
Presidential Palace in Abu Dhabi  . .................................... 31
Fountain in UAE Hotel  ..................................................... 35
Ceiling of Emirates Palace Hotel  . .................................... 36
Burj Al Arab Hotel  ............................................................ 37
Spice Market  ..................................................................... 43
Camel Ranch in UAE  . ...................................................... 44
Tower under Construction  . ............................................... 46

vii
 Cultural Field Guide:
The United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation of seven emirates
located on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the Arabian Gulf to the
north and northwest, Oman and the Indian Ocean to the east, Saudi
Arabia to the west and southwest, and Qatar to the northwest.It en-
compasses total of 83,600 square kilometers (32,378 square miles),
making it roughly the size of Maine. Although much of the UAE is
desert, it does have significant geographic variation including the
Sabkah sandy flats along the coastline and the Hajar Mountains in
the eastern peninsula. UAE’s climate is among the hottest and driest
in the world, though the mountains receive limited rainfall.

Statistics
■■ Total population (2007): 4,348,000
■■ Non-national population: 511,864
■■ Gross national income per capita (2006): $31,190
■■ Life expectancy at birth m/f (2003): 79
■■ Urban population percentage (2007): 77
■■ Adult literacy rate: 90 percent

Emirates
An emirate is a political territory ruled by a tribal leader, or sheikh.
Emirates vary in size and power. The largest and most power-
ful emirate, Abu Dhabi, encompasses 87 percent of UAE’s total
land area and controls approximately 87 percent of the country’s
oil reserves.The smallest emirate, Ajman, has a land area of only
264 square kilometers (102 square miles) and has no proven oil
1
Desert in UAE

resources. Despite the variations between emirates, each retains

its autonomy. This has contributed to the success of the union,
which is often described more as a confederation than a federa-
tion. UAE’s seven emirates and population (2003 estimates) for
each are as follows:
■■ Abu Dhabi 1,591,000
■■ Dubai 1,204,000
■■ Sharjah 636,000
■■ Ajman 235,000
■■ Ras al-Khaimah 195,000
■■ Umm al-Qaiwain 62,000
■■ Fujairah 118,000

2
The UAE is home to approximately 10 percent of the world’s
proven oil reserves and has a wealth of natural resources.The
oil reserves and natural resources have transformed UAE from a
poverty-stricken country to one of the world’s most developed. Its
population has grown drastically, from a few hundred thousand in
1967, to approximately 4.4 million today. Much of this growth is
due to an influx of foreigners, who comprise nearly 80 percent of
the total population and 90 percent of the workforce. Most of the
indigenous population is Sunni, Arab, and tribal. Islam and trib-
alism remain the most significant social and political influences
in the UAE. However, the population faces serious challenges of
self-definition, due to the large number of foreigners that reside in
the country.
Emirate-level identity and organization are significant to most
UAE citizens and social, historical, and economic differences be-
tween the seven emirates are pronounced.

Abu Dhabi
Abu Dhabi is the largest and richest emirate and as such has had
the most significant role in the history and development of the
federation. Its massive oil revenues have allowed it to generously
fund development in the poorer emirates and to provide the bulk
of financial support to UAE’s federal government.
Much of Abu Dhabi is desert, although the emirate does have a
coastline. The capital of Abu Dhabi, also called Abu Dhabi, is on
an island less than 250 meters (820 feet) from the mainland. It is
connected to the mainland by the Maqta and Mussafah bridges and
is the largest city in Abu Dhabi. It is also the capital of the UAE.
Al-Ain lies along the Oman’s border and is the second largest city.
The Liwa oases, a string of nearly 60 oases in the interior desert,

3
Abu Dhabi Skyline
are also significant population centers. Much of Abu Dhabi’s native
population is tribal in heritage and many of these tribes have a semi-
nomadic past. Abu Dhabi is dominated by the Bani Yas tribe, which
includes the ruler’s family, the al-Nahyan. Although the al-Nahyan
have ruled Abu Dhabi since the 18th century, they have maintained
strong alliances with other leading tribes in order to support their au-
thority. These desert and tribal traditions remain strong in Abu Dha-
bi and influence the emirate’s social organization and governance.
Oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi in 1962; however, it was not un-
til in the later 1960s that oil production became a transformational
force. Prior to the discovery and production of oil, Abu Dhabi was
very poor and underdeveloped. Oil-fueled development has been
more pronounced in Abu Dhabi than any other emirate in the UAE
and has brought an atmosphere of leisure and wealth to its people.

Dubai
Dubai was founded in 1833 when a breakaway section of the Bani
Yas tribe moved from Abu Dhabi and resettled in the coastal vil-

4
lage of Dubai. Since then, Dubai has cultivated an image as lead-
ing international commercial center. Centuries of foreign visitors
have brought extensive cosmopolitan influence to the emirate. A
key port linking Asia, Africa, and Europe, Dubai is the most di-
verse of the emirates and has the most open society.
Dubai is known for its fast-paced atmosphere. Although its lim-
ited oil reserves have assisted its development, oil has not driven
Dubai’s economy as it has in neighboring Abu Dhabi. Instead,
Dubai’s rapid modernization has been driven by trade, construc-
tion, tourism, and real estate, all augmented by oil revenue.
Dubai is traditionally home to a more tribally homogeneous na-
tive population than Abu Dhabi and the ruler’s tribe has signifi-
cant authority in the emirate. Merchants have historically been

Sheikh Zayed Road, Dubai

5
the biggest challenge to Dubai’s political system and have often
demanded more authority in decision making.

Sharjah
Sharjah borders Dubai; together the two emirates comprise one
extended contiguous urban center. It has a coastline on both the
Arabian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Sharjah possesses limited
oil and natural gas reserves compared to Abu Dhabi, but have
sufficient supplies allowing the emirate to be economically self-
sufficient. A branch of the Qawasim tribe rules Sharjah; Ras al-
Khaimah is ruled by another branch of the tribe. The Qawasim
were a dominant maritime power in the 18th and early 19th centu-
ries. The British defeated the Qawasim in 1833 and their power
has continued to decline.
Sharjanis consider their emirate to be the cultural center of the
UAE. They are more educated than their fellow Emiratis and
Sharjah is home to a large number of universities, many of which
are branches of foreign institutions. In addition to its oil and gas
supplies, Sharjah is home to small industries and has successfully
promoted its tourist industry.

Ras al-Khaimah
Ras al-Khaimah is the northernmost emirate and contains the
Hajar Mountains. Ras al-Khaimah was the seat of the Qawasim
maritime power in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Its destruction
by the British in 1820 marked the fall of Qawasim dominance in
the lower Gulf. Ras al-Khaimah gradually gained its independence
from Sharjah and in 1921 the British recognized it as an autono-
mous emirate. It is proud of its past, strongly protective of its inde-
pendence, and has often sought to limit the UAE federal govern-
ment’s scope. It delayed joining the federation for 6 months hoping

6
oil reserves would be discovered in its borders, which would give
it a better bargaining position to acquire more authority within the
federation. There was also concern and anger due to the prominent
positions of Abu Dhabi and Dubai in the federation. Today, Ras
al-Khaimah continues to limit the growth of federal institutions,
which it considers an intrusion of Abu Dhabi and Dubai in its in-
ternal affairs. Despite the desire for autonomy, Ras al-Khaimah has
little ability to support itself economically and depends on revenue
from the federal government. However, it does have some industry
and arable land that supports small-scale agriculture.

Ajman
Ajman has the smallest area of all the emirates. It is bordered to
the north, south, and east by Sharjah and the Arabian Gulf to the
west. Ajman is a tribally homogenous emirate ruled by the Al Bu
Khayraban section of the al-Na’im tribe. Ajman has undergone
significant development in recent years, particularly in real estate
and has benefitted from its close proximity to Dubai and Sharjah.

Umm al-Qaiwain
Umm al-Qaiwain is the least populated emirate, with only 62,000
residents in 2003. It is also the poorest of the emirates. It is trib-
ally homogenous and ruled by the al-Ali tribe. It has experienced a
leadership transition, as its long-serving ruler, Rashid bin Ahmad
Al Mu’alla, died in January 2009 and his son, Sheikh Saud bin
Rashid assumed leadership of the emirate.

Fujairah
Fujairah is the only emirate in the UAE that does not lie along the
Arabian Gulf and instead borders only the Indian Ocean. Like Ras
al-Khaimah, it is mountainous. Throughout much of its history, Fu-

7
jairah was isolated from the settlements on the Gulf and fostered
connections with the neighboring Omanis. It is dominated by the
al-Sharquiyyan tribe, the second largest tribe in the UAE (following
the Bani Yas). Originally part of Sharjah, Fujairah was recognized
as an independent state by the British in 1952 as a result of its tribal
unity and dislike of Sharjah rule. Fujairah has a very busy port and
is also an increasingly popular tourist destination.

Cultural Narratives
The UAE has existed for centuries as a society of traditional sheik-
doms with established political, economic, and social traditions.
By the 18th century, the two most influential forces in the UAE, Is-
lam and tribalism, had solidified within the region. Islam came to
the region in the 7th century and continued to grow in prominence,
so that nearly every Emirati was a Muslim. Another significant
cultural influence was the region’s tribal structures, which domi-
nated its economic, political, and social institutions. The two most
influential tribal confederations, the Bani Yas and the Qawasim,
settled in the area and came to dominate both the internal desert
regions and the outlying coastal areas.
In Arab societies, a tribe is a group of people descended from
the same grandfather. Every tribe consists of many thousands of
members, and is divided into a number of branches. The tribe,
however, is not only an embodiment of social harmony, it is also a
form of political organization.
Emiratis believe that the Bani Yas migrated to the region from Ye-
men through Oman. The most powerful branch of the tribe, the Al
Bu Falah, achieved dominance through its control of vital water re-
sources and its alliances with other branches of the Bani Yas. Abu
Dhabi’s ruling family, the Al-Nahyan, is part of the Al Bu Falah

8
branch. Another significant Bani Yas branch is the Au Bu Falasa,
which includes the al-Maktoum family, the Dubai’s ruling family.
The Bani Yas domain was in Abu Dhabi’s desert, particularly
in the Liwa oases. However, in 1761, the Bani Yas discovered a
freshwater source on Abu Dhabi and many relocated to the coastal
region. Although many Bani Yas branches were semi-nomadic
pastoralists, after this discovery many also took to the sea as fish-
ermen or pearlers.
The main rival of the Bani Yas were the Qawasim, a tribal confed-
eration in present-day Ras al-Khaimah and Sharjah. The Qawasim
origins are controversial and it is believed that they migrated to
the region during the 14th through 18th centuries, either from cen-
tral Arabia or the coast. Their livelihood was the sea and by the
early 19th century they came to dominate the lower Gulf and the
Strait of Hormuz, demanding tribute from all passing ships.
Qawasim demands for tribute in the Gulf angered the British,
who had a growing maritime presence in the region, which was
a key stopover on their route to India. They deemed the Qawa-
sim “pirates” and in 1805 launched an aggressive naval campaign
against them. The region became known by the British as the “Pi-
rate Coast.” In 1820, the British destroyed Ras al-Khaimah and
defeated the Qawasim. Qawasim rulers signed a truce with the
British, agreeing to abstain from piracy in exchange for access to
British ports. Other tribal leaders followed suit and signed similar
agreements with the British.

British Rule
After signing a series of agreements with Emirati tribal leaders,
the British pursued a policy of indirect rule in the region. De-
spite their limited presence the British strengthened the posi-
9
tions of the rulers they recognized. British recognition gave these
sheikhs an external source of legitimacy and often an additional
support source when dealing with internal or external challenges.
The British polices dealt primarily with maritime matters, which
weakened the seafaring Qawasim’s authority. This allowed the
Bani Yas, who maintained a strong support base in the hinterland,
to rise in power.
Over the course of the 19th century, the British gradually increased
their influence in the region. In 1853, local Sheikhs signed the
Perpetual Maritime Truce with the British. The Sheikhs agreed
to permanently abstain from maritime aggression in exchange
for access to British ports. This treaty largely reinforced itself, as
access to British ports brought the sheikhs significant economic
benefits. Following the 1853 treaty, the region became known as

Fahiri Fort
10
the Trucial Coast. In 1892, the local sheikhs signed the Exclusive
Agreements, which granted the British sole control over the re-
gion’s foreign policy and defense.

Over the 19th and early 20th centuries internal power struggles were
common as the British elevated the authority of certain leading lo-
cal sheikhs over others. Sheikhs often ruled from coastal towns
and posted their relatives as representatives in outlying regions. At
times, these local rulers, known as wali, gained significant author-
ity and challenged the ruler or demanded the recognition of their
independence. The make-up of the seven sheikdoms that comprise
UAE today did not come about until 1952. Prior to that time, the
number of recognized sheikdoms fluctuated based on local power
structures and British needs.

One fluctuation that had a lasting impact on Emirati society was

the migration of the al-Maktoum family (of the Al Bu Falasa
branch of the Bani Yas) to Dubai from Abu Dhabi in 1833. Two
leading members of the al-Maktoum family resettled in Dubai
along with approximately 800 other individuals, doubling the
coastal village’s population. Located between the territory of the
Bani Yas and the Qawasim, the al-Maktoum relied on British rec-
ognition to maintain their independence. The al-Maktoum also
relied heavily on commerce and trade as they lacked significant
ties with the desert economy. They attracted many foreign trad-
ers and merchants through a highly unregulated economy. These
traditions continue in Dubai, whose continued lack of restrictions
and free-flowing financial and commercial sectors often bring ac-
cusations of illegal activity.

11
Pearling Industry
Dubai led the region’s growth of the pearling industry, which over
the late 19th and early 20th centuries became the region’s most sig-
nificant economic pursuit. Prior to the pearl industry, most of the
region practiced subsistence herding and small-scale agriculture.
By 1900, more than 1,200 pearling boats sailed from the Trucial
Coast. Many pearlers were local tribesman, although a large num-
ber of foreigners and slaves worked in pearling as well. Pearling
brought relative wealth to the region and much of the population
settled in coastal villages. Even tribesmen in the desert depended
on revenues from pearling and many traveled to the coast during
pearling season. Wealthier tribesman often owned boats, employ-
ing poorer tribesmen and slaves to carry out the often dangerous
work of diving. As the pearling season only lasted half a year,
many pearlers took loans from their boat captain, indebting them-
selves to the captain until the next season and creating a cycle of
debt and dependency.
The pearling industry also attracted large numbers of foreign-
ers, particularly Persians and Indians, which settled in the Tru-
cial Coast. Dubai attracted many foreigners and became a major
port on the Gulf for ships passing through to South Asia, Africa,
and Europe. Dubai grew in prominence in 1903, when the port of
Lingah on the eastern Gulf coast declined due to increased trade
restrictions by the Persian government. This made many Persian
merchants resettle in Dubai. Both Arab and Persian merchants
held significant authority in Emirati society. They often enjoyed
greater wealth than the ruler, whose only source of wealth was
often customs duties and import taxes.
While the merchants derived their wealth from many sources,
including pearling, trading, and shipping, the ruler depended en-

12
Dubai Rotana Hotel
tirely on taxes imposed on the pearling fleets and on revenues pro-
vided by the custom houses to provide income for himself and the
state treasury.

Early 20th Century

The prosperity of the early 1900s came to an abrupt halt in the
1930s when the Great Depression, coupled with the rising culti-
vated pearling industry in Japan, crippled UAE’s pearling indus-
try. Prior to this economic collapse, more than 30 percent of the
population had been involved in pearling. With the region’s eco-
nomic base destroyed, merchants began to leave and the poverty
level began to rise.
However, during this same period the British increased their pres-
ence in the region, as they searched for oil and landing bases for

13
 Yesterday these Emirates were torn apart
In them destructive men created havoc.
And today we are enjoying security and stability
Forcing envious people to admire us.
Yesterday these were disunited emirates
Suffering ignorance, poverty, illness, and chronic disease,
And today the Lord has bestowed upon us his grace
In unaccountable abundance.
Yesterday, few people knew our name
And today, our voice reaches all corners of the Earth.
Oh; What a difference between our yesterday and today.
~Poem by Hamad Bin Shihab, “Poetry in the UAE”

their new air fleet. They paid local sheikhs concessions for land-
ing strips and oil exploration rights. These funds offered some
relief from the economic woes caused by the downturn in pearl-
ing and marked the first time that the sheikhs had an independent
source of wealth. The formerly politically active merchant elite
were sidelined, as rulers no longer depended on their support.
This upset many in the Emirati community, as evidenced by the
Dubai reform movement in 1938. Fearing a loss of influence in the
sheikdom, local merchants, including relatives of the ruler, band-
ed together to demand representation. Although the ruler of Dubai
agreed to form a consultation council, or majlis, he disbanded it 6
months later. Its demise demonstrated the diminished authority of
the once-powerful merchant elite.
Although oil exploration and air landing rights brought some
revenue to the region, it did little to compensate for the devasta-
tion caused by the collapse of the pearling industry. The British,
following their policy of indirect rule, invested little money in
improving the internal conditions of the region. Although Dubai
fared better than other emirates due to its continued significance

14
as a regional trading hub, the poverty of the Trucial Coast was so
stark that in the 1950s entire families moved to neighboring Qatar.
Oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi in 1962. Although production
began soon thereafter, it took many years for a transformative
change to occur. This was due in part to the reluctance of Abu
Dhabi’s ruler at the time, Sheikh Skaikhbut, to utilize oil revenues
for social change. Sheikh Shaikhbut was reluctant to transform
Abu Dhabi society and imposed restrictions on new construction
and development. This was unpopular with most Abu Dhabians,
who were falling behind many of their neighbors in social devel-
opment. At this time power in Abu Dhabi was decentralized, and
Shaikhbut’s brother, Zayed, had amassed considerable author-
ity as the governor of al-Ain. Offering a vision of progress and
change, Zayed eventually sidelined his brother and became the
ruling sheikh of Abu Dhabi.
Oil wealth greatly changed UAE’s economy, political systems, and
society. Massive development was undertaken and the standard of
living rose precipitously through employment in the public sector
and extensive social services. Many Emiratis were not trained for
the demands of the new workforce and foreigners flocked into
the emirates to fill the often high-paying jobs. The old economic
industries collapsed as Emiratis pursued wage employment and
resettled in urban areas. Urbanization increased as most Emiratis
moved toward coastal cities. UAE’s landscape was transformed
by modern highways connecting every corner of the emirates and
skyscrapers that replaced mud and palm houses.
Oil wealth first affected Abu Dhabi, but increasingly affected
the other emirates as unification efforts began. Beginning in the
1950s, Britain took a more active role in fostering unity among the
emirates. The British established the Trucial States Development
15
Zayed Mosque is Indicative of UAE’s Oil Wealth.
Office to coordinate develop-
ment in the emirates. In 1968,
Britain shocked the Gulf by
announcing that they would
withdrawal from the region in
the next few years. Their small
size and threat from Iran and
Saudi Arabia, both of which
desired to increase their influ-
ence in the region, prompted
the emirates to consider a uni-
fied government.
The initial federation was
formed when Sheikh Zayed of
Abu Dhabi met Sheikh Rashid
Hallway in Zayed Mosque
of Dubai and the two decided

16
that their emirates would be united in a federation. The other emir-
ates were invited to join, and in 1971 the United Arab Emirates
became an independent state. Initially the UAE was composed of
six emirates; Ras al-Khaimah did not join until 1972, making the
UAE the federation of seven emirates that it is today.
Since the UAE’s foundation, emirate rights have been of the ut-
most importance. Each emirate has a strong local identity and
fights to retain control of its economic and political affairs. How-
ever, Sheikh Zayed emerged as a leading figure in the unified fed-
eration. As both UAE president and ruler of Abu Dhabi, he made
efforts to consult with the other rulers on matters and refrained
from using Abu Dhabi’s wealth and power to gain an upper hand.
Aware that the success of the federation depended on the ability
of all the emirates to be developed and functioning, Sheikh Za-
yed also gave large revenues from Abu Dhabi’s oil reserves to the
other emirates.

Recent History
The 1970s were a period of dramatic change in the UAE. Oil pric-
es rose and revenues poured into the emirates. Foreign workers ar-
rived en masse to fill the thousands of new positions created by the
oil industry and from 1968 to 1974 the Dubai’s population dou-
bled. Construction began and transformed the landscape. Despite
these changes, the traditional political structure remained largely
intact and the seven ruling sheikhs have maintained their author-
ity within their emirate. During the 1980s, oil prices declined and
social spending was limited. However, the UAE was not affected
as much as other Gulf States due to its disproportionate oil wealth
and small population. However, dwindling reserves in Dubai and
Sharjah intensified efforts to diversify the economy.

17
The Persian Gulf War in 1991 brought further changes to the UAE.
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait drew attention to the UAE’s perils as a
small state in the Gulf. Kuwait’s destruction benefitted the UAE,
particularly Dubai, which acquired much of Kuwait’s trade and
commerce. The Gulf War also brought stronger U.S. influences into
the UAE, as it was a key host site for U.S. forces during the Gulf
War. Strong economic ties, particularly between the UAE and U.S.
oil companies, have been influential in developing this relationship.
The U.S.-led War on Terrorism has also strengthened the relation-
ship between the UAE and the United States and today, more U.S.
Navy ships port at UAE than any other ports outside of the United
States. Western influences are also pervasive in the UAE, which has
caused consternation among the religiously conservative citizenry.
Today, the UAE continues to struggle with its rapid wealth and mod-
ernization. Mass consumerism, unchecked growth, and the pres-
ence of a large foreign population remain key challenges to both
the federal and emirate governments. Additionally, despite its large
oil reserves, the UAE is concerned by its economic dependence on
oil and has continued to diversify its economy. The international
economic recession in 2008 demonstrated the growing dependence
of the UAE economy on international investment and trade, as its
economy declined significantly due to a drop in these activities.
The emirates have also faced recent challenges over the issue of
leadership and succession. The UAE weathered a challenged in
2002 when Sheikh Rashid of Dubai passed away and was peacefully
replaced by his son, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid. In 2006, Sheikh
Zayed passed away and his son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed, assumed
the sheikdom of Abu Dhabi and the presidency of the UAE. Given
the immense role that Sheikh Zayed played in cementing the federa-
tion, there was concern that the UAE would weaken following his
death. However, this does not appear to have happened.

18
Identity and Affiliations
Tribal and Family
Family and tribal relationships are among the most significant
sources of identity for Emiratis. Kinship ties constitute the basic
foundations of society and culture and an individual’s social status
and position in society is largely derived from these ties. The sig-
nificance of kinship ties has made social mobility fairly difficult
in UAE society.
The extended family remains the strongest and most cohesive so-
cial unit in the UAE. Loyalty to the family is expected in Emi-
rati society. Many aspects of Emirati social life, particularly for
Emirati women, are focused around the extended family. In the
past, extended families operated as the basic units of production
and often resided together. Today, individuals no longer depend
on the extended family for economic survival and often live far
away from their extended family members. Although these devel-
opments have weakened family ties in Emirati society, they have
not removed them as a primary source of identity. Social networks
continue to revolve primarily around kinship ties. Much of Emi-
rati society remains structured along a patriarchic model, with
leaders often being given titles such as the “Father of Abu Dhabi”
or the “Father of Dubai.”
Tribal ties remain significant in Emirati society, which continues
to be shaped by a tribal structure. Tribes are composed of groups
of individuals who trace their lineage to a common ancestor.
Most tribes in the UAE have thousands of members and multiple
branches. The tribes continuing significance is evidenced in the
correlation between tribes and the emirate’s political structure.
Each emirate is governed by the head of the largest or most pow-

19
erful local tribe. Traditional tribal decision-making mechanisms,
such as negotiation and consultation, remain significant means of
contemporary political discourse.
The ruling tribes of each emirate have significant authority in UAE
society. The Bani Yas, which has branches that rule Abu Dhabi
and Dubai, is the most powerful tribal confederation. Abu Dhabi
is more tribally complex than Dubai, where the main group, the
Al Bu Falasa branch of the Bani Yas, is dominant and includes the
ruling al-Maktoum family. In Abu Dhabi, the ruling family, the al-
Nahyan, comes from the Al Bu Falah branch of the Bani Yas and
has formed strategic alliances with other powerful branches of the
Bani Yas and other tribes. Among these are the al-Sudan, Mahasir,
and the al-Dhwahir. Tribes, or branches of tribes, are often very
different based on their location, relative power, and primary eco-
nomic pursuits. Although the al-Maktoum and al-Nahyan come
from the same tribe, they are very different in orientation. The al-
Nahyan have a strong connection to the desert and Bedouin life,
while the al-Maktoum are urban and mercantile in their outlook.

Religion
Religion has shaped Emirati culture and society throughout his-
tory and is a key source of identity for today’s Emiratis. Virtu-
ally every Emirati is Muslim and most non-citizens in the UAE
are also Muslim, with smaller numbers of Hindus and Christians.
There is religious freedom for non-Muslims in the UAE and there
are a number of churches and one Hindu temple.
Most Emiratis are Sunni Muslims. Approximately 15 percent of
Emiratis belong to the Shi’a minority, which resides primarily in
Dubai and Sharjah. For most Emiratis, religion informs significant
aspects of their lives. Many Emiratis believe that the prevalence

20
of Western cultural influences is corrupting and feel torn between
the influence of the West and their Islamic beliefs. Many Emirati
youth are more devout than elder generations and most Emiratis
are religiously conservative.

Emirati Rivalries
Divisions between the emirates are very pronounced and emirate-
level loyalties and identities are strong in the UAE. Although the
federal state has grown since independence, the emirates retain
significant authority in the daily lives of Emiratis and rivalries be-
tween emirates dampen efforts at greater unity. At times the emir-
ates have even worked against each other, for example, an aggres-
sive advertising campaign by Dubai in the 1990s to promote its
port services led to the decline of activity at the port in Fujairah.
Emirate identities offer not just an awareness of an individual’s
place within the UAE; they also determine an individual’s access
to resources, which are funneled through each emirate’s indi-
vidual government. Emiratis in Abu Dhabi and Dubai have much
greater access to state resources than those in the poorer emirates.
This has created a sense of resentment among some Emiratis in
the poorer emirates, who feel under-privileged compared to their
wealthier countrymen. Many Emiratis from these emirates try to
obtain “citizenship” in Abu Dhabi or Dubai in order to have access
to better services. Despite gaining official status in these emirates,
they do not lose their feelings of connection to their home emirate.

National Unity
Most Emiratis feel a strong connection to the UAE despite the fed-
eration’s internal divisions based on tribe and emirate. In the face
of outsiders, Emiratis identify first and foremost as citizens of the
UAE. In many respects the emergence of a national identity has

21
occurred quickly. Sheikh Zayed, the previous ruler of Abu Dhabi
and president of the UAE, had a principal role in bringing unity to
the emirates. He campaigned for unity and spearheaded the fed-
eration. He offered significant financial resources to poorer emir-
ates and funded the federal government. His efforts were assisted
by the knowledge that the emirates were too small and vulnerable
to be effective independently.
Today, national identity is more self-reinforcing. A new genera-
tion has grown up identifying with the UAE. Modern media and
education have reinforced the shared values and culture that ex-
ists across the emirates. Most Emiratis live comfortably on state
services and benefits. Additionally, UAE identity has formed in
opposition to the large number of foreigners and dominance of
foreign influences across the country. Many Emiratis fear that for-
eigners are undermining their culture and lifestyles. These fears
have spurred Emiratis to actively formulate a national identity.
The government has taken significant steps to promote a national
identity based on a shared Arab, tribal and Islamic heritage. This
has led to efforts to rebuild Emirati heritage through cultural pres-
ervation in museums and recreated historical villages and by fund-

Nationalism
The fact that nationals are constantly made aware of be-
ing a minority in their own country has had the effect of
bringing the national population of all the seven emir-
ates together to form a completely undisputed class of the
privileged few. In the face of the overwhelming presence of
expatriates, all the genuine “locals” perceive themselves
now first and foremost as UAE citizens – even though
old tribal rivalries and new hierarchical discrimination
continue to structure the local population internally.
~ Statehood and Nation-Building

22
ing traditional crafts like weaving and shipbuilding. In addition,
Emiratis wear a style of national dress that is a significant method
of distinguishing citizens from foreigners.

Regional Identity
Although Emiratis share significant cultural ties with their neigh-
bors, most do not possess a strong sense of regional Gulf identity.
However, regional identity may grow in coming years as restric-
tions on movement and commerce are lifted across the member
states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Additionally, these
states have similar, if not virtually identical, religious practices
and cultural traditions and many also share tribal ties. Citizens of
GCC states are able to travel between countries for employment
and education with significantly fewer restrictions than other indi-
viduals. Marriage across GCC states is also increasing.

Foreign Workers
Since the earliest points in its history, the UAE has been a trans-
national center of trade and commerce. Its busy port location, a
hub between Persia, India, and Africa, brought significant foreign
influences into the country. These influences remain and have in-
creased at an unprecedented rate. The discovery of oil and rapid
modernization that followed greatly increased the demand for for-
eign workers. At the time, the local population was both too small
and too unskilled to fill the new positions. The influx of foreigners
has continued since the 1960s, and today foreign workers comprise
approximately 80 percent of the UAE’s population, nearly 90 per-
cent of its workforce, and 60 percent of the state bureaucracy.

The staggering number of foreigners, one of the highest foreigner

proportions in the world has made UAE citizens a small, but dispro-

23
portionately well-off, minori-
ty in their own state. Foreign- “Dubai has effectively become
the most successful Asian na-
ers are most likely to interact tion in the Gulf.”
with other foreigners rather
than citizens in virtually ev- ~Anthony Cordesman

ery aspect of their daily life.

This minority status has resulted in a backlash against foreigners,
whom citizens believe are eroding their culture and threatening their
identity. Additionally, foreign workers bring security concerns, hu-
man rights issues, and social stress. Despite these issues, the UAE
depends heavily on foreigners for the functioning of the economy and
the political system and state bureaucracy.

Foreign Population Composition

Approximately 80 percent of the foreign population in the UAE
lives in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah, while far fewer live in the
poorer northern emirates (mirroring the percentage of the local
population in these emirates). Most of the foreigners in the UAE
are young males. This is in part due to restrictions imposed by the
UAE that require a foreigner to earn a certain salary before he is
eligible to bring his family to the country. Most Indian, Arab, and
Pakistani workers are males, while a larger percentage of the Fili-
pino and Indonesian workers are female.
Most foreign workers in the UAE come from South or Southeast
Asia, with smaller numbers from Arab countries and the West.
The largest group of foreign workers, 40 percent, comes from In-
dia. Indians are the largest population group in Dubai and whole
neighborhoods of the emirate are Indian, often giving it the name
“the clean Bombay.” Of the Indian population in the UAE, half
originate from the Indian state of Kerala and many of the migrants
are Muslim. Indians are found in all socioeconomic tiers, includ-

24
ing the elite, middle class, and poor laborers. Pakistanis comprise
approximately 16 percent of foreign workers.
Other Arabs comprise approximately 12 percent. Like Indians,
these workers occupy all social classes. An Iranian population is
also present in the country, particularly in Dubai. Though Irani-
ans number only about 100,000, they have significant influence as
many have long-standing ties to the UAE and are influential in the
economy and government. Workers from Southeast Asia represent
about 12 percent of foreigners in the UAE. However, their numbers
have been greatly increasing in recent years due to the perception
that they are willing to work for less and in harsher conditions than
other groups. Most Asians work as laborers or domestic helpers,
although some fill middle-class positions in retail shops and banks.
European and U.S. workers comprise approximately 1 percent of
the UAE’s foreign population. Despite their small size they are
often given the most lucrative positions.

Discrimination
Within the UAE there is a clear and rigid hierarchy of foreigners
based on their nationality, ethnicity, and occupation. Westerners
are on top of this hierarchy followed by Arabs, and then Asians.
Foreign workers and international organizations have levied ac-
cusations of abuse and human rights violations within the UAE.
These include a failure to pay wages, physical and sexual abuse,
violations of worker contracts, and forced prostitution. Although
most foreigners receive higher wages than they are able to receive
in their home countries, many live in harsh conditions under the
constant insecurity of deportation.
Many of the problems foreign workers face in the UAE are caused
by the sponsorship system that controls them. In order to be al-

25
lowed into the country, foreigners must have a sponsor, kafeel,
which can be an individual, recruiting agency, or company. There
is little official monitoring of the system, which has led to abuse.
Most foreign workers have to pay large fees to their sponsors to
obtain entry into the country and gain employment. Because they
are making money off of each worker brought into the country,
sponsors are motivated to bring in as many foreign workers as
possible. Once in the country, sponsors wield a great deal of au-
thority over their foreign workers. Workers must have permission
from their sponsor to get a new job and often must pay a fee to
their sponsor as well. The sponsor may also hold a worker’s pass-
port, making it impossible for the worker to leave the country or
find new employment. Sponsors may also abuse their positions
of authority, making workers perform other duties outside their
standard job descriptions, such as home or vehicle repairs. Al-
though workers have a right to report violations of their contracts
or abuse, few do fearing reprisals. A worker’s residency in the
country is connected to their job and losing their position often
means that they must also leave the country.
Stories of human rights abuses are common in the UAE. These
affect primarily low-paid workers, typically day laborers and do-
mestic servants. There are frequent complaints that workers are
told they will hold a certain job at a certain pay rate but arrive
to be told they will be paid less or have to work a different job.
Most semi or unskilled workers go into significant debt to travel
to the UAE, paying agents or sponsors substantial amounts to
find them jobs, and they are forced to work at the lower rate to
not lose this investment.
Although much discrimination is the result of individuals, it is
also embedded in the system. Foreigners are grouped based on
nationality, which often determines wages and benefits. Much
26
of the discrimination comes from other foreigners, as foreigners
comprise nearly 90 percent of the workforce and many foreigners
have foreign bosses. However, there is also an undercurrent of dis-
crimination in the UAE and many Asian and other foreign workers
feel that they are looked down on by elite foreigners and citizens.

Foreign Culture
Most foreign workers
Social clubs for expatriate ethnic
maintain their iden- and national communities, like the
tity and culture while Goan, Keralite, Jordanian, and Su-
working and living in danese clubs, are used not only for
the UAE. Many reside recreation but also as centers for
in the UAE for a rela- exchange of information on jobs and
multiple forms of other support.
tively short period be-
fore returning home. ~ Migrants’ Strategies
While in the UAE it
is common for foreign workers to interact with only their fellow
countrymen. Each group has its own schools, religious centers,
and social clubs, typically centered on their country of origin.
Groups often live together in neighborhoods or housing centers.
There is often a strong sense of shared identity within the commu-
nity. However, ethnic and racial consciousness is often overshad-
owed by class-consciousness. There is a strong divide between the
elite, middle, and lower classes and class segregation is apparent
in UAE. Most upper and middle class workers make frequent ef-
forts to distinguish themselves from their lower-class countrymen.

Cultural Disruptions
The influx of foreign workers into the UAE has contributed to the
large-scale social upheavals that the country has experienced over
the past four decades. The UAE’s population has grown from a
few hundred thousand in 1967 to more than 4 million today. The
27
influx of foreigners has brought linguistic and cultural influences
into the country that has challenged local identity.
In Dubai and Sharjah it is more common to hear Urdu, Hindi, or
English spoken on the street than Arabic. Additionally, the UAE’s
traditionally religiously conservative society has been opened to
new foreign influences. Media, movies, and clothing from the
West have penetrated society. Prostitutes from Eastern Europe and
Asia are prolific in Dubai, which is sometimes deemed the Las
Vegas of the Middle East.
Citizens of the UAE are also concerned about the political impli-
cations of the massive size of the foreign community. In Dubai, re-
cent efforts to grant foreigners property rights have been met with
resistance. Many believe that if foreigners were allowed to own
property in the UAE they may demand greater rights and more
freedoms and may acquire influence over UAE citizens.Addition-
ally, the presence of large communities with loyalties to other na-
tions is also deemed a potential political threat.

Social Organization
Family/Tribal Structures
Kinship institutions are significant throughout the UAE’s soci-
ety and make up the basic foundation of its contemporary social
and political systems. UAE society is patriarchal and patrimonial,
which influences family and political structures, both of which are
governed by an elder male figure. Within families, the elder male
has significant authority and there are clear hierarchies based on
age and gender. While basic family structure persists in UAE so-
ciety, many changes have occurred. Families often live far away
from each other and are no longer needed for economic support.

28
Additionally, women’s roles have changed. While traditionally
women stayed in the home as homemakers and mothers, contem-
porary Emirati women have expanded opportunities in education
and the workforce and many girls desire to have careers outside
the home.
Marriage patterns have also changed in the UAE in recent de-
cades. Many young Emiratis express a desire to choose their own
spouse, which previously was the duty of their parents. Although
marriage between cousins remains a preferred match, Emiratis are
increasingly marrying outside of their extended families and im-
mediate social networks. This has caused some consternation, as
tribal society is traditionally exclusive and prefers not to welcome
new members. The government has gotten involved in the issue,
establishing a marriage fund that pays for a significant portion of
wedding costs. This helps young couples pay for the often exor-
bitant cost of weddings, but also encourages intra-UAE marriage,
as the funds are only available to young men marrying a fellow
UAE citizen.
Tribal institutions remain significant in the UAE. Tribes are or-
ganized in a hierarchical and patriarchic manner and are led by a
ruling sheikh. Sheikhs come from the most influential families in
the tribe and are supposed to be great negotiators and peacemak-
ers as well as great warriors. Additionally, sheikhs are supposed to
be generous and support all members of the tribe.
The significance of tribal institutions in UAE society has dimin-
ished as the local and federal states have taken on many of the po-
litical, social, and economic roles that were previously carried out
by the tribe. In the past, tribes provided economic and social sup-
port to members. They also offered physical protection and were
the highest center of authority for most Emiratis. Contemporary

29
Emiratis no longer depend on the tribe for economic and social
support or protection. However, the tribe remains a major struc-
tural force in society. Belonging to a well-respected tribe bestows
prestige on individuals and often brings economic or political ben-
efits. Tribal connections also continue to influence marriage pat-
terns, employment opportunities, and social networks.

Political Institutions
Political authority in the UAE is invested in the heads of the ruling
families who control both the federal and emirate-level political
institutions. Political institutions have been heavily influenced by
the UAE’s tribal heritage, and in many ways today’s institutions
mirror the hierarchical and patriarchic structure of tribal institu-
tions. Political leaders are expected to provide for their constitu-
ents and seek popular input through consultation and negotiation.
Rulers typically gauge public feedback through informal consulta-
tions with economic and tribal leaders and there is very little for-
malized public participation in the UAE. Despite this, there is very
little domestic opposition to the government. In part this is due to
the wealth and services that Emiratis receive from the government.

Federal Influence
The federal government has jurisdiction over foreign relations,
defense, security, immigration, and communications. It has an ex-
ecutive, legislative, and judicial branch. The executive includes
the President and Vice President, the Minister’s Cabinet, and the
Supreme Council. The Supreme Council is composed of the rulers
of the seven emirates and is the highest federal authority. On mat-
ters of substance the Council must come to a five to two majority,
with both Abu Dhabi and Dubai voting with the majority. Other
executive positions are divided between the emirates. Since the

30
Presidential Palace in Abu Dhabi
founding of the federation, Abu Dhabi has held the presidency and
Dubai the vice presidency.
The legislative arm of the federal government, the Federal Nation-
al Council, has 40 members. These are appointed by the emirates
and divided proportionally based on the local population distribu-
tion in 1971. The Council has limited authority, including review-
ing legislation and appointing the Prime Minister, a position also
held by Dubai. In 2006, the UAE undertook its first election in
which half of the Council members were elected. This vote was
largely the result of government efforts to expand public participa-
tion, not the result of popular demands. The rulers of the emirates
selected a tiny portion of the population, less than 1 percent, to
vote in the election.

31
The federal government has grown since 1971, yet remains sub-
ordinate to emirate-level bodies. It has no independent source of
income, and depends entirely on donations from the emirates, pri-
marily Abu Dhabi.

Emirate Influence
Emirate-level institutions have significant authority in the UAE
and maintaining their integrity remains a key goal of rulers.Emir-
ate institutions control local economic resources and are respon-
sible for the internal rule of their emirate. The persistence of local
institutions has often resulted in duplicate federal and emirate-lev-
el institutions performing similar tasks. The federal government
funnels all money through emirate rulers and administrations.
This has strengthened local leaders and entrenched their authority
within the local government.
The make-up of emirate-level institutions varies greatly between
emirates, with Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah having the most
complex and diverse administrations. Despite these differences,
each emirate is ruled by a local sheikh selected by family elders
in the ruling family.

Judicial
In traditional UAE society, justice was handled by leading tribal
figures. Arbitration was carried out at the request of the parties
involved, both of which had to agree on the settlement. As the
people of the UAE became increasingly sedentary and diverse
populations settled in coastal villages, it became necessary for the
rulers to establish court systems that could resolve disputes be-
tween residents with no tribal connections. These courts were the
first attempt by rulers to establish a judiciary and a system of laws,
which were based on Islamic law, or Shari’a.

32
Today’s judiciary in the UAE is divided between local and federal
courts and civil and Shari’a courts. Jurisprudence varies between
emirates, as does the degree of federalization of the judiciary.
Some emirates, particularly, Dubai and Ras al-Khamaih, are re-
luctant to cede to the federal court’s authority. Recently, the UAE
has undertaken initiatives to Islamize, modernize, and federalize
the court system. These have met only limited success.
Courts in the UAE have limited freedom. Rulers often intervene
in cases to obtain their desired verdict. There are many foreign
judges in the UAE who fear being deported should their verdict
be unpopular with leading authorities. Additionally, being wealthy
and having social, economic, and political status helps individuals
escape the full extent of the law.

Civil Society and Media

Civil society is not very vibrant in the UAE. A combination of gov-
ernment restrictions and self-censorship has limited the growth of
civil society organizations. Although a small number of social and
voluntary organizations are present in the UAE, few organizations
receive the government approval necessary to form. Those that do
are typically co-opted by the government. For many individuals,
civil society organizations are not necessary. For citizens, family
and tribal networks offer social support, while foreign workers are
often not willing to risk deportation by participating in associa-
tions or organizations.
Media in the UAE has similar restrictions as civil society. Although
large media networks exist, such as the international news station
al-Arabiya, these commonly practice self-censorship. Many jour-
nalists in the UAE are foreign workers and risk deportation if they
are too harsh in their criticism of the regime or UAE society. De-

33
spite this censorship, Emiratis have access to international media.
Satellite dishes are very common in the UAE and many Emiratis
have access to the internet.

Cultural Economy
Over the past 40 years the UAE has transformed from a few impov-
erished costal villages to one of wealthiest states in the world. The
great and rapid wealth that was generated after oil production has
driven all aspects of change in the UAE. This wealth has changed
the UAE from an economy based on fishing, pearling, livestock,
and some agriculture to an oil-based, high-income economy with
a large concentration of foreign workers. As these changes oc-
curred, old economic industries and modes of life collapsed and
new socioeconomic realities were created during the 1960s and
1970s. Emiratis quickly transitioned from semi-nomadic pasto-
ralists living a subsistence lifestyle to urban and suburban gov-
ernment employees, demanding high wages and living an often
luxurious lifestyle. Today, the UAE’s economy is defined by both
Abu Dhabi’s oil and Dubai’s commerce.

Pre-oil Economy
The UAE’s traditional economy was dominated by subsistence
activities and pearling. Most of these activities required extend-
ed family members to work and reside together. Life was settled
around rare freshwater sources at oases, in the mountains, or along
the coast and many Emiratis lived a mobile lifestyle.

Oil
Oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi’s desert in 1962. Oil dramati-
cally transformed the UAE by brining massive wealth and unprec-
edented social change. The UAE has one of the highest rates of

34
GDP per capita in the world, US$25,000 and it is estimated that
the GDP/capita of its citizenry is closer to US$75,000. With near-
ly 10 percent of the world’s proven oil reserves, the UAE could
sustain current production levels for roughly a century. The UAE
is also home to significant reserves of natural gas. Although oil
has been the leading force in the economy, in the future gas expor-
tation may play a larger role.
Most (87 percent) of UAE’s oil reserves are located in Abu Dhabi,
while Dubai and Sharjah claim the remaining share. This distribu-
tion has skewed development and growth in favor of these emir-
ates. However, Abu Dhabi has heavily funded development in the
other emirates. Additionally, the presence of vast revenues in the
federal government has enabled large-scale economic diversifica-
tion efforts in agriculture, fishing, and real estate.
Oil wealth has funded many
ambitious development proj-
ects. The UAE has been trans-
formed over the past four de-
cades from villages of mud huts
and palm frond houses to cities
with massive skyscrapers, the
world’s tallest hotel, and man-
made island communities. Ed-
ucation, health care and social
services parallel those in the
most developed countries in
the world. Oil has also altered
living patterns. While half a
century ago a large proportion
of the population was semi-no-
madic and lived in the desert, Fountain in UAE Hotel

35
Ceiling of Emirates Palace Hotel

today virtually all emirates are settled and most live in heavily-
populated urban centers.
The way of life has changed dramatically for Emiratis. Many of the
older generation were raised in a society that was completely differ-
ent from today. They had no access to health care, education, or em-
ployment beyond subsistence activities. They were largely illiterate
and had a world view limited to their extended families and tribes.
Crossing the emirates took days by camel or horse. Younger gen-
erations have access to hospitals, grocery stores, and a multitude of
transportation. They are highly educated and many have traveled the
world. These changes are at times difficult for Emiratis and many
older Emiratis are nostalgic for older days when life was simpler.
Large government revenues have increased the government’s role
in the economy. Abu Dhabi distributes oil revenues through emir-

36
ate administrations, which
funnel the money to the peo-
ple through large-scale public
employment, development
projects, and subsidies for
housing and marriage. Many
Emiratis have come to depend
on the state rather then their
extended family networks for
economic prosperity. Addi-
tionally, the government is the
main source of employment
for Emiratis. Emiratis prefer
the privilege and prestige of
working in the public sector
and are often unable to obtain
jobs in the private sector due
to competition from foreign- Burj Al Arab Hotel
ers who are willing to work
harder for less compensation.

Diversified Industries
While oil is the backbone of the economy, commerce, trade, and
business are also leading forces. This is particularly striking in
Dubai, although is also the case in the other emirates. With most
oil reserves in Abu Dhabi, diversification has become a means
through which all of the emirates can be economically productive.

Commerce, Trade, and Banking

Dubai has become one of the most successful cities on the Gulf.
Although oil wealth assisted in its development, and Abu Dha-
bi’s oil wealth is available to bailout Dubai’s economy in times
37
of economic crisis, oil production has never been as central to
Dubai’s economy or prosperity. Its strategic location on Dubai
Creek enhanced the city’s traditional prominence as a port. Today,
Dubai boasts the world’s largest man-made port. Dubai’s ports
are among the busiest in the world and Dubai’s commerce and
re-export (goods imported to Dubai and then exported to other
locations) industries bring in significant revenue.
In addition to its bustling ports, Dubai is a leading financial and
commercial center. Real estate and tourist developments have
also put Dubai in the international spotlight. Among Dubai’s most
successful enterprises is the establishment of sector-specific free
zones, such as the Jebel Ali free Zone, in which foreign companies
can invest and forgo many of the country’s restrictions on foreign
labor and capital. Although Dubai’s economic diversification has
been largely successful, during the 2008 economic downturn it
had to turn to Abu Dhabi and its vast oil revenues for a bailout.
Economic diversification is also significant in the other emirates.
Fujairah has an active port on the Indian Ocean and Sharjah is
home to many small-scale industries.

Traditional Activities
The UAE government has invested significant revenue into sup-
porting and regenerating traditional economic activities. These
are intended to diversify the economy as well as connect Emiratis
with their cultural heritage. Camel racing has become a popular
pastime and boat building remains a major craft in Ajman. Efforts
have also been made to expand the UAE’s limited agricultural
sector. Traditionally, small-scale agriculture depended on irriga-
tion canals that collected water from the Hajar Mountains or from
wells in oases. The UAE has been able to fund large-scale de-

38
salination projects that have diminished water scarcity problems.
Large sections of the desert have been turned green and are cov-
ered with trees and gardens. Subsidies are given to Emiratis who
engage in agriculture or fishing. However, many of the traditional
activities are now carried out by foreigners. Citizens often pay
foreign workers to herd their camels or work on their farms.

Tourism
Tourism has been among the most successful diversified industries
in the UAE. Dubai in particular has become a popular destination
for regional and international tourists. Other emirates, particularly
Fujairah and Sharjah, are also growing tourist destinations. The
emirates have invested in architecture and leisure activities to
draw tourists. Dubai is home to the world’s largest hotel and the
world’s first underwater hotel. Additionally, water sports, racing,
and shopping all draw millions of tourists to the country. The an-
nual Dubai Shopping Festival is one of the most successful tourist
events in the region. Even in the aftermath of the 11 September
2001 attacks, which many believed would weaken tourism, Dubai
continued to draw millions of visitors.

Black Market
The UAE has had a long history as a center for illegal economic
activities including smuggling, human trafficking, money launder-
ing, and the arms trade. This is particularly true in Dubai, whose
free-market economy places few restrictions on commercial and
financial transactions. The massive numbers of foreigners mov-
ing across the country’s borders and its relatively free financial
market have made it a center for illegal economic activity. Money
laundering has been particularly difficult for the UAE to control.
In the 1990s, the Bank of Credit and Commerce International
39
(BCCI) scandal revealed the depth of the issue. The BBCI was the
world’s fifth largest privately owned bank when accusations of
money laundering surfaced. Even the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh
Zayed was implicated in the scandal and reportedly billions in in-
vestments were lost. Recent accusations that the UAE is rife with
terror-affiliated money-laundering operations have prompted the
UAE to enforce stricter financial measures.
Human trafficking is another serious issue in the UAE. Once a
key stopover for slave traders, the UAE has continued to be a ma-
jor destination for human trafficking. Accusations that the UAE
had used trafficked Pakistani children as camel jockeys prompted
the government to ban human jockeys and replace them with me-
chanical robot jockeys. The sex trade is another booming business
in the UAE, particularly Dubai. Although some of the women ar-
rive willingly to work as prostitutes, large numbers are tricked into
prostitution after being told they would fill other jobs and then hav-
ing their passports confiscated by their sponsors once they arrive.

Cultural Division of Labor

The UAE has a segmented workforce. The most significant divi-
sion is between citizens and foreigners. Most Emiratis work in
the public sector, and although they compose only approximate-
ly 10 percent of the labor force, they receive disproportionate
compensation for their work. In addition to an inflated income,
citizens also receive extensive social services, such as housing
and educational allowances. Foreigners work in both the pri-
vate and public sectors and make-up more than 90 percent of the
workforce.They are often given preference by private sector em-
ployees because they are willing to work harder for less money
and expect fewer benefits. Many citizens are also not trained to
fill many jobs and continue to focus on social sciences in their

40
 Oil Jobs
The local populations of the pre-oil Gulf societies were small
and lacked the technical skills needed for modernizing their
traditional societies. Because of this, the importation of la-
bour of all levels of skill has been adopted since the start of
the oil economy as a major State policy in all Gulf countries.
~ Migrants’ Strategies

education rather than pursing degrees that are needed to fill many
of the jobs, such as engineering.
Although Emiratis, due to their small percentage of the population,
could not fill all the jobs in the UAE, there is some concern that
the economy relies too heavily on foreign labor. This has prompt-
ed the government to actively pursue a policy of Emiratization, or
promoting greater citizen participation in the workforce. Although
this policy has been successful in some fields, such as banking
and teaching, it has done little to limit the foreign presence in
the country. Efforts at Emiratization have been undermined by ef-
forts to diversify, particularly in free zones where restrictions on
foreign labor do not apply. Additionally, the private sector, which
relies most on foreign workers, has been growing at a faster pace
than the public sector.
Emirati women have low rates of labor force participation. Al-
though more educated than their male countrymen, cultural and
social pressures often keep women at home. There is a much high-
er unemployment rate for women, 18.7 percent, compared to 8.2
percent for men. However their numbers in the workforce have
been growing. Due to the small size of the UAE citizenry, females
in the workforce are a necessary component of Emiratization and
have been promoted by the government.

41
Customs and Practices
Language
Arabic is the UAE’s official language. Most Emiratis speak the
Gulf dialect, which is common throughout the region. However,
Arabic has become increasingly marginalized by the large number
of foreign workers who speak other languages including English,
Hindi, or Urdu. English has become the language of trade, and
increasingly the language of education in the UAE. This is in part
due to the efforts of the late Sheikh Zayed, who believed every
citizen should be able to speak both Arabic and English.
At some universities, such as Zayed University, curriculum is
taught only in English. Urdu and Hindi are also very common
languages in the UAE due to the large South Asian population.
In Dubai it is common to hear either Hindi or English spoken on
the street, even by local policemen, although in Abu Dhabi Arabic
is more common. There is concern among Emiratis that the large
number of foreign workers raising Emirati children is contributing
to the inability of many children to speak Arabic well. Some chil-
dren enter primary school with only limited knowledge of Arabic.

Diet
Traditional UAE diet is similar to that in other parts of the Gulf
and includes dates, nuts, rice, and a variety of stews and dips.
Mansaf, a communal lamb dish served over rice, is a popular
at special occasions as a mark of hospitality. Arabic coffee and
tea are also very significant in Emirati society and are served to
entertain guests.
Many aspects of the Emirati diet have changed as a result of eco-
nomic development and foreign influences. Cuisine from all cor-

42
ners of the world is available
throughout the emirates. Fast
food and chain restaurants
have sprung up in every city.
Wealth has allowed Emiratis
to readily consume items, such
as meat, which were previ-
ously reserved only for special
occasions. Although almost all
food eaten in the UAE is im-
ported, recent efforts by the
government to promote lo-
cal agriculture have increased
homegrown food, such as
dates and alfalfa.
Spice Market
Dress
Nearly all Emiratis wear traditional or Islamic dress in the emir-
ates, although many dress in Western clothing while abroad.West-
ern clothing was common in the UAE in the 1970s and 1980s,
but national and traditional dress has reemerged as a symbol and
hallmark of Emirati citizenship. For men, the national dress in-
cludes an ankle-length white shirt called a kandoura or dish-dash,
under which white pants and a shirt are often worn.Emirati men
also wear a white headdress that is held in place by a rope, or aqal.
Wearing this national dress distinguishes Emirati men from the
large foreign population, which commonly wears Western-style or
their own cultural clothing.
Emirati women wear various forms of Islamic dress, either a hi-
jab, burka, or abaya, which cover most of the body and reveal
different amounts of the face. Despite this commonality, Emirati

43
women often try to express
uniqueness through the way Camels and Culture
in which they wear their aba-
ya or with adornments, such That modern camel racing
as jewelry. functions as a cultural muse-
um and provides an ideologi-
cal link with the past while
Camel Racing serving as an inspiration for
The camel has a central place patriotic loyalty, and that
camel racing embodies values
in the hearts of Emiratis as for the political encultura-
a connection to their his- tion for younger generations,
tory and heritage. The camel are themes frequently repeat-
is considered central to the ed by the media and invoked
in Badu poetry.
nomadic and desert life of
Emirati ancestors. In tradi- ~ Poetics and Politics
tional UAE society, camel

Camel Ranch in UAE

44
races were held at special occasions such as weddings and visits
by sheikhs.
Today, camel racing has transformed into a lucrative and competi-
tive sport. By the mid-1990s, more than 4,000 camels were partic-
ipating in annual camel races. Race tracks are present near major
cities and the most significant races are attended by the president
and other leading public figures.

Poetry
Poetry is a significant tradition for many Emiratis and is the most
significant art form in the UAE. Even the rulers of the emirates
have been known to write and recite poetry. Today, poets retain
a position of prestige and poetry is often recited at festivals, cel-
ebrations, and even sporting events. Common themes include not
only love and life but also politics and economics. Many Emiratis
believe that poetry has the ability to change and transform the
listener and is a key medium for expressing views and opinions.

Ceremonies
Life-cycle ceremonies, such as weddings, births, and circumci-
sions, are significant in Emirati life. These occasions are times for
family and friends to gather and display hospitality and generos-
ity. These events are also times in which Emiratis commemorate
their heritage. In particular, weddings are characterized by sing-
ing, dancing, chanting, and camel racing.

Dwellings
Dwellings in the UAE have changed greatly in the past century from
traditional homes made of palm fronds and mud to contemporary
multi-storied, air-conditioned houses. Contemporary Emiratis live in

45
urban or suburban areas in mod-
ern and spacious houses. Most
foreign workers also live in
comfortable housing although
the lowest paid workers often
find it difficult to afford housing
and live in poor and crowded
conditions.
Traditional UAE architecture
was inspired by Arab and Is-
lamic traditions, although
there were significant influ-
ences from Persia and India.
Among these influences were
traditional wind towers, which Tower under Construction
extended up from buildings
and had open windows at the
top to circulate breeze through the often stifling lower rooms.
These towers came from Persia, yet are often considered a sym-
bol of traditional UAE architecture. Although air conditioning is
now found in almost every building, wind towers are still con-
structed for ornamental purposes. There have been some efforts
to incorporate traditions into new construction. For example, the
man-made palm island housing community was constructed in the
shape of a palm tree, the symbol of desert life.

46
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