Dhiraj Ahire

Study on Effect of Expancel Microsphere on Properties of PVC Leather
Table of content
Training Report
CHAPTER – 1
1.1 Objective of Training .................................................................................................7
1.1 About the training...........................................................................................................7
CHAPTER – 2
Fenoplast an Overview
2.1 About Fenoplast Ltd...................................................................................................8
2.2 The plants and products..............................................................................................9
2.3 The Quality Control....................................................................................................9
CHAPTER - 3
Introduction to PVC Leather
3.1 What is Leather..........................................................................................................10
3.2 Types of Leather........................................................................................................15
3.3 About PVC Leather...................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 4
Manufacturing process for synthetic PVC Leather
4.1 Coating Method.......................................................................................................16
4.2 Key elements of synthetic PVC Leather..................................................................19
4.2.1 PVC.........................................................................................................................19
4.2.2 Plasticizer ............................................................................................................23
4.2.3 Stabilizer..................................................................................................................28
4.2.4 Filler........................................................................................................................31
4.2.6 Flame Retardance...................................................................................................34
UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 1

4.2.7 Blowing agent........................................................................................................35
4.2.8 Backing Fabric........................................................................................................38
4.2.9 Release Paper..........................................................................................................41
CHAPTER -5
Various Departments
5.1 Production Department.............................................................................................42
5.2 Quality Control........................................................................................................45
5.3Inspecton and Packing................................................................................................48
5.4 Dispatch....................................................................................................................48
CHAPTER -6
Products and Application
6.1 Products......................................................................................................................48
6.2 Application for PVC leather cloth.............................................................................50
Project Report
CHAPTER – 1
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....51
Introduction
1.1 Objective and scope of work.....................................................................................52
1.2 Project Introduction ...............................................................................................52
CHAPTER – 2
Literature Survey
2.1 Expancel DU...........…………………………………………………......................62
2.2 Expancel in arrificial leather.....................................................................................63
2.3 Expancel in PVC-plastisols, undebody coating and sealent......................................64

2.4 Formulation for PVC leather.....................................................................................65
CHAPTER - 3
Experimental Work
3.1 Raw Materials.............................................................................................................68
3.2 Experiment Procedure................................................................................................70
3.3 Experimental Methods used for Testing....................................................................74
3.4 Experimental Batches Perform..................................................................................75
CHAPTER - 4
Results and Discussions
4.1 Trial Results 1............................................................................................................76
4.2 Trial Results 2............................................................................................................77
4.3 Trial Results 3............................................................................................................78
CHAPTER -5
Conclusion & References........................................................................................... 79 &80

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.
1 Natural Leather 12
2 Parameric Imitation Leather 14
3 Koskin 15
4 Leatherette 15
5 Vegan Leather 16
6 Structure of Product 17
7 Transfer Coating 20
8 Structure of PVC 21
9 Polymerization of The Monomer 22

Vinyl Chloride
10 Structure of Epoxydised 32
Soyabean Oil
11 Structure of ADCL 41
12 Knitting Pattern 44
13 Non-Woven Fabric 45
14 Release Fabric 45
15 Testing Equipment 51
16 Product and Application 55
17 Structure of Expancel 59
Microsphere
18 Types of Expancel Microsphere 62
19 Expancel DU Microsphere 76

LIST OF TABLE
Table No. Name of Table Page No.
1 Types of Plasticizer 28
2 Plasticizing Efficiency 29
3 Secondary Plasticizer 30
4 Types of Stabilizer 33
5 Stabilizer Application Areas 34
6 Carbamoy Liminourea 41
7 Types of Backing Fabric 43
8 Aesthetic Coat 46
9 Barrier Coat 47
10 Adhesion Coat 47
11 Coating Paste for PVC 72
12 Expancel Microsphere Grades 75
13 Standard Specification 80
14 Formulation 80
15 Test Result I 81
16 Test Result II 82
17 Test Result III 83

PART:A
INDUSTRIAL
TRANING PROJECT

1.1 Objectives of Industrial Training

The main objectives of the Industrial Training are to enable the students to:
 To get exposure to the industrial environments this cannot be simulated in the

classroom.
 Apply the theoretical knowledge to practical situation and to appreciate the
limitations of knowledge gained in the classroom.
 Appreciate the importance of discipline, punctuality, teamwork, sense of
responsibility, value of time & money dignity of labor.
 Familiarize with various materials, processes, products and their application.
 Appreciate the need to coordinator efforts of various persons at different levels in
achieving set goals and target.
 Get exposed to the current technological developments relevant to the subject
area to which the training pertains.
 Understand the social, economic and administrative considerations that influence
the working of industrial organizations.
Appreciate research & development, innovation & improvement, expansion,
diversification and modernization being carried out and planned in the industry.
1.2 About the Training:
The industrial training is included in the curriculum for the partial fulfillment of B.Tech
Program. The training is done in Fenoplast Limited Unit-2, Survey No. 132-133,
Nandigaon Village, Patancheru (503219), Telangana from 13 Feb. 2015 to 4 July 2015.
The training mainly concentrated in the R&D and Quality Control & Assurance of PVC
leather manufacturing plant of Fenoplast Limited.

2 Fenoplast – An Overview
2.1 About Fenoplast Limited:
Fenoplast is a name that has been at the core of the finest automotive upholstery Known
for making world-class quality PVC Leather Cloth. After get incorporated in 1975 ,in the
last quarter of the century, Fenoplast Limited have expanded product range from
manufacture of PVC Leather Cloth to manufacture of Non-toxic Rigid PVC Film for
blister packaging. Meant primarily for Pharmaceutical Industry and Rigid and Soft PVC
Films for stationery and other applications. 30% of the volumes produced are being
exported to over 28 countries throughout the world including- France, Germany, U.S.A.,
United Kingdom, Singapore, etc.
The specialty of the company is to manufacture quality products, meeting national and
international standards for various applications ranging as wide as Automobile
Upholstery to Shoe uppers for leather cloth and Blister packaging for Pharmaceutical
industry to door trims and Automobile interiors for PVC films . The products are tailor-
made to the specifications of the buyers, solely with the objective of customer's
satisfaction. Fenoplast Limited has the unmatchable capability to manufacture more than
950 shades of Leather Cloth, with the shades matching exactly to the master samples
given by the customers.
Company have got various awards including,
1) KEMA Certificate - ISO 9001: 2000,
2) Rajiv Gandhi Excellence Award – 1991
3) Best Exporter Award - 1992 – 93
4) The Plastics Export Promotion Council's Award - 1997 – 98
5) Department of Health & Human Services - Drug Master File (DMF)

2.2 The Plants & Products:
Presently, the Fenoplast Group has four manufacturing units in its ambit, each producing
a specialized range of PVC and PVC - related products. The product range of Fenoplast
Limited can be broadly classified as
I. PVC leather cloth
II. PVC film.
Together, the four units of Fenoplast constitute an integrated facility, enabling the
company reap rich economies of scale in production and ensure excellent quality in its
products, which in turn get passed on to the end-users.
2.3 The Quality Control:
Fenoplast is being a big name in leather market only due to its quality products and
innovative ideas. It places special accent on the quality of its products. Fenoplast has
adopted a comprehensive quality control process to ensure excellence at every stage of
production, The 8 - stage quality control system leaves virtually no aspect to chance.
Indian Leather Industry has developed to a large extent and is the second largest
producer next to China. The industry is equipped mostly with a potential for employment
generation, growth and exports, with the annual exports touching 2 billion USD. The
industry experienced a positive metamorphosis from being a transporter of raw materials
to an established exporter of value added and finished leather products. Currently it is on
an ever increasing phase with optimum utilization of available raw materials and
maximum returns from exports.

3 Introduction To Leather:
3.1 What is Leather?
A general term for hide or skin that still retains its original fibrous structure more or less
intact, and that has been treated so as to be in-putrescible even after treatment with water.
Leather is a durable and flexible material. It is produced in a wide variety of types and
styles and is decorated by a wide range of techniques.
Uses of leather:
Leather can be used for manufacturing of
a) Clothing (e.g. Shoes, hats, jackets, skirts, trousers and belts),
b) Bookbinding,
c) Leather Wallpaper,
d) Furniture Covering.
3.2 Types of Leather:
Classification of leather is based on the process use to manufacture leather. They are of
two types
1. Natural leather
2. Synthetic leather
Natural Leather:
Natural Leather is a durable and flexible material created by the tanning of animal
rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced through manufacturing processes
ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.

Figure 1 : Natural Leather
 Advantages of natural leather :
• Durable
• Natural Product
• Breathable
• Partly waterproof
• Resistance to Fungal Attacks
Limitations of natural leather :
• Expensive
• High cost
• Bulky in weight
• Breaks down easily
• Obtained from animals

Synthetic Leather:
Synthetic leather is a leather substitute consisting of natural or synthetic fiber cloth

coated with plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyurethane (PUR) these coatings
can be dense or foamed depending on the application. Usually it gives the appearance of
natural leather. Artificial leather is used for shoes, bags and tops of convertible cars.
Advantages of synthetic leather :
• Less cost
• Lighter in weight
• Have more consistence color and texture throughout
• Easy to clean and More elastic
Disadvantages of synthetic leather :
• Not so durable
• Not breathable
• Retains heat
Types of synthetic leather:
a) Poromeric Imitation Leather :
Figure 2. Poromeric Imitation Leather.

Sometimes referred to as Poromeric imitation leathers are a group of artificial

‘breathable’ leather substitutes made from a plastic coating (usually a polyurethane) on a
fibrous base layer (typically a polyester). The term Poromeric was coined as a derivative
of the terms micro porous and polymeric.
 Advantages: Its major advantages over natural leather were its durability and its high
gloss finish that could be easily cleaned with a damp cloth.
 Disadvantages: Its disadvantages were its stiffness which did not lessen with
wearing, its relative lack of breathability, and easy confusion with non-breathable
cheaper products.
b) Koskin :
Figure 3. Koskin
Koskin is an artificial leather material commonly found in computer laptop cases. It is

commonly used in Hewlett-Packard, Targus and Belkin laptop cases, CD wallets, and
other consumer goods. It is made to look and feel like authentic leather. In Swedish,
Koskin means cow’s skin, often causing much confusion for consumers.

c) Leatherette :
Figure 4- Leatherette
Leatherette is a form of artificial leather, usually made by covering a fabric base with
plastic. The fabric can be made of a natural or artificial fiber which is then covered with a
soft PVC layer.
 Advantages: One of its primary advantages, especially in cars, is that it requires

little maintenance in comparison to leather, and does not crack or fade as easily.
 Disadvantage: It is not porous and does not allow air to pass through it; thus,
sweat can accumulate if it is used for clothing, car seat coverings, etc. During a
flame, leatherette may cause serious skin damage, because it burns more
vigorously than leather and can melt.
d) Vegan leather :
Figure 5 - Vegan leather

Vegan Leather is an artificial alternative to traditional leather. It may be chosen for

ethical reasons or as a designed material which may have different properties but a
similar look to the natural material
3.3 Introduction to PVC Leather
What is PVC Leather?
A specific family of synthetic leathers employed in this field is constituted by leathers

obtained by means of spreading technique, generally multi layered for example based on
polyurethane (PU), of Plastisols of based on polyvinyl chloride (PVC), these latter also
known in the field as vinyl leathers
Figure 6 : Structure of Product.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC for short) was the first form of artificial leather, created in the
1920’s by replacing hydrogen within vinyl groups with a chloride group. The result was
the stronger, more resistant material that manufacturers had been looking for. Shortly
thereafter, PVC began to enjoy success as an alternative to metal. However, as a fabric,
imitation leather was criticized as “feeling artificial” and being “too sticky” in hot
temperatures. In the 1970’s, the DuPont Company micro-engineered a form of artificial
leather with pores in it.

4 Manufacturing process for synthetic PVC Leather
Manufacturing of synthetic PVC leather includes following processes
1) Coating method:
a) Direct Coating method
b) Carrier Transfer Coating method
3) Rolling method
4) Legitimate layer:
a) Adhesive laminating
b) Hot melt laminated.
4.1 Coating methods:

Direct coating method:
The original technology to manufacture PVC Leather Cloth was by direct coating
Method. PVC Plastisols coated fabric substrate pretreatment Squeegee knife or roller
directly, and then the process of plasticizing, ginning, cooling, coiling process to produce
PVC artificial leather called direct coating method.
Strengths: This law is the earliest and most simple process can produce fabric substrate
ordinary leather, foam leather, floor leather, etc. as the device is simple, less investment
cost and higher production efficiency.
Drawback: The drawback is the need of a large amount of the emulsion resin, product
quality is difficult to control (particularly those affected by the influence of the substrate),
the fabric substrate requires pretreatment, and the low strength of the fabric substrate
(such as a knitted fabric, paper, inferior recycled cloth, etc.) cannot be used, suitable for
production of thin leather.

Carrier Transfer coating method:
In the early 70s, there was a demand for a suppler and softer PVC Leather Cloth, which
can be used in wider applications such as domestic upholstery, automobile upholstery,
ladies bags, Footwear industry, garment lining, belts etc. This gave birth to a new
technology called transfer coating technology by release paper method.
Plastisols Squeegee knife or roller coated Pre-gelatinized loop carrier substrate with
semi-gel coatings fit together, completely plasticized after cooling, the paste compounds
peeled off from the carrier, and then the film or surface treatment, ginning manufacturing
PVC artificial leather, the process is referred to as the carrier transfer coating method.
This process is suitable for a knitted fabric or non-woven fabric substrate, the production
of foam leather, recycled cloth, canvas, etc. may also be applied to the city of cloth. The
carrier used in the stainless steel strip, a metal mesh, the release paper, the silicone rubber
belt, our current use of the stainless steel belt. Today most of the coaters in the world
over, use transfer coating method using release paper for the manufacture of PVC Leather
Cloth.
Strengths : Modifications to this technology has mostly been subtle and are more in
terms of having better coating heads at different stations, different surface finish
machines, various types of release paper and a whole new family of additives which
enhance the life and finish of PVC Leather Cloth, such as those which help incorporation
of properties such as flame retardant, cold flex, antioxidants, UV stability , anti-fog
agents, micro biocides and other processing aids which can sustain this product to
extreme weather able conditions.

Figure 7 : Transfer Coating.
Rolling method:
The kneaded mixture in the calendar to prepare the film or sheet need bonded with the
pre-heating of the fabric substrate, then by embossing, cooling, surface treatment such as
artificial leather, the method is called a calendaring method. It can produce general
leatherette and foam leatherette.
Each step operation in the production of foam leather when calendaring before
temperature must be controlled below the blowing agent decomposition temperature,
foaming after the plasticizing. In order to improve the bonding strength of the film and
the substrate, to prevent the plastic material to penetrate the substrate, usually required
coating on the substrate a layer of adhesive. Production efficiency of this method, the raw
material is easy to solve (suspension resins), artificial leather production method.
Layer Legitimate:
This method is the first with the calendaring method of manufacture of the sheet, the
adhesive is pre-coated into the fabric substrate, with the laminating apparatus can be
embossed to the treated fabric substrate and the sheet are bonded together. Laminated in
two ways,

1) One is the adhesive to the PVC sheet, then paste the substrate.
2) Another is based on thermoplastic hot melt properties, so that the prefabricated sheet
after heating and the fabric substrate are bonded together.
Ordinary PVC leather and foam leather can be produced this way. Which is characterized
by simple operation, easy swap varieties, multi-fit, suitable for the production of thick
leather more than 1mm.
FENOPLAST is engaged in making leather cloth by Carrier Transfer Coating method

which is the best and gives higher quality leather cloth than other methods.
4.2 Key Element of Synthetic PVC Leather

 Poly Vinyl Chloride (Paste Grade)
 Plasticizers
 Stabilizers
 Fillers
 Thinners
 Flame Retardants
 Pigment
 Blowing Agents
 Release Paper
 Backing fabric
4.2.1 Poly Vinyl Chloride:
Figure 8 : Structure of PVC

Poly vinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced is a
thermoplastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. It soft when heated and hard when
cooled. Polyvinyl chloride is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride
(chloroethene) CH2=CHCl.
Figure 9 - Polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride.

PVC can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers. Phthalates are often
used to soften PVC in this way. Pure poly(vinyl chloride) is a white, brittle solid. It is
insoluble in alcohol but slightly soluble in tetrahydrofuran.
PVC is a vinyl polymer that can be produced with different stereo regularity. The
syndiotactic PVC can be particularly crystalline with a very high melting point and hence
impossible to process. Thus, stereo regularity of the PVC produced is important. PVC is
usually synthesized by either emulsion polymerization (to produce "Paste grade" PVC -
very fine particles) or by suspension polymerization (to produce "dry blending" PVC --
larger size particles). The paste grade PVC is particularly useful for "Plastisols". To
manufacturing the synthetic PVC leather cloth emulsion/paste grade PVC is needed.
Emulsion Grade PVC:
Emulsion Polymerized PVC is what Paste Grade Resin is and this is almost exclusively
used for Plastisols. Paste grade resin is a very fine particle size PVC produced by spray
drying an Emulsion of PVC in Water very much like how milk powder is produced. Paste
grade resin needs much more energy to produce and is considerably costlier than
Suspension resin. The paste grade resin carries the emulsifying chemicals and catalysts
with it. It is therefore less pure than Suspension Polymerized or Bulk Polymerized PVC.
The Electrical properties of Paste grade resin Plastisols are therefore much poorer than
Suspension Resin Compounds. Clarity is poorer than Suspension or Bulk PVC. Paste

grade resin is compact in structure, and does not absorb much Plasticizer at room
temperatures. Temperatures in excess of 160-180oC are needed to drive the plasticizer
into the Resin during curing. Paste grade Resin is extensively used for Cushion Vinyl
Floorings of wide widths. Different layers of specially formulated pastes are coated either
on a suitable substrate (Direct Coating) or on Release Paper (Transfer coating). The
layers are fused continuously in long ovens and rolled up after release paper is stripped
off. The rolled good flooring can have a tough semitransparent wear layer over printed
and foamed layers which are sitting on top of highly filled base coats to build up the
thickness. Many extremely attractive and rich effects are possible and these represent the
higher end of Vinyl Flooring.
Effect due to K-value of PVC:
PVC Resins are classified by their K-Value, an indicator of the molecular weight and
degree of polymerization.
• K70-75 are high K value resins which gives best mechanical properties but are more
difficult to process. They need more plasticizer for same softness. High performance
Cable insulations in Suspension resin and tough coatings for Conveyor belts, Industrial
Flooring and similar high end applications in Paste grade are some popular application. It
is the costliest.
• K65-68 is medium K value resin which is the most popular. They have a good balance
of Mechanical properties and processabilty. UPVC (Unplasticised or Rigid PVC) is made
from the less porous grades while Plasticized Applications are best made from the more
porous grades. There is a lot of grade choice as they cater to the Majority of PVC
applications. Because of its sheer volume this family of PVC resins are priced the lowest.
• K58-60 are low K-value ranges. Mechanical properties are lowest, but processing is
easiest. Many difficult to process applications like injection molding, blow molding and
Clear Calendared packaging film are made from the lower K value ranges. Prices are
higher than Medium K Value Resins.

• K50-55 are special resins which are tailor made for some demanding applications.
Interesting ones are Battery Separator Resins and Blending resins used along with Paste
Grade resin to reduce costs. Processing is easiest. As PVC is 56% Chlorine, it is one of
the few Polymers which are self-extinguishing, as Chlorine is a strong Flame inhibitor.
Why PVC?
Of all plastics, PVC has excellent environmental features such as low CO2 (carbon
dioxide) emissions in the production phase, which contributes to the prevention of global
warming and saves resources and energy.
■ Contributes to prevention of global warming:
Upon considering the global warming issue, the magnitude of CO2 emission for the
material we use throughout its lifecycle, from production to consumption and disposal, is
an important index. PVC is proven as a material with minimal environmental load in
terms of CO2 emission, when compared with metal or glass products of the same
application
■ Contributes to energy saving:
PVC is an energy efficient plastic which saves significant amounts of energy in the
production stage as compared with other plastics. PVC window profiles have three times
the heat insulation efficiency of aluminum profiles, and are compatible with the Next
Generation Energy Saving Standard. They cut down energy consumption for heating and
air conditioning.
■ Contributes to saving natural resources:
57% of PVC is made up of chlorine, which is derived from natural salt that is abundant
on earth. Therefore PVC contributes significantly to saving oil, which is a limited natural
resource, in contrast to other plastics whose composition entirely depends on oil.

4.2.2 Plasticizer:
Plasticizers or dispersants are additives that increase the plasticity or fluidity of a

material. The dominant applications are for plastics, especially polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
It may reduce the melt viscosity, lower temperature of second order transition or lower
the elastic modulus of the product.
There are more than 300 different types of plasticizers available. The most commonly
used plasticizers are ester like phthalates, adipates and trimellitates.
The properties of other materials are also improved when blended with plasticizers
including concrete, clays, and related products
Classification of Plasticizer:
These are two types:
 Internal plasticizers
 External plasticizers :
• Primary plasticizers
• Secondary plasticizers
Internal Plasticizers:
A rigid polymer may be internally plasticized by chemically modifying the polymer or

monomer so that flexibility polymer is increased.
The process by which Tg of rigid polyvinylchloride is lowered through copolymerization,

is called internal plasticization.
External Plasticizers:
• These are high boiling liquids, nonvolatile and having low vapor pressure.
• They must soluble in polymer and reduce the Tg of polymer below room

• temperature rendering it softer and flexible
They acts as lubricants between the polymer chains, facilitating slippage of chain under
stress
Types of Plasticizers:
• Citrates
• Adipates
• Phosphate esters
• Polymerics
• Phthalates
• Esters of glycol and polyhydric alcohols
• Sebacate and azelate esters
• Secondary plasticizers
Primary Plasticizers :
Also called as chemical plasticizers, when added to polymer, will cause the properties of
elongation and softness of the polymer to be increased.
Plasticizers make the hard PVC resin softer. Primary plasticizers have good compatibility
with PVC resin and can be absorbed in large quantities. In special cases as much as 140-
150 PHR of Primary plasticizers can be gelatin into PVC for super soft products. Nearly
all Plasticizers are liquids and have to be absorbed in Suspension resin in heated mixers.
High Speed mixers (which generate frictional heat while mixing) are the most popular
types of dry blending equipment. Heated Ribbon blenders and Sigma mixers are only
used when very high Plasticizer levels are required.
There is a vast array of Primary plasticizers for PVC. This discussion will be limited to
the most popular, the Phthalate Esters. Phthalic acid is reacted with various alcohols to
manufacture a family of Phthalate plasticizers of which Di Octyl Phthalate (DOP) is the
most popular. Other important Primary Plasticizers are DOA & DOS (for low
temperature applications), Trimellitates (for high temperature applications and Polymeric

Plasticizers (High permanence).The number of Carbon atoms in the Alcohol decides the
gradation of Properties
Table 1. Types Of Plasticizer
Alcohol Carbon Plasticizer Gelation Main Usage

atoms Name Rate
Butyl 4 Di Butyl Fastest Fast Fusing, Cheaper

Phthalate
(DBP)
Octyl 8 Di Octyl Standard Most popular

Phthalate
(DOP)
Iso Octyl 8 Di Iso Octyl Standard Slightly Cheaper than

Phthalate DOP
(DIOP)
Purity is very important in Plasticizers. Presence of unreacted Acid or alcohol even in

small quantities reduces efficiency of the plasticizer. Impure Plasticizers have a bad odor.
Electrical properties are adversely affected by impurities. For totally smell free DOP,
double distillation is used, increasing costs. Blends of such plasticizers can also be used
but complicates manufacturing.
However, in some case, small amounts of DBP have been used to promote Processing.
DBP tends to evaporate out slowly with use, thereby stiffening the product, i.e. its
permanency is low. The higher Carbon atoms Phthalates have better permanence. They
do not volatilize easily at high temperatures. If a Plasticizer volatilizes the product
becomes harder and brittle. Fusing and gelation take longer with DIDP. Phthalate

Plasticizers are not flame resistant. They are the main reason why Flexible PVC products
are much more flammable than Unplasticised (Rigid) PVC. There are many more
families of Plasticizers for special properties, (Low Temperature, High Permanence, Non
Migrating, Continuous High Temperature, Smoke resistance etc.).
Plasticizing Efficiency:
The Plasticizing efficiency of DOP (the most popular) is set as 1. The Plasticizing
efficiency of any other plasticizer is expressed as a ratio with DOP for producing a
molding of same softness. For example if 50 PHR of DOP yields a Shore hardness of 77,
and 55 PHR of another plasticizer gives the same hardness, the Plasticizing efficiency of
the plasticizer is 50/55 x 100 or 0.91 (91%). For example for the Phthalates discussed
above, the Plasticizing efficiencies are:
Table 2. Plasticizing Efficiency
Plasticizer Name Plasticizing Efficiency
Di Butyl Phthalate (DBP) 1.05
Di Octyl Phthalate (DOP) 1.0
Di Iso Octyl Phthalate (DIOP) 1.0
Secondary Plasticizers:
Also called as plasticizing oils, they are not used alone but when combined with primary
plasticizers will enhance the plasticizing performance of the primary plasticizer. They are
also known as extenders. The majority of these plasticizers include chlorinated paraffin's.
The flame retardancy and viscosity increases with chlorine content. Other materials used
are epoxidised soya bean oil and epoxidised linseed oil. They act as lubricants to PVC
due to their epoxy content.
Secondary Plasticizers and extenders have limited compatibility. Their main purpose is to
decrease costs. Some properties like flame retardance are improved. The most common
Secondary Plasticizers are the Chlorinated Paraffin’s. Waxes or Paraffin oils are
chlorinated, Chlorine level varying from 40-60%. Chlorinated Paraffin Waxes (CPW) are
very viscous and rarely used nowadays. Chlorinated Paraffin Oils (CPO) is much more
popular as the Viscosity and Plasticizing efficiency is better than CPW. The higher the
Chlorine Content the better the Plasticizing Efficiency, but Viscosity is higher. Addition
of CPO adversely affects Gelation rates. Cost increases as Chlorine levels increases
Compatibility: This determines how much Secondary Plasticizers PVC can hold. If
addition levels exceed the Compatibility limit, the secondary Plasticizer will ooze out on
the surface of the product during use. Secondary Plasticizers are rarely used as sole
Plasticizer except in Semi Rigid applications. Primary Plasticizers have to be included in
the recipe for Secondary Plasticizers to be of any use.
Table 3. Secondary Plasticizers
Secondary Plasticizer Chlorination Level Plasticizing

Efficiency
CP Wax 40% 0.40-0.50
CP Wax 56% (near solid) 0.50-0.55
CP Oil 42% 0.75
CP Oil 56% 0.80
The compatibility of Secondary Plasticizers is influenced by Filler levels. High filler

levels improve compatibility and it is not unknown that in highly filled applications,
Primary Plasticizers are eliminated, though this is not a safe practice. There is another
group of Secondary Plasticizers which are actually costlier than DOP. These are
Epoxidised Vegetable oils. They will be discussed in the next section as they are added to
boost heat stability and processing.

Epoxidised Soybean Oil :
Epoxidised soybean oil, better known by its acronym, ESBO, is a secondary plasticizer
used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics. It serves as a plasticizer and as a scavenger for
hydrochloric acid liberated from PVC when the PVC undergoes heat treatment.
Figure 9 : Structure of Epoxidised Soybean Oil.
ESBO is manufactured from soybean oil through the process of epoxidation. The reason
why vegetable oils are widely used as plasticizers is because the high numbers of carbon-
carbon double bonds present in vegetable oils make them a good target for manipulation
into some other useful products like in this case - from soybean oil into Epoxidised
soybean oil.
The epoxide group is more reactive than double bond, thus providing a more
energetically favorable site for reaction and making the oil a good hydrochloric acid
scavenger and plasticizer. Usually a peroxide or a peracid is used to add an atom of
oxygen and convert the -C=C- bond to an epoxide group.
4.2.3 Stabilizer:
PVC processed at high temperatures, can easily to release HCL, formation of unstable
polyolefin structure. The same time, HCL has a self-catalytic make further degradation of
PVC. In addition, if the presence of oxygen, such as iron, aluminum, zinc, tin, copper and
cadmium ions will have a catalytic effect on PVC degradation, to accelerate their aging.

Therefore, the plastic will be a variety of undesirable phenomena such as discoloration,

deformation, cracking, mechanical strength, electrical insulation performance, brittle hair.
In order to solve these problems, the formulation must be added to the stabilizer; in
particular a thermal stabilizer is essential.
Stabilizers used in PVC stabilizers includes
1) Thermal stabilizers,
2) Light stabilizers.
Formulation design products use requirements and processing requirements used in

different varieties, different amounts of stabilizer.
Heat Stabilizer:
One of the most crucial additives are heat stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of HCl,
a degradation process that starts above 70 °C. Once dehydrochlorination starts, it is
autocatalytic. Many diverse agents have been used including, traditionally, derivatives of
heavy metals (lead, cadmium). Increasingly, metallic soaps (metal "salts" of fatty acids)
are favored, species such as calcium stearate. Addition levels vary typically from 2% to
4%. The choice of the best heat stabilizer depends on its cost effectiveness in the end use
application, performance specification requirements, processing technology and
regulatory approvals.
A majority of Stabilizers contain metal elements which react with HCl and inhibit further
degradation. They are Metal Salts, Soaps or Complexes. Stabilization of PVC is a vast
subject and these are the second most important ingredient after Plasticizers in a Flexible
PVC formulation. Some of the most important families are

Table 4. Types Of Stabilizer
Type Form PHR used Clarity Toxicity Odor
Ba- Cd Liquid 1.5 – 2.5 Clear V.Toxic Slight
Ba – Zn Liquid 2–3 Clear Toxic Slight
Cd – Zn Liquid 2–3 Clear Toxic Slight
Ca – Zn Liquid 3 -4 Clear Non Toxic Slight
Leads Powder 2 -4 Opaque Toxic None
Tins Liquid 0.5 -1 Crystal Toxic & Strong

Non
Stabilizers application areas:
Table 5 . Stabilizer Application Areas
Heat
Type Main Applications Not recommended for
Stability
Very Good,
Cables, Pipes & Fittings, Clear Application. Can
Leads esp long
Sleeves, Profiles. Cheapest. be toxic
term
Transparent tubings and Causes sulphide
Tins Best sheeting, High quality staining with Leads.
Pipes, Medical Costliest Stabiliser
Cd - Zn Moderate ROHS Cables, Non Toxic For high heat history
Leather Cloth, Calendered

Ba- Cd Good Non Toxic applications
products, Footwear.
Cd - Zn Moderate Foamed Leather Cloth For high heat history
Metallic Costabilisers with

Low Sole Stabiliser
Stearates lubricating action

Light Stabilizer :
The UV absorbers dissipate the absorbed light energy from UV rays as heat by reversible
intramolecular proton transfer. This reduces the absorption of UV rays by the polymer
matrix and hence reduces the rate of weathering.
Many of the Mixed Metal Stabilizer also protects PVC from UV radiation attack. Among
the Lead Stabilizer, DBL Phosphite has some UV resistance properties. However their
light stabilization effect may need to be boosted in application subject to outdoor
exposure to harsh conditions. Such light stabilizers are complex chemicals like HALS
and are very expensive (Rs. 3000-5000/kg). While they are effective at very low dosages
(0.1-0.3 PHR) they are only used if absolutely necessary due to their high cost.
An important group is the Epoxidised Vegetable Oils mentioned under Secondary
Plasticizers. These boost the Heat and Light stabilizing effect of many Stabilizers.
Commonly referred as the Synergistic effect, they are frequently used in combination
with mixed metals for best results. The most popular are Epoxidised Groundnut Oil and
Epoxidised Soya Bean Oil.
4.2.4 Fillers:
PVC Add Some inorganic filler as a bulking agent.
Uses: It reduces costs while improving certain physical and mechanical properties (such
as hardness, heat distortion temperature, dimensional stability, and reduce shrinkage), the
increase in electrical insulation and flame resistance.
Drawbacks: Additions of fillers, especially in high dosages, adversely affect most

desirable properties, and therefore are rightly viewed as cheapening agents.
In recent years, the inorganic filler nano, and apply it to the plastic modifier has been the
research hotspot, and has been part of the research, such as nano-calcium carbonate
toughened and strengthened PVC, which is to solve an important problem is how to nano
products uniformly dispersed in the plastic
Reinforcing fillers like Glass Fiber, Carbon Fiber will not be discussed here. They are

much more expensive than PVC resin and not widely used in PVC formulations. Non
Reinforcing Fillers are a wide ranging group. For PVC the most important is Calcium
Carbonate. There are two types of Calcium Carbonate which are widely used:
Ground Calcium Carbonate :

Good quality Limestone (Whiting) mined from the quarries is pulverized into powder of
a particle size suitable for addition in plastics. This is by far the cheapest type of filler,
with transportation costs sometimes exceeding the product price. Purity of ground
calcium Carbonate depends solely on the quality of the Limestone source as there is no
chemical refining process to remove impurities, especially abrasive silicate and other
rocky materials.
Ground Calcium Carbonate is extensively used by Leather Cloth Manufacturers who coat
a PVC Paste on to substrates like Textiles, Paper etc, which is then cured continuously in
an oven. The abrasive contaminants can be handled by the knife coating process. The
abrasive nature of Ground Calcium Carbonate prevents its widespread use with
Suspension Resin as the abrasion on extruders and Injection Molding machines would be
prohibitive. Coated fabrics made with the much costlier Paste grade resin is able to
compete with laminated products made from Suspension Resin because of the cheap filler
used.
Not all Ground Calcium Carbonate is of low quality. Premium Champagne whiting from
special Limestone quarries can be more expensive than PCC and is used in high end
Electrical and Pipe applications. These are imported. The surface quality is badly affected
by ground Calcium Carbonate, but in Leather Cloth industry normally a thin high quality
top coat which hides these defects. Its effect on Plastisols for Dip moldings could be
evaluated.
Precipitated Calcium Carbonate :
Limestone is dissolved and impurities filtered out. After further chemical purification to
remove Iron and Magnesium, the solution is carbonated with CO2. Very pure Calcium
Carbonate is precipitated and this is filtered and dried.. There are several grades
depending on purity and particle size. Prices vary according to grade. Precipitated
Calcium Carbonate (PCC) is the most widely used filler in PVC. PCC, by the way, is the

main ingredient in toothpaste which accounts for much more tonnage that PVC Fillers.
There are therefore many manufacturers in India.
Both Ground and Precipitated CaCO3 absorb expensive Plasticizers, taking away some
portion meant for flexibilising PVC. Thus more DOP has to be added to compensate, thus
partly offsetting cost advantage. This can be significant especially as doses go up.
Viscosity also increases. To reduce the Oil (DOP) absorption Precipitated Calcium
Carbonate is coated with Stearic Acid / Calcium Stearate.
DOP absorption is reduced considerably and processing and gloss improves. These are
premium fillers and are termed Activated PCC.
Recently, better quality GCC are being offered by several manufacturers and are
replacing the costlier PCC in lower end PVC applications like Agro Pipes, SWR etc.
Other mineral fillers are Talc, Dolomite, Wolastonite and Asbestos. Asbestos was widely
used in Vinyl Floor tiling but its carcinogenic nature has prevented its use nowadays.
While Calcium Carbonate seems to be the most attractive cost reducing agent, care has to
be taken in optimizing its addition level and grade selection for best results. The concept
of Volume cost will be taken up in the last section.
Introduction of filler change the properties of final product. The filler level increased;
Decreases the properties like tensile strength and elongation, while increase the hardness
and specific gravity.
4.2.5 Thinner:
A volatile solvent used to make solutions less viscous called as a thinner.
A liquid such as Turpentine Oil mixed with plastisol to reduce its viscosity and make it
easier to apply. It is a mixture of aliphatic and cyclic C7 to C12 hydrocarbons with a
maximum content of 25% of C7 to C12 aromatic hydrocarbons. A typical composition
for mineral spirits is > 65% C10 or higher hydrocarbons, aliphatic solvent hexane, and a
maximum benzene content of 0.1% by volume, a kauri-butanol value of 29, an initial
boiling point of 65 °C (149 °F), a dry point of approximately 69 °C (156 °F), and a
density of 0.79 g/ml.

4.2.6 Flame Retardants:
Flame retardants are compounds added to manufactured materials, such as plastics and
textiles, and surface finishes and coatings that inhibit, suppress, or delay the production
of flames to prevent the spread of flame.
They may be mixed with the base material (additive flame retardants) or chemically
bonded to it (reactive flame retardants). Mineral flame retardants are typically additives
while organohalogen and organophosphorus compounds can be either reactive or
additive.
These chemicals can be separated into several different classes:
 Minerals :
a) Aluminum Hydroxide (ATH)
b) Magnesium Hydroxide (MDH),
c) Huntite and Hydromagnesite,
d) Various Hydrates,
e) Red Phosphorus,
f) Boron Compounds, mostly borates.
 Organ halogen compounds :
This class includes
a) Organ Chlorines : Chlorendic acid derivatives and chlorinated paraffin,
b) Organ Bromines : Decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE), Decabromodiphenyl
ethane ( a replacement for decaBDE),
c) Polymeric brominated compounds: brominated polystyrenes, brominated
carbonate oligomers (BCOs), brominated epoxy oligomers (BEOs),
tetrabromophthalic anhydride, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and
hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD).
Most but not all halogenated flame retardants are used in conjunction with a synergist to
enhance their efficiency. Metal oxide is widely used but other forms of antimony such as
the pentoxide and sodium antimonate are also used.

 Organ phosphorus compounds:

This class includes
a) Organophosphates: Triphenyl Phosphate (TPP), Resorcinol bis
(diphenylphosphate) (RDP), Bisphenol A diphenyl phosphate (BADP), and
Tricresyl Phosphate (TCP).
b) Phosphonates : Dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP).
c) Phosphinates : Aluminum diethyl phosphinate.
In one important class of flame retardants, compounds contain both phosphorus and a
halogen. Such compounds include tri (2, 3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (brominated tris)
and chlorinated organophosphates such as tris (1, 3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate
(chlorinate tris or TDCPP) and tetrekis (2-chlorethyl) dichloroisopentyldiphosphate.
4.2.7 Blowing Agents:
A blowing agent is a substance which is capable of producing a cellular structure via a

foaming process in a variety of materials that undergo hardening or phase transition, such
as polymers, plastics, and metals. They are typically applied when the blown material is
in a liquid stage. The cellular structure in a matrix reduces density, increasing thermal
and acoustic insulation, while increasing relative stiffness of the original polymer.
Foaming Agents decompose at gelling temperatures giving off inert gases like Nitrogen
or Carbon Dioxide. The gases are trapped on the thick melt and generate a foamed
structure.
 This is a useful way of increasing the bulk or volume of the molding and lowering
the density considerably. They are extensively used in the Leather cloth industry
and another well-known application is microcellular shoe soles.
 Many novel embossed an raised effects are obtained in spread coated Vinyl
Rolled good flooring by printing patterns with PVC Plastisols containing blowing
agents. On curing the printed portions foam up and give novel patterns. Blowing
agents related mechanisms to create holes in a matrix producing cellular
materials. Blowing agents are classified as follow.

1. Physical Blowing agent

2. Chemical Blowing agent
3. Mixed blowing agents
Physical blowing agents: The bubble/foam-making process is reversible and

endothermic, i.e. it needs heat (e.g. from a melt process or the chemical exotherm due to
cross-linking), to volatile a liquid blowing age. e.g. CFCs , HCFCs (replaced CFCs,
liquid CO2
However, on cooling the blowing agent will condense, i.e. a reversible process.
Chemical blowing agents: Here gaseous products and other by-products are formed by a
chemical reaction(s), promoted by process or a reacting polymer's exothermic heat. Since
the blowing reaction occurs forming low molecular weight compounds acting as the
blowing gas, additional exothermic heat is also released. e.g. isocyanate and water (for
PUs), azo-, hydrazine and other nitrogen-based materials (for thermoplastic and
elastomeric foams), sodium bicarbonate (aka baking soda, used in thermoplastic foams)
Once formed the low molecular weight compounds will never revert to the original
blowing agent(s), i.e. the reaction is irreversible.
Mixed physical/chemical blowing agents: Here both the chemical and physical blowing
agents are used in tandem, to balance each other out with respect to thermal energy
released/absorbed, so minimizing temperature rise. Otherwise excessive exothermic heat
because of high loading of a physical blowing agent can cause thermal degradation of a
developing thermoset or polyurethane material. For instance, to avoid this in
polyurethane systems isocyanate and water (which react to form carbon dioxide) are used
in combination with liquid carbon dioxide (which boils to give gaseous form) in the
production of very low density flexible PU foams for mattresses. e.g. used to produce
flexible PU foams with very low densities.

 ADCL (azodicarbonamide):
Azodicarbonamide, or azobisformamide, is a chemical compound with the molecular

formula C2H4O2N4. It is a yellow to orange red, odorless, crystalline powder.
Figure 10. Structure of ADCL
Table 6. Carbamoyliminourea
IUPAC Name Carbamoyliminourea
Molecular Formula C2H4N4O2
Molar Mass 116.08 g mol−1
Appearance Yellow to orange/red crystalline powder
The principal use of azodicarbonamide is in the production of foamed plastics as an

additive. The thermal decomposition of azodicarbonamide results in the evolution of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and ammonia gases, which are trapped in the
polymer as bubbles to form a foamed article.
Azodicarbonamide as used in plastics, synthetic leather and other uses can be pure or
modified. This is important because modification affects the reaction temperatures. Pure
azodicarbonamide generally reacts around 200 °C, but there are some products that the
reaction temperature must be lower, depending on the application. In the plastic, leather
and other industries, modified azodicarbonamide (average decomposition temperature
170°C) contains additives that accelerate the reaction or react at lower temperatures.

4.2.7 Pigments
• Inorganic Pigments
• Organic Pigments
• Carbon Blacks.
Inorganic pigments are oxides and salts of metals as well as complex minerals. The most
important is Titanium Dioxide which is the chief whitening pigment used in Plastics.
Important Inorganic Pigment groups:

• Ultramarine: Blues and Violets
• Chromes: Yellows, Orange, Brown
• Cadmiums: Reds, Orange, Yellow
• Iron Oxide: Brow, Black. Iron oxide tends to catalyse decomposition of PVC so must be
used with care if at all.
Inorganic pigments are heat stable, cheaper but does not have the colour strength and
brightnes when compared to organic pigments.
Important Organic Pigment Groups:

• Phthalocyanines: Blue, Green
• Chromophthals : Red, Orange
• Azos : Wide range of colours, but carcinogenic.
• Lakes and Toners: Oil soluble dyes leach out with the plasticizer in PVC. However
when deposited and reacted with inorganic carriers, they for Lakes which are widely used
in Plastics.
4.2.8 Backing Fabric:
Fibers used for backing fabric of Synthetic PVC Leather. The Fibers given in below table
can also be used in its composite form e.g. Blend of Polyester-Cotton.

Table 7. Types Of Backing Fabric
Fibers Advantages Disadvantage

• No bonding agent • Low shrinkage per
weight ratio
Cotton • Low thermal shrinkage • Absorb moisture
• Vulnerable to mildew
rotting, insect
• Strong with HT, LOW • Low moisture
Polyester shrinkage absorbency
• Relatively inexpensive • Limited resilience.
• Resistant to mildew, rotting • UV resistance low unless
and insects. protected
• Strong with HT variations • Fabrics may sag due to
available moisture absorption
Nylon • Good elasticity and resilience • Relatively expensive
compared to PET
• High abrasion resistance
• Resistance to mildew rotting
and insect
• Good thermal absorbency • Low melting point
especially PE
• Inexpensive • Adhesive difficult to
Polyethylene, some Substances
Polypropylene • Chemically inert
• Very high tensile strength
• Good FR properties
Aramid • Degraded by UV or sun
4.2.9 Fabric Construction:
Woven Fabric:
Most commonly used are the woven fabrics. Only a relatively very small number of
fabric constructions are employed for polymer coating, i.e. plain weave, twill, and basket
constructions. The plain weave is by far stronger because it has interlacing of the fibers, it
is used most often. Twill weaving produces distinct surface appearances and used for
effects.

Figure 11 : Woven Pattern
Knitted Fabric:
Knitted fabrics are used where moderate strength and elongation are required. Where
high elongation is required, nylon is used. Knit are predominantly circular jersey,
however, patterned knit are becoming more and more prevalent when a polymeric
coating is put on a knit fabric. The strength properties are somewhat less than that of
woven fabric.
Figure 12 : Knitting Pattern
Non Woven Fabric:
Nonwovens, with some exceptions, generally have limited tear strength, poor handle and
drape and are not used for apparel, apart from disposable protective clothing. Many
cannot generally be directly coated because of their rough surface, and because they are
not strong enough to be tensioned on the coating machine.

Figure 13 : Non-Woven fabric
4.3 Release Paper:
Synthetic PVC Leather if manufactured by Transfer coating, release paper is used to

transfer coat on backing fabric. Release paper can play duel function in transfer coating.
e.g. it is used to transfer coat on fabric as well as to transfer design on Leather surface. It
is available in jumbo rolls. These papers are available with solvent less silicone polymer
coating at one or two sides. This is because silicon coating provides easy release of
Plastisols coat from release paper to backing fabric at the time of transfer. This paper
should have enough thermal stability to withstand in processing temperature.
Figure 14 : Release Paper

5 Various Departments
5.1 Production Department:
Mixing Section: Mixing section includes the making of PVC Plastisols with additives
(Stabilizers, Filler, Flame Retardants, Secondary Plasticizer and Pigments) and various
pigments which makes the coating Plastisols as per the master sample. Mixing section
makes the three layer of coating which is Aesthetic coat, barrier coat & adhesion coat.
 Aesthetic Coat: It is the top layer of coating which includes the following
ingredients.
Table 8. Aesthetic
Sr. No. Raw Material Role of the Raw material
1. PVC Resin
2. Plasticizer To plasticized the PVC resin
3. Stabilizer Stabilize in terms of heat, UV/Infrared radiation
4. Flame Retardant Flame Retardant
5. Secondary Plasticizer To extend compatibility
6. Pigments Give the color as per the master sample.
 Barrier Coat: It is the middle layer of coating which gives the flexibility to the
material. It includes the following ingredients.

Table 9. Barrier Coating
Sr. No. Raw Material Role of the Raw material
1. PVC Resin
3. Stabilizer Stabilize in terms of heat,UV/Infrared radiation
4. Flame Retardant Flame Retardant
5. Foaming Agent It is for foaming the coat
6. Secondary Plasticizer To extend compatibility
7. Filler To give the hardness and strength to the leather
8. Pigments Give the color as per the master sample.
Adhesion Coat: It is for the adhesion of top & foam layer to the fabric. It includes
following ingredients.
Table 10. Adhesion Coat
Sr. Raw Material Role of the Raw material

No.
1. PVC Resin
3. Secondary Plasticizer To plasticized the PVC resin
4. Stabilizer Stabilize in terms of heat,UV/Infrared radiation
6. Pigments Black/White as per the sample

5.2 Coating Section
Three coats of Plastisols from mixing section are applied passed at coating section.
Coating section consists of three zones having separate oven at each zone with coating
head (equipment like smaller mesh size screen, squeeze blade or kiss roller method).
Each oven at these zones is adjusted with required temperature profile. First aesthetic
coat layer is applied on release paper by using coating head and passing through the oven
at first zone; then barrier coat layer is applied on aesthetic coat and both these coat layers
are then passed through oven at second zone. After that, at third zone, adhesion coat is
applied on this coating; where barrier coat layer and backing fabric adhere together.
Cooling of each coating is done after each zone by using proper cooling method.
5.3 Embossing Section
In the embossing section embossing on aesthetic layer of coating is done by using

embossed roller designs and rubber roller. The nip gap is set between the rubber roller
and embossing roller as per the required thickness of final leather. The coated leather
from coating section is passed through this nip gap which gives design texture to the
aesthetic (top) layer of the leather. After giving the texture to the top layer of leather it is
cooled by supporting roller circulated with cold water and this leather is then winded on
batch roller.
5.4 Lacquering & Printing Section:
After the collection of leather cloth at the embossing roller leather can be lacquer by
different metallic (silver, golden, and copper) printing for the aesthetic look & properties
of surface of leather.

5.5 Quality Control:
Fenoplast Limited is ISO/TS 16949:2009 certified industries. Fenoplast limited is

committed to enhance customer delight by timely delivery of quality products and
continual improvement in products, processes, skills and quality management system.
Company follows the quality which is not to be checked should be produced. Optimum
quality of product is assured through incoming, online and final inspection and desired
corrective actions if required. Raw Materials are purchased only from approved sources.
Acceptance of incoming Materials is based on the system procedures mentioned in
Quality Control Manuals. Physical and Visual parameters are checked on finished
product as per customer specifications. Testing laboratory of Fenoplast Limited is
equipped with various testing equipment’s which are required to evaluate its physical
performance a chemical characteristics. Testing equipment’s available are as following.
Spectrophotometer GSM Cutter

UTM Color Chamber
Flex Cracking Machine Hot Air Oven

Seam Fatigue Tester Environmental Chamber
Flammability Tester Weighing Balance
Pinholes tester
Figure 15. Testing Equipments.

5.6 Inspection & Packing:
In the Inspection & Packing department the strict inspection & observation can be done.
Packing of leather is done.
Sample defects observed and overcome are: Damage, Design Gap, Gauge Variations,
Cloth Crease, Coat Lines, Pouring Marks, Paper Marks, Creases, Printing and Lacquring
defect, Screendots.
5.7 Dispatch:
Fenoplast Limited strengths include two transfer coating lines with coating heads,
imported from Stork of Holland and RCM of Italy, for manufacturing coated PVC
Leather Cloth and also one calendar line imported from Batten field Extrusion technique
GmbH, Germany, for manufacturing PVC Films. Manufacturing of PVC leather is done
at unit 1 and unit 2 where OEM and Export or Local quality of PVC Leather is
manufactured respectively. Each unit has capacity of 15000 Mtrs per day and monthly
450000 Mtrs. As per customers specifications perfectly matched colored PVC plastisol of
desired viscosity is prepared with the help of large volume vessel and overhead stirrer in
mixing section of Fenoplast. Pigments and plastisol are then grinded with help of roll mill
at 1:2:3 speed ratio. Release paper is used to transfer coating on fabric. It can also be use
to print design on leather. Physical and Visual parameters are checked on the finished
product as per the requirements. At every stage, the manufacturing process is monitored
through patrol inspections and control documents. For Exports, OEMs and Local Sales,
packing specifications are formulated and followed.
6 Products & Application
6.1 Products:
The product range of Fenoplast Limited can be broadly classified as follows

I. PVC leather Cloth
II. PVC Film
6.2 Applications for PVC leather Cloth:
Domestics
Sofa Seat Covering Table Cloth
Automobile upholstery:
Cars Two Wheelers

PART:B
PROJECT

Abstract
Expandable microspheres are explained as well as the possibility of using them

as blowing agent in thermoplastics expanded product made of plastisized PVC are
displayed and results from trials with microspheres in plastisized PVC are shown. New
microspheres a grades with higher expansion temprature are presented and results from
trials are shown.
This paper demonstrates an enhancement in resiliency and rebound properties

of vinyl plastisol based materials incorporating hollow thermoplastic microspheres; and
their characterization using Dynamic Mechanical Analysis involving the time-
temperature superposition technique. These materials have a wide range of applications,
including automotive underbody coatings, gaskets, sealants, and recreational and athletic
articles.
A new technological process was developed for the synthesis of PVC-leather

reinforced foam to overcome the limitation of the use of long PVC-leather in low-density
reinforced foams. This process for making foam is based on thermoplastic expandable
hollow microspheres.
Our mission is success in product development. With Expancel Microspheres.we

wish to enhance the unique properties you are looking for.

1.1 Objective And Scope Of Work
1. To provide a Expancel microsphere compound that can be used as Blowing agent as

well as light weight filler in PVC formulations and which is able to completely replace
ADCL and filler (natural) based Blowing agent or any other filler-based compound in the
same formulations, still maintaining the desired Foaming characteristics.
2. Used as a blowing agent or lightweight filler, the Expancel product line is continuing
to evolve and find new applications in markets such as thermoplastics, printing inks,
coatings and paper and board.
3. some of the newest Expancel products include ultra-high temperature microspheres for
engineering plastics which reduce weight and save on raw materials costs. Available in
both unexpanded and expanded versions, more common applications include fillers for
vehicle bodies, PVC soles for footwear, tennis balls and wine bottle corks.
4.The combination of extremely low density and high resiliency of the microsphere
provides valuable characteristics. In addition the microsphere have cost reducing effect.
5. Study of various Expancel microsphere and their mode of actions.
1.2 Project Introduction

What are Expancel Microspheres?
Think of a balloon. When you blow air into it, it grows and becomes many times larger
than its origin. Expancel expandable microspheres work in a similar way.
The microspheres are very small spherical particles that consist of a plastic shell
encapsulating a gas. To expand them, instead of air you add heat. The internal pressure

from the gas increases and the shell softens. This results in a dramatic increase of the
volume of the microspheres
Figure 17: Structure of expancel microsphere

The heat needed to expand the spheres ranges from 80 to 250°C depending on
grade.
Expancel microspheres are available in different sizes and forms.
Did you know that:

• 1 g of Expancel may contain as many as 15 billion microspheres.
• 1 m³ (1000 l) of Expancel weigh only 12 to 35 kg, depending on grade.

1.1.1 Characteristics of Expancel Microspheres
Expancel Microspheres both in unexpanded and expanded form.

Unexpanded Expancel is used as a blowing agent in production
processes that use heat. The expanded form is used as
a lightweight filler. The expansion effect can be used in e
g printing ink for wallpaper. When heat the print it expands and
a 3D effect is created.
Expancel in its expanded form has a very low weight, which can
be used to make the end product lighter. Have you ever worn
shoes with very thick soles? If the soles were too heavy it would
be tiresome to walk in the shoes. With Expancel added to the
shoe sole material it becomes much lighter and thus more
comfortable to wear. This is an example of where low weight
comes in handy.
Expancel has good insulation/reflective properties. Heat is

conducted by particles in motion. Since the spheres consist
mainly of gas this diminishes the heat transfer and get an
insulation effect. They also scatter light efficiently which makes
the absorption of sunlight smaller.
Have ever tried to squeeze a tennis ball with your hand? If you
succeed you will notice that it bounces back to its original form
again when you release the pressure. The soft shell of the spheres
makes them compressible . This means that if you put pressure
on them, they will compress, but they will also regain their
original form when pressure is released. This is due to the
spheres’ inner pressure and that the plastic shell has a “memory”
of the spherical form that it strives to regain.

With Expancel Microspheres can create surface modifications in

the end product. It can be effects such as matting or anti-slip,
smoothness or roughness.
Expancel can also give cost efficiency. The extremely low

density gives a low volume cost and save raw material.
1.1.2 Applications where Expancel Microspheres can be used
The first application areas where Expancel were used. Since then the number has
grown every year.
Today Expancel Microspheres are used in a vast variety of applications. The

characteristics of Expancel give benefits to applications as diverse as:
 Thermoplastics: a plastic that turns to a liquid when heated and settles when
cooled. It can be remelted and remolded. Examples of thermoplastic products
are: shoe soles, wine stoppers and cables.
 Thermosets: a plastic that is cured by eg heat and that cannot be reheated and
melted back to liquid form. Examples of thermosets where Expancel are used
are: cultured marble, putties and model making board.
 Coatings, such as paint, printing ink and leather.
 Board.

 Adhesives.
 Sealants and underbody coatings.

 Technical textiles and nonwovens, used in core materials in sandwich
constructions.
The exciting part is that we still find new applications that benefit from the use of
Expancel microspheres. The possibilities are unlimited. May be have an application that
will be the next on the list.
1.1.3 Different forms of Expancel Microspheres

Expancel Microspheres in different forms. Both in wet and dry form (with or
without water), as well as unexpanded and expanded.
WU = wet, unexpanded WE = wet, expanded
DU = dry, unexpanded DE = dry, expanded
MB = masterbatch, SL = slurry,
microspheres mixed with a carrier microspheres dispersed in water
Figure18. Types of Expancel Microsphere
 Expancel WU is used in waterborne products and heat is needed to cause
expansion of the microspheres in the product. Examples of applications are
water based printing ink and nonwoven.

 Expancel WE is used in waterborne products. It is used in processes without

heat. It can among other things be used in paint, frost resistant
concrete, sealants and modeling clay.
 Expancel DU is used in products where no water can be added. Heat is

needed in the process to cause expansion of the microspheres in the product.
PVC plastisols, shoe soles, underbody coatings and polyurethanes are examples
of applications for DU.
 Expancel DET is used in products without water and processes without heat.
It can be used in products such as polyester putty, cultured marble, paint, etc.
 Expancel MB is a form that makes dispersion easier. It is Expancel DU

mixed with a carrier. Heat is needed to cause expansion of the microspheres in
the product.
 Expancel SL is a dispersion of unexpanded microspheres in water. The

product is used where it is important that the product is extremely easy to
disperse. Heat is needed in the process to cause expansion of the microspheres
in the product. It is used mainly in board and anti-slip coatings.
1.1.4 Expancel Microspheres and particle size
Expancel is delivered in different particle sizes, from 20 to 120 µm in expanded

form.
The standard sizes are 20, 40, 80 and 120 µm. The particle size of this grade
is about 20 µm after expansion. Before expansion it has a particle size of 6 to 9 µm.
Another example is our grade 920 DU 120 which is about 120 µm after expansion but 28
to 38 µm before expansion.

The different particle sizes can be a tool to achieve different purposes. Expancel
can for instance be used in artificial leather. The different particle sizes can in this
application create different surface appearances. A smaller size will give a smooth
surface, while a bigger gives a coarser feeling.
The different particle sizes also contribute to different temperature and chemical
resistances
As a matter of curiosity:
Imagine that line up microspheres with a particle size of 40 µm from Paris to
Rome. You would need approximately 27,5 billion of them to cover this distance (as the
crow flies). If you on the other hand collect this amount of spheres in a jar they would fill
up 0.92 liter (0.24 gallon).
1.1.6 Expancel Microspheres and density
Expancel Microspheres are delivered with different densities to satisfy the

needs of different applications. But what does it mean?
The density of a material can in simplified terms be defined as the weight of a
known volume (the mass per unit volume).

Expancel is a very lightweight product. Our expanded products have a density

between 24 and 70 kg/m³ depending on grade.
An Expancel grade with a density of 30 kg/m³ is approximately

 25 times heavier than air (dens 1,2 kg/m³)
 35 times lighter than water (dens 1000 kg/m³)
 90 times lighter than aluminum (dens 2700 kg/m³)
 260 times lighter than iron (dens 7870 kg/m³)

 645 times lighter than gold (dens 19 320 kg/m³)

By adding Expancel to a product you will get a considerably lighter product without
losing volume. Or you can get a large increase in volume without adding weight.
Did you know that:

 1 kg of dry expanded Expancel with a density of 30 kg/m³ gives a volume of
34 l.
 1 m³ box containing dry expanded Expancel with a density of 30 kg/m³
weighs only 15 kg.
Graph: Volume Vs Temperature

1.1.7 Expancel Microspheres and surface modification

The different characteristics of Expancel can give different effects on the surfaces of
end products.
Think of a T-shirt with a nice print on it. If the printing ink contains Expancel
Microspheres and you heat the print, the microspheres will expand and you will get
a relief, or three-dimensional, effect. This can also be used on for example wallpaper.
The fact that Expancel Microspheres have a very thin and easily compressible shell
creates a velvety feel to products such as wallpaper and artificial leather.
Expancel Microspheres can also create a mat surface. The expansion of the microspheres
in a coating gives a matting effect.
Have you ever studied the tray covers in airplanes? They are a bit "sticky" to keep things
from sliding. This anti-slip effect can be achieved by using Expancel in the coating.
1.1.8 Expancel Microspheres and insulation/reflection
In warmer parts of the world, air conditioning stands for up to 70 percent of the energy
consumption in residential areas. If we can reduce heat-up of buildings, the need for air
conditioning will be reduced.
One way to reduce the heat-up of buildings is to use a reflective roof top coating.
An effective such coating will give both a cost reduction and be positive for the
environment.
It is known that spherical, gas filled bubbles reflect light. If you blow a soap
bubble you will notice that you can see through but there is a slight distortion. In a bath
tub with many bubbles you will not be able to see through them. In the first case, with
just one, big bubble, the light is scattered only once, so the hiding power is low. In the
bath tub with many, smaller bubbles, the light is scattered in many places and can
therefore not get through. The foam appears white. In a roof top coating you want to
create the same effect – spread the sunlight to increase the hiding power and minimize
the heat-up.

Tests have been made where a given volume of inorganic filler has been exchanged
with the same volume of Expancel Microspheres. The result is that the excellent
reflective properties of Expancel will improve both hiding power and total solar
reflections.
2 Literature Survey
Are you looking to improve your artificial leather ?
Expancel microsphere can give you surface effects such as suede, nubuck, or more.
You can get different characteristics in your leather by modifying the dosage amount and
particle size of the microsphere. Artificial leather of sude type can be produced by
applying top coat, containing expancel DU expandable polymeric microsphere, onto
artificial leather made of PVC or PU. A dosage of about 5 to 10 g/m2 of Expancel DU is
enough to create the three dimensional sude effect. The top coat, contaning Expancel DU
is applied by conventional coating techniques such as knife-, blade-, or roller coating.
2.1 Expancel DU
Expnacel DU, dry unexpanded polymeric microsphere, consists of small spherical

particles. They are available in different sizes, giving diameters of 20, 40, 80, and 120
µm after expansion.It is tough material with excellent thermal and mechanical
resistance
2.2 Artificial Leather

Artificial leather is mainly produced from polyurethane (PU) or polyvinylchloride
(PVC) or combination of PVC and PU. Several different processes are used for
production of artificial leather, e.g.:
1 Release paper process
2 Direct coating on woven or non-woven
3 Cogulation process (the wet cogulation process is only used for PU leather).
The surface properties of the artificial leather can be modified in subsequent

embosing, buffing or printing process.
To meet specific requirements the artificial leather can be made up of multiple layers
with different properties to meet the demands from different application, e.g.:
4 Thickness from 0.6 to 5 mm
5 Breathable
6 Abrasion resistance
7 Fexibility
The artificial leather typically used for:
8 Shoes, upper and lining
9 Garments
10 Upholstery
11 Handbags etc.
2.3 Expancel in artificial leather

Expancel used in the surface layer of artificial leather to create suede type of
artificial leather. Other structure than suede can be obtained by changing dosage and
particle size of the microspheres.
The artificial leather, produced according to any of the previously mentioned

processes, is coated with PVC- or PU-paste contaning Expancel DU. In the subsequent
heating step at about 150 to 2000C (302 to 3920F), the microsphere expand.
The expansion has large impact on the artificial leather and different surface
characteristics are obtained depending upon:
12 Dosage of Expancel
13 Particle size Expancel
Large Expancel DU, having a particle size of 80 to 120µm after expansion, is

usually used for production of suede products. Smaller particle sizes and mixtures of of
different particle size can be used fpr other surface structures such as nubuck etc.
Expancel DU can also be used for printing certain patterns on the artificial leather.
Conventional printing methods, such as screen or gravure printing are suitable for
printing with Expancel DU.
2.5 Expancel In PVC-Plastisols, Underbody Coating And

Sealeants
EXPANCEL DU is an expandable thermoplastic microsphere with high

thermomechanical stability and excelent chemical resistance.
The high thermal stability , the high thermal resitance and the expansion to low density
make the microsphere very suitable in car underbody coating and sealants.
At the gelation of a PVC-plastisol, the microspheres will expand to very low density and
create a foamed product which gives an essential weight reduction.
At the same time the intact expanded microsphere give a good flexibility and resilience to
the product wich maintain or improve the stone chip resistance and the sound insulation
of the underbody coating or sealant.
EXPANCEL DE is a pre-expanded thermoplastic microsphere with low density .the

microsphere create poration .after gelation the same plastisol properties with good
flexibility and resilience as in plastisol including EXPACEL DU are achieved .

2.6 Formulation for PVC leather

For producing artificial suede the following formulation can be used as a guideline:
Table 11. Coating Paste For PVC
CHEMICALS PARTS
PVC 100
Plasticizer 60-90
Additives:
Heat Stabilizer 1-2
ESO 2-5
Pigment 2-8
Expancel DU 4-10
Expancel grades suitable for PVC

PVC demands a minimum temperature of about 150 to 1600C to become
sufficient gelled. It is important to consider this fact when selecting suitable grade of
Expancel for use in PVC-plastisols. Exampale of Expancel grades for suede coating are:
 093 DU120
 920 DU 120
If you want less pronounced surface roughness WE recommend:
 909 DU 80
 920 DU 40
You can also use mixture of varius sizes.
Storage stability
Expancel DU microsphereare resistant to the plasticizers DOP and DINP, normally
used in plastisols for artificial leather. The expansion capacity of Expancel was
unchanged even after storage for three months in the wet plastisols.
Plasticizer/Stabilizer
The choice of plasticizer combination is, like the choice of PVC resins, of crucial
importance to the finel result. We recommend plasticizer of phtalate type with an epoxy
plasticizer. DINP, di-isononyl phtalate, which is commonly used in vinyl plastisol,is the

major Part of the plastisizer combination. BBP , butylbenzyl phthalate, may sometime be
selected because of its strong resin solvent power that decreases the gelation time and
temprature.A heat stabilizer is necesary to prevent discoloration. We recommend
calcium-zink or barium-zink stabillizer.Epoxidized soybean oil, ESO, is apart of the
formulation because of its heat and light stabiilizing properties.

Pigment
Usually, predispersed pigment plasticizer pastes are used as colorants in PVC-
plastisols.
Mixing
PVC resin, plasticizer and additives are dispersed by conventional methods. Add
and disperse Expancel as the last component. The microsphere are normally easy to
disperse in high viscous formulations but can also stand a very hard agitation with high
shear rates without damage. The dispersion of Expancel is of importance to the final
result; poorly dispersed microspheres will show up as white spot on the final product.
Coating
The paste is applied by blade or roller coating, at a coating thickness of less than
about 300 µm, on to the artificial leather produced by the direct coating process.
Rheology
The plastisol containing Expancel exhibits a psuedo plastic flow, i.e, viscosity
decreases with increasing shear rates. The Brook field RVT viscosity (spindle 6) 24 hours
after the preparation of the plastisol at the 230C and 50% ralative humidity. adding
Expancel DU up to 10% alters the viscosity of the plastisol very little.
Graph:Viscosity Vs Rpm

Expansion and Gelation

Gelation of the plastisol and expansion of Expancel is done simultaneously.
The expansion has to be optimised locally as it will depend upon oven conditions, coating
and substrate thickness, etc.
Suitable temperature ranges from 150 to 2000C substrate, degree of deposit and
heating equipment to be used.
When heating for a longer period of time the microsphere will start to collapse
resulting in the decrease foam height.
3 How Expancel Works: Experimental Work

3.1 Raw Materials :
Various raw materials were used in the experimental work for the preparation of
PVC Plastisols. Some of the major components used were as follows
 PVC resin – Emulsion grade
 Plasticizers
 Secondary plasticizers
 Stabilizers
 Expancel microsphere (Diff. Grades)
 Pigment
 Backing Fabric
Expancel Microsphere :
Specification of our recommended Dry Unexpanded Expancel grades are as under:

Table 12. Grades

Grades Particle Size Thermomechanical Analysis TMA-
(µm) Tstart, 0C Tmax, 0C Density
D(0.5) kg/m3
920 DU 40 10-16 123-133 170-180 ≤17
909 DU 80 18-24 120-130 175-190 ≤10
930 DU 120 28-38 122-132 191-204 ≤6.5
T-start means when Expancel starts to expand and T-max
means when Expancel is at the peak i.e, fully expanded, If you cross the T-max Expancel
will starts to collapse.
Note: Above microsphere are 100% Dry microsphers and can be used for waterbourne as
well as solvenbourne systems.
3.2 Grades:
Expancel DU
Dry, unexpanded microspheres
Figure 19. Expancel DU Microsphere.

Expancel DU is used in products where no water can be added. Heat is needed in

the process to cause expansion of the microspheres in the product.
Examples of usage:
 Industrial nonwoven textiles; to improve bulk and thickness, cost savings

 UBC & sealants; for a controlled and uniform cell structure
 Silicone rubber; low weight, shape recovery and cost savings
 Shoe soles; low weight, matt surface and comfortable wearing
 Artificial leather; gives the look of suede or nubuck.
Expancel DU is delivered in fiber drums, plastic bags or flexible IBC.

Expancel microspheres are small spherical particales. The microsphere consist
of polymer Shell encapsulating a gas. When heated, internal pressure from the gas
increases and the Thermoplastic shell softness, resulting in a dramatic increase of the
volume of the microspheres. The gas remains inside the spheres. In process where in-situ
expansion of Microsphere is inappropriate, pre-expanded microsphere may be use. The
pre-expandedMicrospheres having a true density of only 25 kg per m3 are very effective
in reducing weight. Expancel microspheres, is unique kind of thermoplastic blowinng
agent, light weight Fiiler and a property improver. Expancel is all about changing density,
surface modification, Compressibility and insulation, and it helps our customers with
success in their product Devolopment and enhances the unique properties they are
looking for. Artificial leather with 3-dimensional suede and nubuck effect can be
produced by applying a top coat containing expancel on to artificial leather made of PVC
or PU. Presently process like embossing and buffing are use for making Suede and
Nubuck type of artificial leather. But “Touch / feeling” of the artificial leather produced
using Expancel is far more superior. Expancel makes it possible to achieve the unique
surface properties such as Thickness, Breathable, Abrasion resistance, Flexibility, etc..
Expancel can also be use for printing certain patterns on the artificial leather, to achieved
3-D printing Effect .Backside of artificial leather can be coated with Expancel to imitate
and gain Genuine leather feeling.

Advantages of Expancel DU
The most important advantages of Expancel DU as a foaming agent in PVC-
plastisols are: Controlled foaming The expansion of the microspheres in the plastisol is a
function of time and temperature. The combinations of time and temperature that gives
foaming without collapsing are numerous. It is therefore easy to get good expansion
when using Expancel DU. Expancel DU gives good foaming even at low temperatures.
This gives a large selection of substrates, lower energy costs and environmental
advantages. Surface structure Using Expancel DU will give you velvety, non-glossy and
pleasant surface similar to embroidery. Homogeneous cell structure The cells formed by
Expancel DU have relatively narrow size distribution which, in turn, provides a
controlled, uniform cell structure of the PVC matrix.
Expancel DU :
Expancel DU are dry, unexpanded polymeric microspheres consisting of small, spherical

particles. Several grades with varying expansion temperatures are available to
accommodate the requirements of the application. Expancel DU is a grade with relatively
low expansion temperature and good heat and chemical resistance. It can be used when a
low temperature is necessary. Expancel 920 DU 40, 909 DU 80 and 930 DU 120 have
higher expansion temperatures and they all have excellent heat and chemical resistance.
Depending on the desired degree of foaming, the amount of Expancel DU in the plastisol
may be up to 10% but usually a dosage level of 0.5 - 4% is used
Components
A basic formulation includes:
Resin
920 DU 40, 909 DU 80 and 930 DU 120 are recommended for PVC plastisols with
medium to high gelation temperature.

Plasticiser
The choice of plasticiser combination is, like the choice of PVC resins, of crucial
importance to the final result. Phthalate type plasticisers, with an epoxy plasticiser, are
recommended.
Diisononyl phthalate, which is commonly used in vinyl plastisols, is the major part
of the plasticiser combination. Epoxidised soybean oil, Dehysol D 81, is a part of the
combination because of its heat and light stabilising properties and as viscosity regulator.
Stabiliser
A heat stabiliser is necessary to prevent degradation and thereby discolouration.
Filler
A filler, can be part of the formulation.
Pigment
Pre-dispersed pigment plasticizer pastes are used as colorants in PVC-plastisols.
Mixing
Mixing is accomplished with a conventional paste mixer.
Add Expancel DU when mixing of the PVC-plastisol is completed. The
microspheres disperse readily in the vinyl plastisol using the same mixing technique.
Deaeration
The principle of air removal applied to plastisols containing Expancel® is the same as
for plastisols in general.
Formulation
The formulation shown is a homopolymer PVC-plastisol suitable for grades with
good heat resistance, such as 909 DU 80. It is this formulation that has been used for the
preparation of the graph below:

Expansion time : 60 sec

Amount of microspheres : 4%
Drawdown thickness : 180 μm
3.3 Experimental work

The present experimental work is divided into three parts.
 Preparation of PVC Plastisols which included mixing the various ingredients in

appropriate amount with the use of high speed mixer.
 Preparation of batches of Plastisols with different and varying proportion of
Expancel microsphere.
 Investigate the effect of varying Expancel microsphere in general match the
master sample of artificial leather.

3.4 Experimental Methods used for Testing:

Table 13. Standard Specification
Method of
Reference
S.No Test Parameters Inspection/Test to be
sample value
Carried Out
OK IS-8698
1 Colour, Design & Finish
2 IS-7016 Part-1
2 Thickness (mm)
Mass of Finished Cloth 700 IS-7016 Part-1

3
(gm/sq.mtr)
4 Tensile Strength(N/5 cm)
240
Warp IS 7016 Part-2
Weft 200
5 Elongation at break(%)
60
Warp IS 7016 Part-2
Weft 160
6 Adhesion of Coating(N/5cm)
30
Warp IS 7016 Part-5
Weft 30
7 Tear Strength(N/5cm)
40 IS 7016 Part-3
Warp
Weft 40 Method A

3.5 Experimental Batches Performed:

The Experimental Batches performed are as follows:
Formulation:
Table 14. Formulation
Sr. Input Skin Coat Middle Coat Laminator Coat

No.
% % %
1 Resin 3.7 3.7 4
2 Plasticizer 2.53 2.5 3
4 Heat 0.371 - -
Stabilizer
5 Epoxy 0.1 0.1 0.1
6 Pigment 2 8 2
Batch : Expancel Dry Unexpanded Microsphere.
Trial No. Expancel Microsphere Used

Microsphere
%
1 909 DU 80 10 In Middle Coat
3 920 DU 40 15 In Skin Coat

(Without Skin
Coat)

4 Results and Discussion

The experimental batches performed were checked for their physical properties.
The results obtained were as follows:
4.1 Trial Result 1:
Table 15. Test Result
Method of
Test Test Test
Inspection/Test
S.No Test Parameters Results Results Results
to be Carried
Regular Trial I Trial II
Out
1 Colour,Design&Finish OK OK OK IS-8698
2 Thickness (mm) 2.0/2.10 2.10/2.15 2.15/2.25 IS-7016 Part-1
Mass of Finished
3 650 600 610 IS-7016 Part-1
Cloth (gm/sq.mtr)
Tensile Strength(N/5
cm)
4 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 240 250.44 235.93
Weft 200 210.88 205.93
Elongation at
break(%)
5 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 60 66.5 67
Weft 160.67 170.02 175.25
Adhesion of
Coating(N/5cm)
6 IS 7016 Part-5
Warp Not Not Not
Weft Removed Removed Removed
Tear Strength(N/5cm)
IS 7016 Part-3
7 40 41 42
Warp Mathod A
Weft 38 48 45
1) Trial 909DU80 (4%) In Middle
Coat
REMARK:
2) Trial 930DU120 (5%) In Middle
Coat

4.2 Trial Results 2:

Table 16. Test Result II
Method of
Test Results Test Results
S.No Test Parameters Inspection/Test to
Regular Trial 1
be Carried Out
1 Colour,Design & Finish OK OK IS-8698
2 Thickness (mm) 2.0/2.10 2.10/2.15 IS-7016 Part-1

Mass of Finished Cloth
3 700 650 IS-7016 Part-1
(gm/sq.mtr)
cm)
4 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 250 260
Weft 218 225
Elongation at break(%)
5 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 71 67.95
Weft 150.97 140.32
Adhesion of
Coating(N/5cm)
6 IS 7016 Part-5
Warp Not Removed Not Removed
Weft
IS 7016 Part-3
7
45 48 Mathod A
Warp
Weft 47 43
1) Trial 920DU40 (5%) In Skin Coat
REMARK:

4.3 Trial Results 3:
Table 17. Test Result III
Method of
Test Test
Test Results Inspection/Test
S.No Test Parameters Results Results
Regular to be Carried
Trial I Trial II
Out
1 Colour,Design&Finish OK OK OK IS-8698
2 Thickness (mm) 2.10/2.15 1.95/2.0 1.90/1.95 IS-7016 Part-1
Mass of Finished
3 680 610 623.2 IS-7016 Part-1
Cloth (gm/sq.mtr)
cm)
4 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 270 250 260
Weft 210 205 200
Elongation at
break(%)
5 IS 7016 Part-2
Warp 64 56 62
Weft 152 140 145
Adhesion of
Coating(N/5cm)
6 IS 7016 Part-5
Warp Not Not
Not Removed
Weft Removed Removed
IS 7016 Part-3
7
Warp 39 46 56 Mathod A
Weft 44 43 42
8 Hardeness Test 31 45 48
REMARK:
1 TRAIL 920DU40(5%) In Middle Coat
2 TRAIL 920DU40(5%) In Middle Coat Without Skin Coat

5 CONCLUSION
After going through several trials of the different grades of the Expancel Microspher. we
could come to a conclusion that the Expancel Microsphere can better work as synergist
best on the demand of price and other specifications. By taking below points into
considerations.
 The physical properties ( hardness and feel , breaking strength, elongation, physical
adhesion) of the material are not affected by any of the Expancel Microsphere (Grades)
and the same can be achieved as per specification. (reference table no.4)
 Greater amount of thickness can be achieved by less coating grammage. (referance table
no.5)
 Based on above study the material can be incorporated into harder qualities as compared
to soft qualities. (referance hardness test (table no. 7))
 As compared to reference sample we could conclude that the Expancel Microsphere are
better light weight filler as well as blowing agent.

6 References
[1] Expancel (2012) http://www.akzonobel.com/expancel/
[2] Internal document Expancel, Expancel® Microspheres.
[3] Internal document Expancel, MS-rapport, projekt La Dox.
[4] Rawle, A. Basic principles of particle analysis. Malvern Instruments, Worcestershire.
[5] Harris, D.C. (2007) Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 7 th ed. W.H. Freeman and
Company, New York.
[6] Stevens, M.P. (1999). Polymer Chemistry an Introduction. 3rd ed. Oxford University
Press, New York.
[7] Eriksson, L., Johansson, E., Kettaneh-Wold, N., Wikström, C., Wold, S. (2008)
Design of Experiments - Principles and Applications. 3rd ed. MKS Umetrics AB, Umeå.
[8] Patent US 3,615,972 ”Expansible thermoplastic polymer particles containing volatile

fluid foaming agent and method of foaming the same”
[9] Expandable microspheres in inks: advances in look and feel, Asia Pacific Coatings
Journal, August 2009
[10] Jonsson,M (2010) Thermal Expandable Microsphere Prepared via Suspension

,Polymerization Synthesis Characterization and Application Doctoral Thesis on in
Polymer Technology,Kungliga Tekniska Hogsklon,Sckholm

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Study on Effect of Expancel Microsphere on Properties of PVC Leather

1.1 Objective of Training .................................................................................................7

1.1 About the training...........................................................................................................7

2.1 About Fenoplast Ltd...................................................................................................8

2.2 The plants and products..............................................................................................9

2.3 The Quality Control....................................................................................................9

Introduction to PVC Leather

3.1 What is Leather..........................................................................................................10

3.2 Types of Leather........................................................................................................15

3.3 About PVC Leather...................................................................................................15

Manufacturing process for synthetic PVC Leather

4.1 Coating Method.......................................................................................................16

4.2 Key elements of synthetic PVC Leather..................................................................19

4.2.2 Plasticizer ............................................................................................................23

4.2.6 Flame Retardance...................................................................................................34

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 1

4.2.7 Blowing agent........................................................................................................35

4.2.8 Backing Fabric........................................................................................................38

4.2.9 Release Paper..........................................................................................................41

5.1 Production Department.............................................................................................42

5.2 Quality Control........................................................................................................45

5.3Inspecton and Packing................................................................................................48

Products and Application

6.2 Application for PVC leather cloth.............................................................................50

1.1 Objective and scope of work.....................................................................................52

1.2 Project Introduction ...............................................................................................52

2.1 Expancel DU...........…………………………………………………......................62

2.2 Expancel in arrificial leather.....................................................................................63

2.3 Expancel in PVC-plastisols, undebody coating and sealent......................................64

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 2

2.4 Formulation for PVC leather.....................................................................................65

3.1 Raw Materials.............................................................................................................68

3.2 Experiment Procedure................................................................................................70

3.3 Experimental Methods used for Testing....................................................................74

3.4 Experimental Batches Perform..................................................................................75

Results and Discussions

4.1 Trial Results 1............................................................................................................76

4.2 Trial Results 2............................................................................................................77

4.3 Trial Results 3............................................................................................................78

Conclusion & References........................................................................................... 79 &80

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 3

Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.

2 Parameric Imitation Leather 14

9 Polymerization of The Monomer 22

16 Product and Application 55

18 Types of Expancel Microsphere 62

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 4

Table No. Name of Table Page No.

5 Stabilizer Application Areas 34

7 Types of Backing Fabric 43

11 Coating Paste for PVC 72

12 Expancel Microsphere Grades 75

17 Test Result III 83

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 5

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 6

1.1 Objectives of Industrial Training

 To get exposure to the industrial environments this cannot be simulated in the

1.2 About the Training:

UICT, NMU,JALGAON Page 7