1.

What is an operating system?

Ans: An operating system is a program that acts as an
intermediary between the user and the computer
hardware. The purpose of an OS is to provide a
convenient environment in which user can execute
programs in a convenient and efficient manner.It is a
resource allocator responsible for allocating system
resources and a control program which controls the
operation of the computer h/w.
2.What are the various components of a
computer system?
Ans:
1. The hardware
2. The operating system
3. The application programs
4. The users.
3.What is purpose of different operating systems?
Ans:
4.What are the different operating systems?
Ans:
1. Batched operating systems
2. Multi-programmed operating systems
3. timesharing operating systems
4. Distributed operating systems
5. Real-time operating systems
6.What is a boot-strap program?
7.What is BIOS?
8.Explain the concept of the batched operating
systems?
Ans: In batched operating system the users gives their
jobs to the operator who sorts the programs according to
their requirements and executes them. This is time
consuming but makes the CPU busy all the time.
9.Explain the concept of the multi-programmed
operating systems?
Ans: A multi-programmed operating systems can execute
a number of programs concurrently. The operating
system fetches a group of programs from the job-pool in
the secondary storage which contains all the programs to
be executed, and places them in the main memory. This
process is called job scheduling. Then it chooses a
program from the ready queue and gives them to CPU to
execute. When a executing program needs some I/O
operation then the operating system fetches another
program and hands it to the CPU for execution, thus
keeping the CPU busy all the time.
10.Explain the concept of the timesharing operating
systems?
Ans: It is a logical extension of the multi-programmed OS
where user can interact with the program. The CPU
executes multiple jobs by switching among them, but the
switches occur so frequently that the user feels as if
the operating system is running only his program.
11.Explain the concept of the multi-processor systems
or parallel systems?
Ans: They contain a no. of processors to increase the
speed of execution, and reliability, and economy. They are
of two types:
1. Symmetric multiprocessing
2. Asymmetric multiprocessing
In Symmetric multi processing each processor run an
identical copy of the OS, and these copies communicate
with each other as and when needed.But in Asymmetric
multiprocessing each processor is assigned a specific
task.
12.Explain the concept of the Distributed systems?
Ans: Distributed systems work in a network. They can
share the network resources,communicate with each other
13.Explain the concept of Real-time operating
systems?
Ans: A real time operating system is used when rigid time
requirement have been placed on the operation of a
processor or the flow of the data; thus, it is often used as a
control device in a dedicated application. Here the sensors
bring data to the computer. The computer must analyze
the data and possibly adjust controls to
modify the sensor input.
They are of two types:
1. Hard real time OS
2. Soft real time OS
Hard-real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints.
But soft real time operating systems have less stringent
timing constraints.
14.Define MULTICS?
Ans: MULTICS (Multiplexed information and computing
services) operating system was developed from 1965-
1970 at Massachusetts institute of technology as a
computing utility. Many of the ideas used in MULTICS
were subsequently used in UNIX.
15.What is SCSI?
Ans: Small computer systems interface.
16.What is a sector?
Ans: Smallest addressable portion of a disk.
17.What is cache-coherency?
Ans: In a multiprocessor system there exist several
caches each may containing a copy of same variable A.
Then a change in one cache should immediately be
reflected in all other caches this process of maintaining the
same value of a data in all the caches s called cache-
coherency.
18.What are residence monitors?
Ans: Early operating systems were called residence
monitors.
19.What is dual-mode operation?
Ans: In order to protect the operating systems and
the system programs from the malfunctioning programs
the two mode operations were evolved:
1. System mode.
2. User mode.
Here the user programs cannot directly interact with the
system resources, instead they request the operating
system which checks the request and does the required
task for the user programs-DOS was written for / intel
8088 and has no dual-mode. Pentium provides dual-mode
operation.
20.What are the operating system components?
Ans:
1. Process management
2. Main memory management
3. File management
4. I/O system management
5. Secondary storage management
6. Networking
7. Protection system
8. Command interpreter system
21.What are operating system services?
Ans:
1. Program execution
2. I/O operations
3. File system manipulation
4. Communication
5. Error detection
6. Resource allocation
7. Accounting
8. Protection
22.What are system calls?
Ans: System calls provide the interface between a
process and the operating system. System calls for
modern Microsoft windows platforms are part of the win32
API, which is available for all the compilers written for
Microsoft windows.
23.What is a layered approach and what is its
advantage?
Ans: Layered approach is a step towards modularizing of
the system, in which theoperating system is broken up into
a number of layers (or levels), each built on top of lower
layer. The bottom layer is the hard ware and the top most
is the user interface.The main advantage of the layered
approach is modularity. The layers are
selected such that each uses the functions (operations)
and services of only lower layer. This approach simplifies
the debugging and system verification.
24.What is micro kernel approach and site its
advantages?
Ans: Micro kernel approach is a step towards
modularizing the operating systemwhere all nonessential
components from the kernel are removed and
implemented as system and user level program, making
the kernel smaller.The benefits of the micro kernel
approach include the ease of extending the operating
system. All new services are added to the user space and
consequently do not require modification of the kernel.
And as kernel is smaller it is easier to upgrade it. Also this
approach provides more security and reliability since most
services are running as user processes rather than
kernel’s keeping the kernel intact.
25.What are a virtual machines and site their
advantages?
Ans: It is the concept by which an operating system can
create an illusion that a process has its own processor
with its own (virtual) memory. The operating
systemimplements virtual machine concept by using CPU
scheduling and virtual memory.
1. The basic advantage is it provides robust level of
security as each virtual machine is isolated from all other
VM. Hence the system resources are completely
protected.
2. Another advantage is that system development can be
done without disrupting normal operation. System
programmers are given their own virtual machine, and as
system development is done on the virtual machine
instead of on the actual
physical machine.
3. Another advantage of the virtual machine is it solves the
compatibility problem.
EX: Java supplied by Sun micro system provides a
specification for java virtual machine.
26.What is a process?
Ans: A program in execution is called a process. Or it may
also be called a unit of work. A process needs some
system resources as CPU time, memory, files, and i/o
devices to accomplish the task. Each process is
represented in the operating system by a process control
block or task control block (PCB).Processes are of two
types:
1. Operating system processes
2. User processes
27.What are the states of a process?
Ans:
1. New
2. Running
3. Waiting
4. Ready
5. Terminated
28.What are various scheduling queues?
Ans:
1. Job queue
2. Ready queue
3. Device queue
29.What is a job queue?
Ans: When a process enters the system it is placed in the
job queue.
30.What is a ready queue?
Ans: The processes that are residing in the main memory
and are ready and waiting to execute are kept on a list
called the ready queue.
31.What is a device queue?
Ans: A list of processes waiting for a particular I/O device
is called device queue.
32.What is a long term scheduler & short term
schedulers?
Ans: Long term schedulers are the job schedulers that
select processes from the job queue and load them into
memory for execution. The short term schedulers are the
CPU schedulers that select a process form the ready
queue and allocate the CPU to one of them.
33.What is context switching?
Ans: Transferring the control from one process to other
process requires saving the state of the old process and
loading the saved state for new process. This task is
known as context switching.
34.What are the disadvantages of context switching?
Ans: Time taken for switching from one process to other is
pure over head. Because the system does no useful work
while switching. So one of the solutions is to go for
threading when ever possible.
35.What are co-operating processes?
Ans: The processes which share system resources as
data among each other. Also the processes can
communicate with each other via interprocess
communication facility generally used in distributed
systems. The best example is chat program used on the
www.
36.What is a thread?
Ans: A thread is a program line under execution. Thread
sometimes called a light-weight process, is a basic unit of
CPU utilization; it comprises a thread id, a program
counter, a register set, and a stack.
37.What are the benefits of multithreaded
programming?
Ans:
1. Responsiveness (needn’t to wait for a lengthy process)
2. Resources sharing
3. Economy (Context switching between threads is easy)
4. Utilization of multiprocessor architectures (perfect
utilization of the multiple processors).
38.What are types of threads?
Ans:
1. User thread
2. Kernel thread
User threads are easy to create and use but the
disadvantage is that if they perform a blocking system
calls the kernel is engaged completely to the single user
thread blocking other processes. They are created in user
space.
Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating
system. They are slower to create and manage. Most of
the OS like Windows NT, Windows 2000, Solaris2, BeOS,
and Tru64 Unix support kernel threading.
39.Which category the java thread do fall in?
Ans: Java threads are created and managed by the java
virtual machine, they do not easily fall under the category
of either user or kernel thread……
40.What are multithreading models?
Ans: Many OS provide both kernel threading and user
threading. They are called multithreading models. They
are of three types:
1. Many-to-one model (many user level thread and one
kernel thread).
2. One-to-one model
3. Many-to –many
In the first model only one user can access the kernel
thread by not allowing multi-processing. Example: Green
threads of Solaris.The second model allows multiple
threads to run on parallel processing systems. Creating
user thread needs to create corresponding kernel thread
(disadvantage).Example: Windows NT, Windows 2000,
OS/2.The third model allows the user to create as many
threads as necessary and the corresponding kernel
threads can run in parallel on a multiprocessor.
Example: Solaris2, IRIX, HP-UX, and Tru64 Unix.
41.What is a P-thread?
Ans: P-thread refers to the POSIX standard (IEEE
1003.1c) defining an API for thread creation and
synchronization. This is a specification for thread behavior,
not an implementation. The windows OS have generally
not supported the P-threads.
42.What are java threads?
Ans: Java is one of the small number of languages that
support at the language level for the creation and
management of threads. However, because threads are
managed by the java virtual machine (JVM), not by a user-
level library or kernel, it is difficult to classify Java threads
as either user- or kernel-level.
43.What is process synchronization?
Ans: A situation, where several processes access and
manipulate the same data concurrently and the outcome
of the execution depends on the particular order in which
the access takes place, is called race condition. To guard
against the race condition we need to ensure that only one
process at a time can be manipulating
the same data. The technique we use for this is called
process synchronization.
44.What is critical section problem?
Ans: Critical section is the code segment of a process in
which the process may be changing common variables,
updating tables, writing a file and so on. Only one process
is allowed to go into critical section at any given time
(mutually exclusive).The critical section problem is to
design a protocol that the processes can use to
co-operate. The three basic requirements of critical
section are:
1. Mutual exclusion
2. Progress
3. bounded waiting
Bakery algorithm is one of the solutions to CS problem.
45.What is a semaphore?
Ans: It is a synchronization tool used to solve complex
critical section problems. A semaphore is an integer
variable that, apart from initialization, is accessed only
through two standard atomic operations: Wait and Signal.
46.What is bounded-buffer problem?
Ans: Here we assume that a pool consists of n buffers,
each capable of holding one item. The semaphore
provides mutual exclusion for accesses to the buffer pool
and is initialized to the value 1.The empty and full
semaphores count the number of empty and full buffers,
respectively. Empty is initialized to n, and full is initialized
to 0.
47.What is readers-writers problem?
Ans: Here we divide the processes into two types:
1. Readers (Who want to retrieve the data only)
2. Writers (Who want to retrieve as well as manipulate)
We can provide permission to a number of readers to read
same data at same time.But a writer must be exclusively
allowed to access. There are two solutions to this problem:
1. No reader will be kept waiting unless a writer has
already obtained permission to use the shared object. In
other words, no reader should wait for other readers to
complete simply because a writer is waiting.
2. Once a writer is ready, that writer performs its write as
soon as possible. In other words, if a writer is waiting to
access the object, no new may start reading.
48.What is dining philosophers’ problem?
Ans: Consider 5 philosophers who spend their lives
thinking and eating. The philosophers share a common
circular table surrounded by 5 chairs, each belonging to
one philosopher. In the center of the table is a bowl of rice,
and the table is laid with five single chop sticks. When a
philosopher thinks, she doesn’t interact with her
colleagues.
From time to time, a philosopher gets hungry and tries to
pick up two chop sticks that are closest to her .A
philosopher may pick up only one chop stick at a time.
Obviously she can’t pick the stick in some others hand.
When a hungry philosopher has both her chopsticks at the
same time, she eats without releasing her chopsticks.
When she is finished eating, she puts down both of her
chopsticks and start thinking again.
49.What is a deadlock?
Ans: Suppose a process request resources; if the
resources are not available at that time the process enters
into a wait state. A waiting process may never again
change state, because the resources they have requested
are held by some other waiting processes. This situation is
called deadlock.
50.What are necessary conditions for dead lock?
Ans:
1. Mutual exclusion (where at least one resource is non-
sharable)
2. Hold and wait (where a process hold one resource and
waits for other resource)
3. No preemption (where the resources can’t be
preempted)
4. circular wait (where p[i] is waiting for p[j] to release a
resource. i= 1,2,…n
j=if (i!=n) then i+1
else 1 )
51.What is resource allocation graph?
Ans: This is the graphical description of deadlocks. This
graph consists of a set of edges E and a set of vertices V.
The set of vertices V is partitioned into two different types
of nodes P={p1,p2,…,pn}, the set consisting of all the
resources in the system, R={r1,r2,…rn}.A directed edge
Pi->Rj is called a request edge; a directed edge Rj<-Pi is
called an assignment edge. Pictorially we represent a
process Pi as a circle, and each resource type Rj as
square.Since resource type Rj may have more than one
instance, we represent each such instance as a dot
within the square.When a request is fulfilled the request
edge is transformed into an assignment edge. When a
process releases a resource the assignment edge is
deleted. If the cycle involves a set of resource types, each
of which has only a single instance, then a deadlock has
occurred. Each process involved in the cycle is deadlock.
52.What are deadlock prevention techniques?
Ans:
1. Mutual exclusion : Some resources such as read only
files shouldn’t be mutually
exclusive. They should be sharable. But some resources
such as printers must be
mutually exclusive.
2. Hold and wait : To avoid this condition we have to
ensure that if a process is
requesting for a resource it should not hold any resources.
3. No preemption : If a process is holding some resources
and requests another
resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it (that is
the process must wait),
then all the resources currently being held are
preempted(released autonomously).
4. Circular wait : the way to ensure that this condition
never holds is to impose a
total ordering of all the resource types, and to require that
each process requests
resources in an increasing order of enumeration.
53.What is a safe state and a safe sequence?
Ans: A system is in safe state only if there exists a safe
sequence. A sequence of processes is a safe sequence
for the current allocation state if, for each Pi, the resources
that the Pi can still request can be satisfied by the
currently available resources plus the resources held by all
the Pj, with j
54.What are the deadlock avoidance algorithms?
Ans: A dead lock avoidance algorithm dynamically
examines the resource-allocation state to ensure that a
circular wait condition can never exist. The resource
allocation state is defined by the number of available and
allocated resources, and the maximum demand of the
process.There are two algorithms:
1. Resource allocation graph algorithm
2. Banker’s algorithm
a. Safety algorithm
b. Resource request algorithm
55. What are the basic functions of an operating
system?
Ans : Operating system controls and coordinates the use
of the hardware among the various applications programs
for various uses. Operating system acts as resource
allocator and manager. Since there are many possibly
conflicting requests for resources the operating system
must decide which requests are allocated resources to
operating the computer system efficiently and fairly. Also
operating system is control program which controls the
user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer. It is especially concerned with the operation
and control of I/O devices.
56.Explain briefly about, processor, assembler,
compiler, loader, linker and the functions executed by
them.
Ans :
Processor:–A processor is the part a computer system
that executes instructions .It is also called a CPU
Assembler: — An assembler is a program that takes basic
computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of
bits that the computer’s processor can use to perform its
basic operations. Some people call these instructions
assembler language and others use the term assembly
language.
Compiler: — A compiler is a special program that
processes statements written in a particular programming
language and turns them into machine language or “code”
thata computer’s processor uses. Typically, a programmer
writes language statements in a language such as Pascal
or C one line at a time using an editor. The file that is
created contains what are called the source statements.
The programmer then runs the appropriate language
compiler, specifying the name of the file that contains the
source statements.
Loader:–In a computer operating system, a loader is a
component that locates a given program (which can be an
application or, in some cases, part of the operating system
itself) in offline storage (such as a hard disk), loads it into
main storage (in a personal computer, it’s called random
access memory), and gives that program control of the
compute
Linker: — Linker performs the linking of libraries with the
object code to make the object code into an executable
machine code.
57. What is a Real-Time System?
Ans : A real time process is a process that must respond
to the events within a certain time period. A real time
operating system is an operating system that can run real
time processes successfully
58. What is the difference between Hard and Soft real-
time systems?
Ans : A hard real-time system guarantees that critical
tasks complete on time. This goal requires that all delays
in the system be bounded from the retrieval of the stored
data to the time that it takes the operating system to finish
any request made of it. A soft real time system where a
critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and
retains that priority until it completes. As in hard real time
systems kernel delays need to be bounded
59. What is virtual memory?
Ans : A virtual memory is hardware technique where the
system appears to have more memory that it actually
does. This is done by time-sharing, the physical memory
and storage parts of the memory on disk when they are
not actively being used
60. What is cache memory?
Ans : Cache memory is random access memory (RAM)
that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly
than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor
processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it
finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it
does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of
data
61.Differentiate between Complier and Interpreter?
Ans : An interpreter reads one instruction at a time and
carries out the actions implied by that instruction. It does
not perform any translation. But a compiler translates the
entire instructions.
62.What are different tasks of Lexical Analysis?
Ans : The purpose of the lexical analyzer is to partition the
input text, delivering a sequence of comments and basic
symbols. Comments are character sequences to be
ignored, while basic symbols are character sequences that
correspond to terminal symbols of the grammar defining
the phrase structure of the input
63. Why paging is used?
Ans : Paging is solution to external fragmentation problem
which is to permit the logical address space of a process
to be noncontiguous, thus allowing a process to be
allocating physical memory wherever the latter is
available.
64. What is Context Switch?
Ans : Switching the CPU to another process requires
saving the state of the old process and loading the saved
state for the new process. This task is known as a context
switch.Context-switch time is pure overhead, because the
system does no useful work while switching. Its speed
varies from machine to machine, depending on the
memory speed, the number of registers which must be
copied, the existed of special instructions(such as a single
instruction to load or store all registers).
65. Distributed Systems?
Ans : Distribute the computation among several physical
processors.
Loosely coupled system – each processor has its own
local memory; processors communicate with one another
through various communications lines, such as high-speed
buses or telephone lines
Advantages of distributed systems:
->Resources Sharing
->Computation speed up – load sharing
->Reliability
->Communications
66.Difference between Primary storage
and secondary storage?
Ans :
Main memory: – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly.
Secondary storage: – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
67. What is CPU Scheduler?
Ans :
->Selects from among the processes in memory that are
ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them.
->CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a
process:
1.Switches from running to waiting state.
2.Switches from running to ready state.
3.Switches from waiting to ready.
4.Terminates.
->Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive.
->All other scheduling is preemptive.
68. What do you mean by deadlock?
Ans : Deadlock is a situation where a group of processes
are all blocked and none of them can become unblocked
until one of the other becomes unblocked.The simplest
deadlock is two processes each of which is waiting for a
message from the other
69. What is Dispatcher?
Ans :
->Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the
process selected by the short-term scheduler; this
involves:
Switching context
Switching to user mode
Jumping to the proper location in the user program to
restart that program
Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop
one process and start another running.
70. What is Throughput, Turnaround time, waiting time
and Response time?
Ans :
Throughput – number of processes that complete their
execution per time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular
process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting
in the ready queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a
request was submitted until the first response is produced,
not output (for time-sharing environment)
71. Explain the difference between microkernel and
macro kernel?
Ans :Micro-Kernel: A micro-kernel is a minimal operating
system that performs only the essential functions of an
operating system. All other operating system functions are
performed by system processes.
Monolithic: A monolithic operating system is one where all
operating system code is in a single executable image and
all operating system code runs in system mode.
72.What is multi tasking, multi programming, multi
threading?
Ans :
Multi programming: Multiprogramming is the technique
of running several programs at a time using
timesharing.It allows a computer to do several things at
the same time. Multiprogramming creates logical
parallelism.
The concept of multiprogramming is that the operating
system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. The
operating system selects a job from the job pool and starts
executing a job, when that job needs to wait for any i/o
operations the CPU is switched to another job. So the
main idea here is that the CPU is never idle.
Multi tasking: Multitasking is the logical extension of
multiprogramming .The concept of multitasking is quite
similar to multiprogramming but difference is that the
switching between jobs occurs so frequently that the
users can interact with each program while it is running.
This concept is also known as time-sharing systems. A
time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of time-shared system.
Multi threading: An application typically is implemented
as a separate process with several threads of control. In
some situations a single application may be required to
perform several similar tasks for example a web server
accepts client requests for web pages, images, sound,
and so forth. A busy web server may have several of
clients concurrently accessing it. If the web server ran as a
traditional single-threaded process, it would be able to
service only one client at a time. The amount of time that a
client might have to wait for its request to be serviced
could be enormous.
So it is efficient to have one process that contains multiple
threads to serve the same purpose. This approach would
multithread the web-server process, the server would
create a separate thread that would listen for client
requests when a request was made rather than creating
another process it would create another thread to service
the request.
So to get the advantages like responsiveness, Resource
sharing economy and utilization of multiprocessor
architectures multithreading concept can be used
73. Give a non-computer example of preemptive and
non-preemptive scheduling?
Ans : Consider any system where people use some kind
of resources and compete for them. The non-computer
examples for preemptive scheduling the traffic on the
single lane road if there is emergency or there is an
ambulance on the road the other vehicles give path to the
vehicles that are in need. The example for preemptive
scheduling is people standing in queue for tickets.
74. What is starvation and aging?
Ans :
Starvation: Starvation is a resource management
problem where a process does not get the resources it
needs for a long time because the resources are being
allocated to other processes.
Aging: Aging is a technique to avoid starvation in a
scheduling system. It works by adding an aging factor to
the priority of each request. The aging factor must
increase the request’s priority as time passes and must
ensure that a request will eventually be the highest priority
request (after it has waited long enough)
75.Different types of Real-Time Scheduling?
Ans :Hard real-time systems – required to complete a
critical task within a guaranteed amount of time.
Soft real-time computing – requires that critical processes
receive priority over less fortunate ones.
76. What are the Methods for Handling Deadlocks?
Ans :
->Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock state.
->Allow the system to enter a deadlock state and then
recover.
->Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never
occur in the system; used by most operating systems,
including
UNIX.
77. What is a Safe State and its’ use in deadlock
avoidance?
Ans :When a process requests an available resource,
system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the
system in a safe state
->System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of
all processes.
->Sequence is safe if for each Pi, the resources that Pi
can still request can be satisfied by
currently available resources + resources held by all the
Pj, with j
If Pi resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi
can wait until all Pj have finished.
When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources,
execute, return allocated resources, and terminate.
When Pi terminates, Pi+1 can obtain its needed
resources, and so on.
->Deadlock Avoidance Þ ensure that a system will never
enter an unsafe state.
78. Recovery from Deadlock?
Ans :Process Termination:
->Abort all deadlocked processes.
->Abort one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is
eliminated.
->In which order should we choose to abort?
Priority of the process.
How long process has computed, and how much longer to
completion.
Resources the process has used.
Resources process needs to complete.
How many processes will need to be terminated?
Is process interactive or batch?
Resource Preemption:
->Selecting a victim – minimize cost.
->Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process for
that state.
->Starvation – same process may always be picked as
victim, include number of rollback in cost factor.
79.Difference between Logical and Physical Address
Space?
Ans :
->The concept of a logical address space that is bound to
a separate physical address space is central to proper
memory management.
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to
as virtual address.
Physical address – address seen by the memory unit.
->Logical and physical addresses are the same in
compile-time and load-time address-binding schemes;
logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-
time address-binding scheme
80. Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory?
Ans :Address binding of instructions and data to memory
addresses can happen at three different stages
Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute
code can be generated; must recompile code if starting
location changes.
Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory
location is not known at compile time.
Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the
process can be moved during its execution from one
memory segment to another. Need hardware support for
address maps (e.g., base and limit registers).
81. What is Memory-Management Unit (MMU)?
Ans :Hardware device that maps virtual to physical
address.
In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is
added to every address generated by a user process at
the time it is sent to memory.
->The user program deals with logical addresses; it never
sees the real physical addresses
82. What are Dynamic Loading, Dynamic Linking and
Overlays?
Ans :
Dynamic Loading:
->Routine is not loaded until it is called
->Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is never
loaded.
->Useful when large amounts of code are needed to
handle infrequently occurring cases.
->No special support from the operating system is required
implemented through program design.
Dynamic Linking:
->Linking postponed until execution time.
->Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate
memory-resident library routine.
->Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and
executes the routine.
->Operating system needed to check if routine is in
processes’ memory address.
->Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries.
Overlays:
->Keep in memory only those instructions and data that
are needed at any given time.
->Needed when process is larger than amount of memory
allocated to it.
->Implemented by user, no special support needed from
operating system,programming design of overlay structure
is complex.
83. What is fragmentation? Different types of
fragmentation?
Ans : Fragmentation occurs in a dynamic memory
allocation system when many of the free blocks are too
small to satisfy any request.
External Fragmentation: External Fragmentation
happens when a dynamic memory allocation algorithm
allocates some memory and a small piece is left over that
cannot be effectively used. If too much external
fragmentation occurs, the amount of usable memory is
drastically reduced.Total memory space exists to satisfy a
request, but it is not contiguous
Internal Fragmentation: Internal fragmentation is the
space wasted inside of allocated memory blocks because
of restriction on the allowed sizes of allocated
blocks.Allocated memory may be slightly larger than
requested memory; this size difference is memory internal
to a partition, but not being used Reduce external
fragmentation by compaction
->Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory
together in one large block.
->Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and
is done at execution time.
84. Define Demand Paging, Page fault interrupt, and
Trashing?
Ans :
Demand Paging: Demand paging is the paging policy that
a page is not read into memory until it is requested, that is,
until there is a page fault on the page.
Page fault interrupt: A page fault interrupt occurs when a
memory reference is made to a page that is not in
memory.The present bit in the page table entry will be
found to be off by the virtual memory hardware and it will
signal an interrupt.
Trashing: The problem of many page faults occurring in a
short time, called “page thrashing,”
85. Explain Segmentation with paging?
Ans : Segments can be of different lengths, so it is harder
to find a place for a segment in memory than a page. With
segmented virtual memory, we get the benefits of virtual
memory but we still have to do dynamic storage allocation
of physical memory. In order to avoid this, it is possible to
combine segmentation and paging into a two-level virtual
memory system. Each segment descriptor points to page
table for that segment.This give some of the advantages
of paging (easy placement) with some of the advantages
of segments (logical division of the program).
86. Under what circumstances do page faults occur?
Describe the actions taken by the operating system
when a page fault occurs?
Ans : A page fault occurs when an access to a page that
has not been brought into main memory takes place. The
operating system verifies the memory access, aborting the
program if it is invalid. If it is valid, a free frame is located
and I/O is requested to read the needed page into the free
frame. Upon completion of I/O, the process table and page
table are updated and the instruction is restarted
87. What is the cause of thrashing? How does the
system detect thrashing? Once it detects thrashing,
what can the system do to eliminate this problem?
Ans : Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the
minimum number of pages required by a process, forcing
it to continuously page fault. The system can detect
thrashing by evaluating the level of CPU utilization as
compared to the level of multiprogramming. It can be
eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.
Operating system questions
By admin | January 17, 2005
1. What are the basic functions of an operating
system? - Operating system controls and coordinates
the use of the hardware among the various
applications programs for various uses. Operating
system acts as resource allocator and manager. Since
there are many possibly conflicting requests for
resources the operating system must decide which
requests are allocated resources to operating the
computer system efficiently and fairly. Also operating
system is control program which controls the user
programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer. It is especially concerned with the
operation and control of I/O devices.
2. Why paging is used? - Paging is solution to
external fragmentation problem which is to permit the
logical address space of a process to be
noncontiguous, thus allowing a process to be
allocating physical memory wherever the latter is
available.
3. While running DOS on a PC, which command
would be used to duplicate the entire
diskette? diskcopy
4. What resources are used when a thread
created? How do they differ from those when
a process is created? - When a thread is created
the threads does not require any new resources to
execute the thread shares the resources like memory
of the process to which they belong to. The benefit of
code sharing is that it allows an application to have
 several different threads of activity all within the same
address space. Whereas if a new process creation is
very heavyweight because it always requires new
address space to be created and even if they share the
memory then the inter process communication is
expensive when compared to the communication
between the threads.
5. What is virtual memory? - Virtual memory is
hardware technique where the system appears to have
more memory that it actually does. This is done by
time-sharing, the physical memory and storage parts
of the memory one disk when they are not actively
being used.
6. What is Throughput, Turnaround time,
waiting time and Response time? - Throughput
– number of processes that complete their
execution per time unit. Turnaround time –
amount of time to execute a particular process.
Waiting time – amount of time a process has
been waiting in the ready queue. Response time Ã
¢â‚¬â€œ amount of time it takes from when a request
was submitted until the first response is produced, not
output (for time-sharing environment).
7. What is the state of the processor, when a
process is waiting for some event to occur? -
Waiting state
8. What is the important aspect of a real-time
system or Mission Critical Systems? - A real
time operating system has well defined fixed time
constraints. Process must be done within the defined
constraints or the system will fail. An example is the
 operating system for a flight control computer or an
advanced jet airplane. Often used as a control device
in a dedicated application such as controlling
scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-
time. Hard real-time: Secondary storage limited or
absent, data stored in short term memory, or read-
only memory (ROM), Conflicts with time-sharing
systems, not supported by general-purpose operating
systems. Soft real-time: Limited utility in industrial
control of robotics, Useful in applications
(multimedia, virtual reality) requiring advanced
operating-system features.
9. What is the difference between Hard and Soft
real-time systems? - A hard real-time system
guarantees that critical tasks complete on time. This
goal requires that all delays in the system be bounded
from the retrieval of the stored data to the time that it
takes the operating system to finish any request made
of it. A soft real time system where a critical real-time
task gets priority over other tasks and retains that
priority until it completes. As in hard real time
systems kernel delays need to be bounded
10. What is the cause of thrashing? How does
the system detect thrashing? Once it detects
thrashing, what can the system do to eliminate
this problem? - Thrashing is caused by under
allocation of the minimum number of pages required
by a process, forcing it to continuously page fault. The
system can detect thrashing by evaluating the level of
 CPU utilization as compared to the level of
multiprogramming. It can be eliminated by reducing
the level of multiprogramming.
11. What is multi tasking, multi
programming, multi threading? - Multi
programming: Multiprogramming is the technique
of running several programs at a time using
timesharing. It allows a computer to do several things
at the same time. Multiprogramming creates logical
parallelism. The concept of multiprogramming is that
the operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously. The operating system selects a job
from the job pool and starts executing a job, when
that job needs to wait for any i/o operations the CPU
is switched to another job. So the main idea here is
that the CPU is never idle. Multi tasking:
Multitasking is the logical extension of
multiprogramming .The concept of multitasking is
quite similar to multiprogramming but difference is
that the switching between jobs occurs so frequently
that the users can interact with each program while it
is running. This concept is also known as time-sharing
systems. A time-shared operating system uses CPU
scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of time-shared
system. Multi threading: An application typically is
implemented as a separate process with several
threads of control. In some situations a single
application may be required to perform several
similar tasks for example a web server accepts client
requests for web pages, images, sound, and so forth. A
 busy web server may have several of clients
concurrently accessing it. If the web server ran as a
traditional single-threaded process, it would be able to
service only one client at a time. The amount of time
that a client might have to wait for its request to be
serviced could be enormous. So it is efficient to have
one process that contains multiple threads to serve
the same purpose. This approach would multithread
the web-server process, the server would create a
separate thread that would listen for client requests
when a request was made rather than creating
another process it would create another thread to
service the request. To get the advantages like
responsiveness, Resource sharing economy and
utilization of multiprocessor architectures
multithreading concept can be used.
12. What is hard disk and what is its
purpose? - Hard disk is the secondary storage
device, which holds the data in bulk, and it holds the
data on the magnetic medium of the disk.Hard disks
have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium,
the magnetic medium can be easily erased and
rewritten, and a typical desktop machine will have a
hard disk with a capacity of between 10 and 40
gigabytes. Data is stored onto the disk in the form of
files.
13. What is fragmentation? Different types of
fragmentation? - Fragmentation occurs in a
dynamic memory allocation system when many of the
free blocks are too small to satisfy any
request. External Fragmentation: External
 Fragmentation happens when a dynamic memory
allocation algorithm allocates some memory and a
small piece is left over that cannot be effectively used.
If too much external fragmentation occurs, the
amount of usable memory is drastically reduced. Total
memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not
contiguous. Internal Fragmentation: Internal
fragmentation is the space wasted inside of allocated
memory blocks because of restriction on the allowed
sizes of allocated blocks. Allocated memory may be
slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but not
being used
14. What is DRAM? In which form does it
store data? - DRAM is not the best, but it’s cheap,
does the job, and is available almost everywhere you
look. DRAM data resides in a cell made of a capacitor
and a transistor. The capacitor tends to lose data
unless it’s recharged every couple of milliseconds, and
this recharging tends to slow down the performance of
DRAM compared to speedier RAM types.
15. What is Dispatcher? - Dispatcher module
gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the
short-term scheduler; this involves: Switching
context, Switching to user mode, Jumping to the
proper location in the user program to restart that
program, dispatch latency – time it takes for
the dispatcher to stop one process and start another
running.
16. What is CPU Scheduler? - Selects from among
the processes in memory that are ready to execute,
 and allocates the CPU to one of them. CPU scheduling
decisions may take place when a process: 1.Switches
from running to waiting state. 2.Switches from
running to ready state. 3.Switches from waiting to
ready. 4.Terminates. Scheduling under 1 and 4 is non-
preemptive. All other scheduling is preemptive.
17. What is Context Switch? - Switching the CPU
to another process requires saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the new
process. This task is known as a context switch.
Context-switch time is pure overhead, because the
system does no useful work while switching. Its speed
varies from machine to machine, depending on the
memory speed, the number of registers which must be
copied, the existed of special instructions(such as a
single instruction to load or store all registers).
18. What is cache memory? - Cache memory is
random access memory (RAM) that a computer
microprocessor can access more quickly than it can
access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes
data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds
the data there (from a previous reading of data), it
does not have to do the more time-consuming reading
of data from larger memory.
19. What is a Safe State and what is its use in
deadlock avoidance? - When a process requests an
available resource, system must decide if immediate
allocation leaves the system in a safe state. System is
in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all
processes. Deadlock Avoidance: ensure that a system
will never enter an unsafe state.
20. What is a Real-Time System? - A real time
process is a process that must respond to the events
within a certain time period. A real time operating
system is an operating system that can run real time
processes successfully

1. Explain the concept of Reentrancy.

It is a useful, memory-saving technique for
multiprogrammed timesharing systems. A Reentrant
Procedure is one in which multiple users can share a
single copy of a program during the same period.
Reentrancy has 2 key aspects: The program
code cannot modify itself, and the local data for each
user process must be stored separately. Thus, the
permanent part is the code, and the temporary part is
the pointer back to the calling program and local
variables used by that program. Each execution
instance is called activation. It executes the code in
the permanent part, but has its own copy of local
variables/parameters. The temporary part associated
with each activation is the activation record.
Generally, the activation record is kept on the stack.
Note: A reentrant procedure can be interrupted and
called by an interrupting program, and still execute
correctly on returning to the procedure.

2. Explain Belady's Anomaly.

Also called FIFO anomaly. Usually, on increasing the
number of frames allocated to a process' virtual
memory, the process execution is faster, because
fewer page faults occur. Sometimes, the reverse
happens, i.e., the execution time increases even
when more frames are allocated to the process. This
is Belady's Anomaly. This is true for certain page
reference patterns.

3. What is a binary semaphore? What is its use?

A binary semaphore is one, which takes only 0 and 1
as values. They are used to implement mutual
exclusion and synchronize concurrent processes.

4. What is thrashing?
It is a phenomenon in virtual memory schemes when
the processor spends most of its time swapping
pages, rather than executing instructions. This is due
to an inordinate number of page faults.

5. List the Coffman's conditions that lead to a

deadlock.
 Mutual Exclusion: Only one process may use a
critical resource at a time.
Hold & Wait: A process may be allocated some
resources while waiting for others.
No Pre-emption: No resource can be forcible
removed from a process holding it.
 Circular Wait: A closed chain of processes exist
such that each process holds at least one resource
needed by another process in the chain.

6. What are short-, long- and medium-term

scheduling?
Long term scheduler determines which programs are
admitted to the system for processing. It controls the
degree of multiprogramming. Once admitted, a job
becomes a process. 
Medium term scheduling is part of the swapping
function. This relates to processes that are in a
blocked or suspended state. They are swapped out of
real-memory until they are ready to execute. The
swapping-in decision is based on memory-
management criteria.
Short term scheduler, also know as a dispatcher
executes most frequently, and makes the finest-
grained decision of which process should execute
next. This scheduler is invoked whenever an event
occurs. It may lead to interruption of one process by
preemption. 

7. What are turnaround time and response time?

Turnaround time is the interval between the
submission of a job and its completion. Response
time is the interval between submission of a request,
and the first response to that request.

8. What are the typical elements of a process image?

User data: Modifiable part of user space. May include
program data, user stack area, and programs that
may be modified. 
User program: The instructions to be executed.
System Stack: Each process has one or more LIFO
stacks associated with it. Used to store parameters
and calling addresses for procedure and system
calls.
Process control Block (PCB): Info needed by the OS
to control processes.

9. What is the Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)?

In a cached system, the base addresses of the last
few referenced pages is maintained in registers called
the TLB that aids in faster lookup. TLB contains those
page-table entries that have been most recently used.
Normally, each virtual memory reference causes 2
physical memory accesses-- one to fetch appropriate
page-table entry, and one to fetch the desired data.
Using TLB in-between, this is reduced to just one
physical memory access in cases of TLB-hit.

10. What is the resident set and working set of a

process?
Resident set is that portion of the process image that
 is actually in real-memory at a particular instant.
Working set is that subset of resident set that is
actually needed for execution. (Relate this to the
variable-window size method for swapping
techniques.)

 
21. 11. When is a system in safe state?
The set of dispatchable processes is in a safe state if
there exists at least one temporal order in which all
processes can be run to completion without resulting
in a deadlock.

12. What is cycle stealing?

We encounter cycle stealing in the context of Direct
Memory Access (DMA). Either the DMA controller can
use the data bus when the CPU does not need it, or it
may force the CPU to temporarily suspend operation.
The latter technique is called cycle stealing. Note that
cycle stealing can be done only at specific break
points in an instruction cycle.

13. What is meant by arm-stickiness?

If one or a few processes have a high access rate to
data on one track of a storage disk, then they may
monopolize the device by repeated requests to that
track. This generally happens with most common
device scheduling algorithms (LIFO, SSTF, C-SCAN,
etc). High-density multisurface disks are more likely
to be affected by this than low density ones.

14. What are the stipulations of C2 level security?

C2 level security provides for:
Discretionary Access Control
Identification and Authentication
 Auditing
Resource reuse

15. What is busy waiting?

The repeated execution of a loop of code while
waiting for an event to occur is called busy-waiting.
The CPU is not engaged in any real productive activity
during this period, and the process does not progress
toward completion.

16. Explain the popular multiprocessor thread-

scheduling strategies.
Load Sharing: Processes are not assigned to a
particular processor. A global queue of threads is
maintained. Each processor, when idle, selects a
thread from this queue. Note that load
balancing refers to a scheme where work is allocated
to processors on a more permanent basis. 
Gang Scheduling: A set of related threads is
scheduled to run on a set of processors at the same
time, on a 1-to-1 basis. Closely related threads /
processes may be scheduled this way to reduce
synchronization blocking, and minimize process
switching. Group scheduling predated this strategy.
Dedicated processor assignment: Provides
implicit scheduling defined by assignment of threads
to processors. For the duration of program execution,
each program is allocated a set of processors equal in
number to the number of threads in the program.
Processors are chosen from the available pool.
Dynamic scheduling: The number of thread in a
program can be altered during the course of
execution.

17. When does the condition 'rendezvous' arise?

In message passing, it is the condition in which, both,
the sender and receiver are blocked until the message
is delivered.

18. What is a trap and trapdoor?

Trapdoor is a secret undocumented entry point into a
program used to grant access without normal
methods of access authentication. A trap is a software
 interrupt, usually the result of an error condition.

19. What are local and global page replacements?

Local replacement means that an incoming page is
brought in only to the relevant process' address
space. Global replacement policy allows any page
frame from any process to be replaced. The latter is
applicable to variable partitions model only.

20. Define latency, transfer and seek time with

respect to disk I/O.
Seek time is the time required to move the disk arm
to the required track. Rotational delay or latency is
the time it takes for the beginning of the required
sector to reach the head. Sum of seek time (if any)
and latency is the access time. Time taken to actually
transfer a span of data is transfer time. 

22. What is time-stamping?

It is a technique proposed by Lamport, used to order
events in a distributed system without the use of clocks.
This scheme is intended to order events consisting of the
transmission of messages. Each system 'i' in the network
maintains a counter Ci. Every time a system transmits a
message, it increments its counter by 1 and attaches the
time-stamp Ti to the message. When a message is
received, the receiving system 'j' sets its counter Cj to 1
more than the maximum of its current value and the
incoming time-stamp Ti. At each site, the ordering of
messages is determined by the following rules: For
messages x from site i and y from site j, x precedes y if
one of the following conditions holds....(a) if Ti&lt;Tj or  (b)
if Ti=Tj and i&lt;j.

23. How are the wait/signal operations for monitor different

from those for semaphores?
If a process in a monitor signal and no task is waiting on
the condition variable, the signal is lost. So this allows
easier program design. Whereas in semaphores, every
operation affects the value of the semaphore, so the wait
and signal operations should be perfectly balanced in the
program.

24. In the context of memory management, what are

placement and replacement algorithms?
Placement algorithms determine where in available real-
memory to load a program. Common methods are first-fit,
next-fit, best-fit. Replacement algorithms are used when
memory is full, and one process (or part of a process)
needs to be swapped out to accommodate a new
program. The replacement algorithm determines which are
the partitions to be swapped out.

25. In loading programs into memory, what is the

difference between load-time dynamic linking and run-time
dynamic linking?
For load-time dynamic linking: Load module to be loaded
is read into memory. Any reference to a target external
module causes that module to be loaded and the
references are updated to a relative address from the start
base address of the application module. 
With run-time dynamic loading: Some of the linking
is postponed until actual reference during execution. Then
the correct module is loaded and linked.

26. What are demand- and pre-paging?

With demand paging, a page is brought into memory only
when a location on that page is actually referenced during
execution. With pre-paging, pages other than the one
demanded by a page fault are brought in. The selection of
such pages is done based on common access patterns,
especially for secondary memory devices.

27. Paging a memory management function, while

multiprogramming a processor management function, are
the two interdependent?
Yes.

28. What is page cannibalizing?

Page swapping or page replacements are called page
cannibalizing.

29. What has triggered the need for multitasking in PCs?

 Increased speed and memory capacity of
microprocessors together with the support fir virtual
memory and
 Growth  of client server computing
30. What are the four layers that Windows NT have in
order to achieve independence?
 Hardware abstraction layer
 Kernel
 Subsystems
 System Services.

31. What is SMP?

To achieve maximum efficiency and reliability a mode of
operation known as symmetric multiprocessing is used. In
essence, with SMP any process or threads can be
assigned to any processor.

32. What are the key object oriented concepts used by

Windows NT?
 Encapsulation
 Object class and instance

33. Is Windows NT a full blown object oriented operating

system? Give reasons.
No Windows NT is not so, because its not implemented in
object oriented language and the data structures reside
within one executive component and are not represented
as objects and it does not support object oriented
capabilities .

34. What is a drawback of MVT?

It does not have the features like 
 ability to support multiple processors
 virtual storage
 source level debugging
35. What is process spawning?
When the OS at the explicit request of another process
creates a process, this action is called process spawning.

36. How many jobs can be run concurrently on MVT?

15 jobs

37. List out some reasons for process termination.

 Normal completion
 Time limit exceeded
 Memory unavailable
 Bounds violation
 Protection error
 Arithmetic error
 Time overrun
 I/O failure
 Invalid instruction
 Privileged instruction
 Data misuse
 Operator or OS intervention
 Parent termination.

38. What are the reasons for process suspension?

1. swapping
2.  interactive user request
3.  timing
4.  parent process request

 
22. 39. What is process migration?
It is the transfer of sufficient amount of the state of
process from one machine to the target machine

40. What is mutant?

In Windows NT a mutant provides kernel mode or
user mode mutual exclusion with the notion of
ownership.

41. What is an idle thread?

The special thread a dispatcher will execute when no
ready thread is found.

42. What is FtDisk?

It is a fault tolerance disk driver for Windows NT.

43. What are the possible threads a thread can have?

Ready
Standby
Running 
Waiting
Transition 
Terminated.

44. What are rings in Windows NT?

     Windows NT uses protection mechanism called
rings provides by the process to implement separation
between the user mode and kernel mode.

45. What is Executive in Windows NT?

In Windows NT, executive refers to the operating
system code that runs in kernel mode.

46. What are the sub-components of I/O manager in

Windows NT?
Network redirector/ Server
Cache manager.
File systems 
 Network driver
Device driver

47. What are DDks? Name an operating system that

includes this feature.
    DDks are device driver kits, which are equivalent to
SDKs for writing device drivers. Windows NT includes
DDks.

48. What level of security does Windows NT meets?

    C2 level security. 
 What is MUTEX ?
">
 What isthe difference between a 'thread' and a
'process'?
">
 What is INODE?
">
 Explain the working of Virtual Memory.
">
 How does Windows NT supports Multitasking?
">
 Explain the Unix Kernel.
">
 What is Concurrency? Expain with example Deadlock
and Starvation.
">
 What are your solution strategies for "Dining
Philosophers Problem" ?
">
 Explain Memory Partitioning, Paging, Segmentation.
">
 Explain Scheduling.
">
 Operating System Security.
">
 What is Semaphore?
">
 Explain the following file systems : NTFS,
Macintosh(HPFS), FAT .
">
 What are the different process states?
">
 What is Marshalling?
">
 Define and explain COM?
">
 What is Marshalling?
">
 Difference - Loading and Linking ?
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 What are the basic functions of an operating system?
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 Explain briefly about, processor, assembler, compiler,
loader, linker and the functions executed by them.
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 What are the difference phases of software
development? Explain briefly?
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 Differentiate between RAM and ROM?
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 What is DRAM? In which form does it store data?
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 What is cache memory?
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 What is hard disk and what is its purpose?
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 Differentiate between Complier and Interpreter?
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 What are the different tasks of Lexical analysis?
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 What are the different functions of Syntax phase,
Sheduler?
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 What are the main difference between Micro-Controller
and Micro- Processor?
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 Describe different job scheduling in operating systems.
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 What is a Real-Time System ?
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 What is the difference between Hard and Soft real-
time systems ?
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 What is a mission critical system ?
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 What is the important aspect of a real-time system ?
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  If two processes which shares same system memory
and system clock in a distributed system, What is it called?
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 What is the state of the processor, when a process is
waiting for some event to occur?
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 What do you mean by deadlock?
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 Explain the difference between microkernel and macro
kernel.
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 Give an example of microkernel.
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 When would you choose bottom up methodology?
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 When would you choose top down methodology?
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 Write a small dc shell script to find number of FF in the
design.
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 Why paging is used ?
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 Which is the best page replacement algorithm and
Why? How much time is spent usually in each phases and
why?
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 Difference between Primary storage
and secondary storage?
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 What is multi tasking, multi programming, multi
threading?
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 Difference between multi threading and multi tasking?
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 What is software life cycle?
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 Demand paging, page faults, replacement algorithms,
thrashing, etc.
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 Explain about paged segmentation and segment
paging
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 While running DOS on a PC, which command would be
used to  duplicate the entire diskette?