American College of Surgeons: Ten Questions and Answers About Disasters and Disaster Response
American College of Surgeons: Ten Questions and Answers About Disasters and Disaster Response
American College of Surgeons: Ten Questions and Answers About Disasters and Disaster Response
Ten questions and answers about disasters and disaster response
Eric Frykberg MD FACS, Leonard Weireter MD FACS, Lewis Flint MD FACS
Question 1: Why did it take so long for the disaster relief response to start working in Haiti?
Successful management of a disaster requires that local authorities have some level of
preparedness. The resources to make certain that preparedness training was done were not
available in Haiti. Authority to provide effective early command and control was eliminated by
the damage to government buildings and infrastructure with resultant loss of communication
capability. Roads were destroyed so that rescue and triage of casualties could not occur. The
first rescuers in all disaster events are always the people in the disaster area who were not hurt
or killed. They can rescue some of the injured but without some response from government
and healthcare agencies already on the ground and functioning; evacuation and care of the
injured will be delayed. This was clearly the case in Port Au Prince. Help from adjoining
geographic areas such as other Haitian cities and the Dominican Republic was not possible
because passable roads were not available.
Medical facilities were damaged. Destruction of infrastructure and widespread
communications failure rendered the Haitian government unable to exert effective leadership
to coordinate the relief operation. The capacity to render care that remained was impeded by
the lack of capacity and materials necessary to treat the large number of wounded generated
by the disaster. Ideally, triage is done at one or more points outside of the medical facilities and
safely away from danger. When transport is done by “first rescuers” (see above), a large
number of patients arrive at the nearest medical care facility. The first are typically the least
severely injured and if they are allowed inside the facility, the resources are quickly
overwhelmed. Because there was no authority to enforce a plan to keep the least severely
injured from overwhelming facilities, the facilities were overwhelmed.
This absence of a prevailing authority to coordinate all aspects of the response resulted in
the many rescue and medical teams operating independently and disjointedly, without an
appreciation of the “big picture”, although they no doubt have been rendering excellent care to
the victims they have encountered.
The airport in Port Au Prince was not functioning for an interval after the earthquake
because air traffic control capability had been destroyed. After American military personnel
established air traffic control, ability of incoming flights to arrive and depart was hampered by
the availability of only one runway and by a lack of fuelling facilities. Arrival of help by sea was
hampered by virtue of the fact that the only docks available to receive ships had been
destroyed by the earthquake.
Under the best of circumstances, for disasters that have occurred in the United States,
organized response and delivery of necessary supplies does not occur for a minimum of 96
hours after the disaster event occurs. Given the circumstances of loss of communication,
transportation, damage to government organizations, damage to medical facilities, and lack of
transport capability, the fact that many of the initial challenges have been met within one week
of the disaster is impressive.
Thoughtful considerations of the situation that unfolded in Haiti should raise a number of
questions about how well we are prepared for a similar event. The questions that follow are
intended to clarify what a disaster is and how we should think about preparation if we are to
minimize the short and long‐term consequences of any such event.
Question 2: What is a disaster?
A disaster is a catastrophic event that disrupts the infrastructure of a community or society
to such a degree that they cannot cope with the consequences using routine methods or
resources. In many ways, nothing will ever be the same, as disasters are typically associated
with the tragedies of great loss of life and property, and a relatively long period of recovery
follows. Disasters have been described as many people trying to do quickly what they do not
normally do, working with people with whom they do not normally work, in an environment
with which they are not familiar, and at a time and place that is completely unexpected. A
disaster is more than a greater magnitude of what is normally encountered. The response to a
disaster should not merely involve a mobilization of more personnel, supplies and other
resources. In fact, disaster management requires a new and different approach from our
routine daily management of emergencies, because disasters pose unique problems and
challenges rarely faced under normal conditions. The management response to a disaster must
encompass many disparate elements that normally do not work together, but must suddenly
cooperate in a close working relationship to reach the common goal of establishing order out of
chaos, and to minimize mortality and morbidity among the surviving victims. The U.S. Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) encompasses these points in its definition of a disaster
as “an occurrence of a severity and magnitude that results in deaths, injuries and property
damage, of such magnitude that the event cannot be managed through the routine procedures
and resources of government.” It usually develops suddenly and unexpectedly and requires
immediate, coordinated, and effective response by multiple government and private sector
organizations to meet human needs and speed recovery.(FEMA, 1984c:1‐3). Because all
disasters are sudden, unexpected, unpredictable and random events as to time and place of
occurrence, and because they are rare, they cannot be managed without established plans in
place that are regularly rehearsed.
Question 3: What makes a disaster different?
The most common feature of disasters, especially in terms of the medical management of
casualties, is that the demand for resources outstrips the supply. This is a situation rarely if ever
encountered in medical care in developed countries, emphasizing the importance of education and
training in the very different approaches and standards in medical care required in disaster
management. Medical assets are overwhelmed in a true disaster, preventing the essentially unlimited
application of medical resources to every individual that characterizes the routine approach to
emergency medical care in developed countries. The most common factor responsible for this relative
scarcity of resources is the large number of casualties that present all at once, which impedes the ability
of medical providers to fully evaluate and treat each casualty and allocate available resources to those
most in need, as we normally do. This is the most fundamental characteristic of a true mass casualty
event. It should be distinguished from the more common multiple casualty event, otherwise termed
limited mass casualty event, in which larger than normal numbers of injured victims present to a
medical care facility, but are able to be handled with the resources at hand. Successful management of
the patients occurs even though it does involve extra work, some local mobilization and straining of
resources (i.e. a busy weekend night in a major trauma center). A true mass casualty disaster must
involve some level of rationing of resources to most accurately and effectively match needs with
supplies, and must involve some mechanism for evacuation or redistribution of casualties to other
facilities for full care, because by definition all casualties cannot be handled locally. This requires a
fundamental change in approach to the care of injured victims. A shift must occur from an orientation
where there is provision of the greatest good for each individual to the greatest good for the
greatest number. The population, rather than the individual, must become the focus of medical care.
It is not “business as usual, just busier”.
There may be casualties so severely injured that time and resource requirements are as
great as to jeopardize the lives of many who are more salvageable. Unlike the normal approach
to medical care, in which the most severely injured take first priority, the most severely injured
of mass casualties may have to be set aside and treated LAST, so as to more efficiently apply
the limited resources to many more. Simply doing more of the same is the wrong thing to do in
this setting, as it will not work. However, without education and training in these unique
aspects of mass casualty care, more of the same is what people will normally gravitate to as
that is all they know. Evaluation of casualties must be rapid, decisions must be accurate in the
context of the special requirements of mass casualty care, and traffic flow must be constantly
forward in order to accommodate the influx of casualties and treat as many as possible.
“Minimal acceptable care” is the standard in this setting, as optimal care for every casualty will
lose many lives unnecessarily.
This of course is antithetical to the moral standards of health care providers, and therefore a
circumstance that we never confront in our education, training, or routine medical practice. However,
the longer this concept takes to learn in an actual disaster, the more lives may be lost unnecessarily. The
successful evaluation and management of mass casualties cannot be accomplished with our usual
individualized approach to injured patients.
Question 4: Why should we be concerned about disasters?
Disasters are relatively rare events, even though modern global communication makes us
more aware of them. Events with more than 1,000 casualties occur only a few times each
century, and only 10‐15 events each year result in more than 40 casualties. So, why should
medical providers be at all concerned about these events? In fact, the idea that “it will never
happen to me…” is a major barrier to learning and training in the unique challenges of mass
casualty management among medical providers. However, such factors as increasing
population density, with its associated increased settlement in high risk areas, increasing
environmental degradation and increasing special needs populations, increase in availability
and transport of hazardous materials, the emergence of new infectious diseases, and the
increasing threat of terrorism, all lead to increasing threats of large scale natural and man‐
made disasters. The healthcare sector is thus challenged with an increased likelihood of
confronting mass casualty disasters more often in future years.
Question 5: How may disasters by classified?
Disasters come in all shapes and sizes, and even similar types of disasters at different times
and places may involve very different variables that influence casualty outcomes. Therefore,
the comparison of one disaster to another can be problematic. The following table lists several
methods of classifying disasters in order to gauge their magnitude. The number of casualties is
not very useful, as how many casualties overwhelm resources is relative. Five victims of a motor
vehicle crash could be easily handled in an urban trauma center, but this number of casualties,
presenting all at once, would overwhelm a rural hospital. Injury patterns tend to be similar in
the various natural and manmade mechanisms, as well as in specific types of injuries within
each mechanism. Geographic and time elements pose distinct challenges and implications for
the medical response to disasters. Open disasters are those occurring over a wide geographic
area, such as a tornado that goes across an entire state, while closed disasters are those in a
discrete location with an easily defined scene, such as an urban building collapse. Finite
disasters are those occurring at one point in time, such as a building collapse, from which all
consequences follow, while ongoing disasters involve continuing damage and dangers, such as
a leaking gas main that explodes and causes a fire, the aftershocks following an earthquake that
continue for days or weeks, or armed conflicts. The most useful classifies disaster events
according to the level of response needed to cope effectively with the event. This classification
works because the mismatch between needs and resources is the element that most
fundamentally defines a disaster.
TABLE 1: CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES FOR DISASTERS
Active involvement in the process of planning, hospital drills, community exercises, learning
fundamental disaster principles and putting them into practice, and educating and engaging
others in these activities are the fundamental elements of disaster preparedness. This includes
not only readying one’s hospital, community and region for potential disaster events, but also
preparing oneself and one’s own family for the many challenges that disasters pose.
Preparedness should not only be directed at the management of the acute phases of a disaster
response, but also for the very difficult long‐term consequence management phases of
recovery, rebuilding, and return to normal.
Question 7: What are the elements of a disaster response?
Effective disaster response begins with planning. Without local and regional plans based on sound
analyses of all likely hazards, no organized response can occur. One all‐hazards plan that encompasses
a generic approach to the common challenges of all disasters is more effective than multiple plans
addressing individual types of disasters. Plans should include inventories of local resources,
arrangements for redundant communications systems (telephones, internet, and cell phones
immediately fail in a disaster), and designation of roles for each element of government, healthcare,
police, emergency medical services, food and water suppliers, and heavy equipment operators to name
only a few. After planning, comes education and training. These efforts involve working through
scenarios of various hazards until everyone is familiar with their respective role and lines of
communication are established. After this stage comes rehearsal. Planning, education and training, and
rehearsal are expensive. This fact probably explains why poor countries have little in the way of
preparedness for disasters.
Question 8: How should healthcare facilities prepare for disaster response?
Success or failure is determined by how well the institution can deal with the rapidly changing
situation. The command structure is an essential element that must be designated, and must be
recognized by all participants in the response. The many independent and disparate entities involved in
a disaster response cannot function effectively without being willing to answer to one authority. The
Incident Command System (ICS) has been used for this purpose in the United States as it has proven to
fulfill the major command and control requirements in numerous disasters. All elements of any disaster
response should have training in this system.
The Incident Command System, with its core functions of Planning, Operations, Logistics and
Finance, allows the healthcare facility to organize the response and utilize workers and materials in the
most efficient manner possible. The additional key functions of Liaison to other responding agencies,
safety and dissemination of public information round out the essence of the Incident Command System.
This is a methodology that needs to be trained for and drilled, not operated de novo or by novices. For a
fuller discussion of this topic and a list of comprehensive educational materials, go to this web site:
http://training.fema.gov/IS/crslist.asp .
Disaster plans for healthcare facilities include plans for maintenance of forward flow of casualties
from triage to emergency assessment and from there to operating room, intensive observation area,
routine observation area, and transfer to another facility or discharge. Ideally, the hospital should “lock
down” on notification of the disaster event. Triage and decontamination stations are located away from
the emergency treatment areas. Teams of caregivers organized to perform initial assessment and care
report to a medical control officer in the emergency reception area. This individual works with a
representative of the hospital emergency response management group to coordinate communications,
supply and personnel. Choke points in hospitals include laboratory and radiology. Protocols for injury
assessment and management that do not require lab or radiology are important. Clinical assessments
done during a mass casualty event are not perfect and provision is made for repeat assessments.
Intensive care areas rapidly fill so other areas where monitored beds are available should be identified.
Some potential areas are endovascular surgery, endoscopy, and day surgery facilities. Patients who will
survive if an airway is obtained and/or bleeding is stopped go immediately to the operating suite.
Patients who need observation can be watched by non‐surgeon medical personnel. Personnel who are
going to transport patients need to know where they are going and this knowledge is developed during
rehearsals. Dining areas should be reserved for feeding staff and should not be converted into patient
care areas. A sad fact of mass casualty events is that most patients go to the nearest hospital. A perfect
plan would include provision for “leapfrogging” to facilities that are more distant. Even if such a plan is
in place, it almost never functions effectively in the early phase following a disaster event. As a
substitute, healthcare facilities should have communication and transfer agreements with nearby
facilities. Hospital supply inventories are kept at minimal levels for financial reasons. Caches of
emergency supplies are important components of each emergency plan.
Question 9: What is the role of healthcare providers in a disaster response?
Physicians and surgeons should participate fully in planning, education and rehearsals, as
they will be the first receivers of most disaster casualties and must therefore function as an
integral part of the overall disaster response. Specific roles for non‐surgeon providers will need
to be developed. Medical staff members need to stay in the hospital and away from the scene
of the disaster event.
Question 10: How can I become involved in disaster response?
Consult the disaster management pages of the American College of Surgeons web portal at
http://efacs.org/portal/page/portal/ACS_Content/ACSCOMMUNITIESSPECIALTIES/DISASTERME
DICINE. You can also find information on the College’s public Web site at
http://www.facs.org/trauma/disaster/dmep_course.html . Involvement in a disaster response is
best accomplished through a long‐term commitment to a variety of relief organizations, medical teams,
or the military that are linked to this website. These involve extensive training in the concepts and
procedures of disaster planning and management, safety, command and control, and disaster
casualty care, and have abundant experience with the collection and dispersal of needed
resources. These organizations regularly provide medical relief to needy populations apart from
disaster events. Running into a disaster setting with noble intentions of helping, but without
this education, training and experience, tends to fail, is potentially dangerous to you, and adds
a further burden to an already overwhelmed setting. Those without this experience can best
help through support of relief organizations and by remaining in their hospitals to help care for
victims who are transported to the U.S.