See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/228349229

Frozen Dough and Partially Baked Bread: An Update

Article  in  Food Reviews International · June 2007

DOI: 10.1080/87559120701418368

CITATIONS READS

55 7,774

2 authors:

Cristina M Rosell Manuel Gómez

Spanish National Research Council Universidad de Valladolid
289 PUBLICATIONS   11,981 CITATIONS    160 PUBLICATIONS   4,023 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Special Issue "Quality Assay, Processing and Bio-Function of Rice Products" View project

Preservation of physical barriers of starchy tissue-based foods that decrease starch-active enzyme access/binding View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Cristina M Rosell on 20 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 FROZEN DOUGH AND PARTIALLY BAKED BREAD: AN UPDATE

Running title: Frozen dough and part baked bread

Cristina M. Rosell1, Manuel Gómeza

a
8 Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Tecnología de los Alimentos,

E.T.S.Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de Valladolid, 34004 Palencia, Spain.

Tel: +34 (9) 79-108359, Fax: +34 (9) 79-108302

1
12 Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC). POBox 73.

Burjasot-46100. Valencia. Spain.

16

1
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: crosell@iata.csic.es

1
 ABSTRACT

The bakery market is growing due to the development of new technologies related with

freezing temperatures. In this contribution the state of the art is reviewed, giving special

4 emphasis in the contributions of the last two decades. This review is especially

focussing in being a useful guide of the research performed in the application of

freezing at different steps of the breadmaking process, giving an overview toward the

bakery market is moving on. The raw material requirements, processing conditions and

8 baked bread quality from frozen dough and partially baked bread are reviewed.

Key words: frozen dough, partially baked bread, breadmaking, raw materials, process,

quality.

2
 INTRODUCTION

The production of cereals and baked goods has been suffering a continuous

transformation promoted by the change in social habits, consumer demands, and the

4 interest of the baked goods producers in saving labours and costs. Initially, the

industrialisation of the breadmaking process yielded important savings in time and

costs. However, the bread market did not wake up with all those changes and bread

consumption underwent a steady decrease till mid-nineties. This decrease was partially

8 due to the short shelf life of the bakery products; their quality is highly dependent on the

period of time between baking and consumption. A loss of bread fresness called bread

staling produces a loss of consumer acceptance.(1)

A revolutionary change started when low temperatures were applied to the bread

12 market, making possible to eliminate the night work in this industry. The first approach

was to frozen the commercial bread, but the successful preservation of freshness was

greatly dependent on an adequate control of rates of freezing and defrosting, suitable

storage conditions and use of strictly fresh bread.(2) However, frozen bread did not allow

16 extended storage periods without modifying the characteristics of the freshly baked

bread.(3) That approach was followed by the development of refrigerated dough that

allowed delaying the proofing process.(4) However, the shelf-life of those refrigerated

doughs was very short and long distance distribution was not possible. The use of

20 freezing in this market is not new, but in the last years (started from the 80’s) a niche

market has been converted in a mainstream business. Bread is a food that almost

everyone eats, and the bread market was considered a well-established sector with

nearly complete penetration, but there were some niches within this market with strong

24 growth potential. Different facts have been encountered for explaining that spectacular

growth, among them the diversity of products that keeps consumers interest in the bread

3
 market, the health promoting ingredients currently used, the addition of complex

flavours and textures that increase bread attractiveness and the expansion of distribution

points. The application of low temperatures in breadmaking provides an easy way of

4 processing different types of bread and forms (fresh, refrigerated and frozen) that

guarantees a steady rate of growth of this technology.

Research underwent in this subject has followed a parallel trend to the market

8 importance. In figure 1 can be observed that in the last decade the number of research

articles increases spectacularly. Due to the growing interest in this subject, an update of

it becomes necessary. A simple overview of the research performed in the subject is

depicted in Table 1 and 2. Next sections will describe in some detail the use of freezing

12 temperature during the breadmaking process and if special requirements are needed.

FROZEN DOUGH

The production of frozen dough has undergone a great increase in the last decades, due

16 to the variety of products that can be obtained after proofing and baking in the so-called

hot points. From the baker’s point of view, frozen dough production does not require

highly trained people, which means saving costs. Frozen dough is obtained from highly

mechanized processes in big companies that can reduce the production costs and

20 manufacturers can supply a product of uniform quality at any time. However the

production of frozen dough has moved the breadmaking process to new requirements

regarding raw materials, machinery, package and transport. The next sections discussed

the technology used for the production of bread from frozen dough and the requirements

24 that should be met for improving the quality of the baked product.(5)

4
 The technology used for the production of frozen dough is known since 1950, although

bakers begun to use it in United States in the seventieth. This delay was due to the

research and development necessary for setting up the new technology. In fact, initially

4 the baked products from frozen dough had low volume and coarse texture, and shorter

shelf life.(6) Nowadays, these problems have been overcomed extending the shelf life of

the frozen dough up to six months, and frequently it is only shortened due to fails in the

cold chain during transport or temperature fluctuations during storage.

8 Ingredients

Flour

In breadmaking performance it is necessary to select adequate flour that meet the quality

required for the process (Table 1). The freezing and thawing processes exert some stress

12 on the dough that cause a deterioration in the quality of the baked product, because of

that wheat flour for these processes must have greater strength than the one used in

conventional breadmaking processes.(7) The best results are obtained with wheat

varieties of strong gluten,(8,9) thus it is advisable to select specific wheat varieties with

16 strong characteristics as high gluten index and high values of dough deformation energy

(W) besides a good value for the curve configuration ratio (P/L) or make appropriated

blends for obtaining the desirable strength.(10,11) In the selection of the appropriated flour

the protein quality and the gluten strength is more important than the amount of

20 proteins.(8,12) From the different wheat flour compounds, the glutenin fractions play the

most important role in the quality of the frozen dough, followed by the fraction of

gliadins and the starch.(13)

24 The scanning electron microscopy analysis of the dough upon freezing and thawing

shows a rupture of the gluten network,(14-16) and a progressive dehydration of the

5
 gluten.(17) The freezing and thawing processes promote a reduction in the dough

resistance to extension measured by the extensograph and that reduction is more intense

in the proofed dough than in the unyeasted ones.(18) This effect has been related to the

4 released of certain compounds from dead yeast cells (i.e. glutathione) after freezing and

thawing. In fact, doughs subjected to three successive freeze-thaw cycles undergo a

reduction in the maximum resistance and an increase in the extensibility measured by

the extensograph, besides a change in the high molecular weight glutenins.(19,20)

8 Nevertheless, further studies made in unyeasted bread (parotta) showed a decrease in the

consistency peak measured by the farinograph, an increase in the extensograph

extensibility, and less intense electrophoresis bands of the high molecular weight

proteins.(21) Therefore, the dough weakness observed upon freezing and frozen storage is

12 not only owed to the effect of dead yeast cells.

The causes of those alterations in the dough are not yet clear, although several factors

could participate. During freezing and frozen storage, the number of viable yeast cells

16 decreases and as a consequence a reducing compound (glutathione) is released, which

can break down the disulphide bonds among proteins leading to a weakening effect on

the gluten. Several results confirm this hypothesis; first the addition of oxidants

improves the shelf life of frozen dough,(18,22) and secondly the high molecular weight

20 glutenin subunits decrease after frozen storage likely due to the reducing

conditions.(19,23) In addition, the hydrophobic interactions play an important role in

maintaining the gluten network integrity. Those interactions become weak when the

temperature decrease, thus prolonged frozen storage of the dough could yield a steady

24 deterioration of the gluten network. The presence of ice crystals formed during freezing

could also produce the rupture of the gluten structure, because of that, the rate of

6
 freezing has an important effect on the frozen dough quality.(24,25) Seguchi et al.(26) and

Sharadanant et al.(27) reported the relationship between the frozen storage of dough and

the water retention capacity, and found that the freezing and thawing processes increase

4 the amount of released liquid, which could be reduced with the addition of salt, sugars
(28)
or hydrocolloids to the formulation. These authors also found a negative correlation

between the water released and the volume of the baked bread. It has been suggested

that the watery phase results from the ice crystal formation and the water redistribution

8 in the frozen dough.(29,30) The gluten weakening leads to an increase in the proofing

time, a reduction in the oven spring and the dough resistance to stress conditions,

resulting in baked breads with a flat surface, crumbs with a coarse texture and great and

non-uniform air cells.(10) Therefore, the production of frozen dough requires flour with

12 superior quality than the one used in conventional breadmaking processes.

Yeast

An extensive research (Table 1) has been focused in the development of yeast cells with

16 high tolerance to freezing and frozen storage.(31-33) The commercial baker’s yeast shows

enough resistance to freezing; however, their behavior changes when yeast is mixed

with flour, in this surrounding yeast cells become more sensitive to temperature changes

and suffer a rapid loss of the freeze resistance. Despite the reason are not clear, it could

20 be due to the different stability of the yeast cells when latent or metabolically active

state.

Initially, it was necessary to minimize the yeast activation and delay the fermentation

24 processes previous freezing,(34,35) but lately, studies revealed that prefermentation before

7
 freezing increases the volume of baked bread from frozen dough when freeze tolerant

yeasts are used.(36)

4 The different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae show a great variation in the

sensitivity to freezing damage, likely related to their cytoplasm content.(37,38) The lipid

content and its chemical structure seem having effect on the freeze tolerance of the yeast

through their influence on the fluidity of the plasma membrane.(39-41) A relationship has

8 also been found between intracellular charged amino acids and proline and the leavening

ability of baker’s yeasts during frozen dough baking process.(42,43) It has been reported

that intracellular L-proline has cryoprotective activity in S. cerevisiae, and also, could
(44,45)
protect yeast cells from oxidative stress damage .The endogenous trehalose

12 functions as cryoprotectant,(46-49) as well as the added trehalose.(50,51) A trehalose content

of 4-5% seems to be sufficient for avoiding the frozen damage of the yeast; no further

protection is obtained with higher content.(52) However, recent results show that, in

addition to trehalose, other factors existing in S. cerevisiae can enhance general stress

16 resistance.(53)

Many efforts have been focussed in finding freeze tolerant strains, and currently there

are special yeast strains for the performance of frozen dough. Among them, there are

20 some selected strains from Saccharomyces like S. fructuum,(54) and Torulaspora

delbrueckii.(55-57) In other cases, the freeze tolerance has been improved by directed

mutagenesis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.(48-61) The identification of the yeast genes

responsible of the freeze tolerance opens a new way for obtaining freeze tolerant

24 yeasts.(31)

8
 There have been described considerable differences of the yeast cell cryotolerance

among the commercial samples that indicate the importance of the growing conditions

for obtaining uniform cryotolerance.(62) Nevertheless, even with all the research carried

4 out in this subject, some additional work is needed to develop good cryotolerant yeast.

Some losses in the fermentative capacity during freezing and frozen storage are

unavoidable even with controlled temperature, quick processing and the use of freeze

8 tolerant yeast. Yeast viability is greatly affected by the freezing and storage

temperatures.(63,64) Therefore, in the formulation of frozen dough is necessary to increase

the level of yeast between 30 and 100%. A significant loss of activity is produced when

using sourdough and poolish for providing flavour to the baked bread. Nevertheless, the

12 use of freeze tolerant yeast improves the performance of frozen dough allowing the

increase of the fermentation period before freezing.(65)

Other ingredients

16 Baked bread from frozen dough made with flour, yeast, salt and water shows the same

problem than the ones obtained from conventional process, that is a very short shelf-life.

Fats are use to ameliorate that problem extending the shelf life of the baked breads. The

addition of fats or oils (0.5-1%) extends the shelf life of the bread up to some weeks.

20 They are usually combined with emulsifiers, due to their effect in reducing the size of

cells in the dough making the structure of the dough and of the baked crumb more

uniform and “foamy”, which has been related to the effect of emulsifiers on surface

tension forces in the cells.(66,67) Aibara et al.(68) studied the addition of different fats to

24 the formulation of frozen dough, obtaining large shelf life with fatty acids of short chain

and also better bread volume (Table 1). The use of shortenings is also convenient for

9
 reducing the fermentation time and improving the quality of the baked breads, although

it is necessary to select formulated shortenings for frozen dough.(69)

4 The addition of gluten (2%) to the formulation of frozen dough improves the volume of

the baked breads due to its strengthening effect.(70) It has been also reported that the

presence of gluten improves the behaviour of the dough in the freeze-thaw cycles.(71)

8 Milk products can be also added in the formulation of frozen dough, for instance the

addition of sodium caseinate had similar strengthening effect on gluten network than

DATEM and ascorbic acid, obtaining better volume and improved texture.(72) The

addition of 2-10% sugar and corn syrups also reduces the fermentation time because

12 provide fermentable sugars to the yeasts and increase the crust colour.(73)

Additives

Emulsifiers can be also used in the performance of frozen dough exerting the same

16 effect than in the conventional process. The rheological properties of wheat dough are

markedly influenced by the presence of emulsifiers and the extent of the effect is

dependent on the emulsifier properties. The anionic emulsifiers together with the non-

ionic (sucrose ester of fatty acids and polysorbate) conferred strength to wheat dough

20 due to the complex formation with gluten proteins.(74) The positive effect of the

emulsifiers on the fresh bread characteristics, including volume and crumb texture, can

be ensured with long proofing times.(74) Monoglycerides retard the crumb hardening

upon baking through the formation of complexes with amylose. The ability of the

24 emulsifiers for forming complexes with amylose varies and thus their effect retarding

crumb hardening.(75) Other emulsifiers as sodium stearoyl lactilate (SSL) or diacetyl

10
 tartaric ester methyl (DATEM) have a strengthening effect on the gluten network by

promoting the protein interactions, which increase the gas retention capacity and in turn

the volume of the baked products.(67) According to Stauffer,(76) the majority of the dough

4 strengtheners are anionic emulsifiers and when their hydrophobic side is bond to the

proteins the negative charge is incorporated into the complexes leading a net charge

close to zero and a dough aggregation. DATEM, SSL, CSL and polysorbate are the

dough strengtheners commonly used in baking, due to their effect on proofing, dough

8 machinability, moulding and the early baking. DATEM improves volume and bread

texture although does not have any protective effect against freezing damage.(16,22,77)

The addition of egg yolk can also improve the quality of frozen dough and protect the

12 proteins against the unfolding during freezing, frozen storage and thawing.(73)

Oxidants produce a reinforcement of the gluten network by favouring the formation of

disulfide bonds, being important its action on frozen dough due to the weakening effect

of the freezing. Abd-El-Hady et al.(78) reported that the use of ascorbic acid, alone or

16 blend with potassium bromate or SSL, increases the dough stability during frozen

storage. However, the use of potassium bromate is now banned in most countries.

The transglutaminase is an enzyme with good properties for being used in frozen dough.

20 This enzyme catalyzes the transfer reaction between the amine group and the carboxy

group of the proteins, creating inter and intramolecular bonds. This reaction allows

reinforcing the gluten network and thus minimizes the negative effects of the

freezing.(79) In fact, a substantial improvement of pastries and croissants from frozen

24 dough is obtained in the presence of transglutaminase.(80,81)

11
 Other additives, very useful in frozen dough, are the hydrocolloids for their water

retention capacity that improves the stability during frozen storage.(82) Ribotta et al.(16,23)

obtained better volume of baked bread with the addition of guar gum, even similar to the

4 ones obtained with gluten or DATEM, also improved bread characteristics have been

obtained with the addition of locust bean gum, arabic gum and carboxymethylcellulose

(CMC).(28) In the conventional processes the hydrocolloids improve dough stability

during proofing,(83) and impart a softening effect of the crumb extending the shelf life of

8 the baked breads.(84-88) However, the election of the appropriated hydrocolloid will be

crucial since their properties vary according their origin and chemical structure;(89,90)

moreover it should be taken into account the interactions with the other ingredients of

the formulation, as well as the adjustment of the dough hydration due to the high water

12 adsorption of the hydrocolloids. (91-96)

Processing

Mixing

Nemeth et al.(97) stated the importance of the mixing energy input, type of mixer, water

16 amount in the formulation, presence of oxidants and dough strengtheners, proofing and

resting times and freeze-thaw cycles on the baked bread quality from frozen dough.

There are diverse alternatives for ensuring dough temperature, for instance cooling the

mixer or delay the yeast addition and sometimes the addition of salt.(98) However, the

20 gluten network should be completely developed at the end of mixing.(99) Loaves baked

from frozen dough with a final mixing temperature over 20°C are poorer in both gassing

power and overall loaf quality.(100) The negative effect of the high temperatures during

mixing is only due to the start of yeasts fermentation. However, some authors found

24 better results with high temperatures at the end of mixing and with a reduction of water

12
 content,(77) although differences in results could be ascribed to the diversity of

formulations tested.

4 In the selection of the desirable dough temperature after mixing is also important the

time of frozen storage, since prolonged storage increases the yeast damage. In general,

low temperatures after mixing and short resting time lead to dough with great quality

and stability during frozen storage.(101) The most frequent way to control the mixed

8 dough temperature is through the temperature of the water, using sometimes, chilled

water or even ice. In the mixers with a high friction factor is necessary to incorporate a

jacket and when this system is not sufficient, cryogenic cooling by using liquid nitrogen

or carbon dioxide can be used.(102) The cryogenic agent promotes a fast cooling when is

12 sprayed onto the flour before mixing. This cooling system is more uniform and avoids

the presence of too cooled spots that would reduce the quality of the dough.

Concerning the delay in the addition of salt, gluten development is faster in the absence

16 of salt, thus full dough development can be reached with short mixing times and thereby

ensure lower dough temperature. The mixing process could be accelerated up to a 25%

by delaying the salt addition.(103) The adverse effect of this practice is the pigment

oxidation that is usually hindered with salt; hence the color of the resulted baked crumb

20 will be paler.

Sometimes is recommended the delay of yeast addition. During the first 10 minutes of

mixing, the yeast is hydrated and becomes active; thus, shortening the time of the yeast

24 in the mixed dough could reduce the degree of fermentation. The delay of the yeasts

addition is common in the production of frozen dough, but it is never added

13
 simultaneously to the salt because there is a risk of osmotic shock and cell death. The

habitual practice is to add the yeast at the middle of the mixing and the salt near the end.

4 Post mixing operations before freezing

Dough used for freezing has greater consistency than the conventional dough because

the water amount is reduced.(77,104) This consistency will affect the subsequent

operations like kneading, dividing and forming, although no especial machines are used

8 for frozen doughs. After mixing, dough is divided, kneaded, rounded, sheeted, rolled

and transported to the freezer in a short period of time for minimizing the yeast

activation. All the steps performed for the dough making up modify the structure of the

gas cells, and contribute to dough development.(105) Small batches are usually

12 recommended in order to reduce the time needed for making up the dough before

freezing.(106) Sheeting-molding conditions have not significant effect on the stability of

frozen-thawed dough, but dough shape affects the resulting bread volume, in fact sheets

and cylinders lead to breads with high volume than the one obtained from ball-shaped

16 dough pieces.(107)

Freezing and frozen storage

Freezing and frozen storage conditions have a great influence on the quality of baked

20 breads.(17,28,108) The fermentation time increases with the frozen storage. No significant

dough differences were observed among the freezing methods during the first 11 weeks

of frozen storage, but after that time the samples stored at –20°C showed a rapid

deterioration.

24

14
 Havet et al.(25) showed that rapid cooling velocity produces a great damage in yeast

activity and gluten structure. During freezing, a disruption of the gluten structure is

produced due to ice crystal formation and water migration, ultimately to the extent that

4 starch granules appear no longer associated to gluten network.(109) The temperature

oscillations during storage and the duration of the frozen storage are determinant on the
(25,110)
frozen bread dough baking performance and –prolonged storage increases the

crumb firmness of the baked breads.(111) When the core of the product reaches –20°C the

8 temperature fluctuations should be controlled for avoiding water migration and changes

in osmotic pressure. Those temperature fluctuations lead to a significant deterioration of

the product quality.(110)

12 Ribotta et al.,(112) when analyzing the frozen dough storage by differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC), obtained an increase in the gelatinization enthalpy of the starch after

150 days of frozen storage at –18°C. At 230 days of frozen storage it was detected a

decrease in the gelatinization temperature and a reduction of the temperature range. The

16 resulting baked breads had higher retrogradation enthalpy of amylopectin during staling

than their counterparts from conventional process.

The transportation of frozen dough and the storage in the retail bakeries constitute a

20 crucial point for keeping the quality of the product. The temperature of the frozen dough

should be kept constant without temperature fluctuations when the product is transferred

from the freezer to the truck and then to the bakery.(109)

15
 Thawing and baking

Frozen dough should be thawed and fermented before baking. Proofing of thawed dough

should be performed as in the conventional practices; the unique difference is that the

4 relative humidity of the proofing cabined should be reduced to 75% for the thawed

doughs, otherwise condensation spots could appear on the surface bringing dark spots in

the baked breads. Thawed dough should not be sheeted and molding before proofing

because the reduction in the fermentative capacity and the softening of the gluten

8 network are irreversible.(103)

Bread loaves from frozen dough have lower volume than the ones from straight process,

and their crumb firmness increases with the time of frozen storage.(23) In addition, their

crumb is characterized by thick network walls and a thick crust with a rough surface;(65)

12 moreover crumbs have large pores with a non-uniform distribution.(113) Those breads

also show high staling rate due to a decrease of loaf volume and a disruption of the

protein structure.(111,114) However, it is possible to improve the quality of those loaves

adding gluten, emulsifiers and hydrocolloids.(23)

16

PARTIALLY BAKED BREAD

Frozen dough still has several requirements related to wheat flour quality, freezing and

thawing conditions and thawed dough handling.(7) Because of that the market is moving

20 from frozen dough to partially baked bread (part-baked, par baked bread or pre baked

bread) (Table 2). This product was initially developed for improving the bread

quality.(115-117) Bread from partially baked is made following the conventional process,

with the exception of baking. The partial baking or interrupted baking method consists

24 in baking the bread dough till the structure is fixed; thus the partially baked bread has

the crumb structure of the baked bread without a crunchy crust. In the retail bakery the

16
 partially baked bread is only baked for a very short time. The market of the partially

baked bread is rapidly growing because the product is already sized, shaped and

partially baked, reducing the preparation of the baked bread.

Several studies have been conducted for determining the effect of the proving

conditions(118), the optima time and temperature for partially baking,(115,119-122), and also

the chilling condition after partial baking and the freezing condition on the partially

8 baked bread.(118) Short prebaking times at high temperatures leads to more open

structure of the crumb.(115,123) In general, the optimum prebaking time is approximately

two thirds of the time required for full baking.(121) High steam is recommended for

improving the crust.(117) One of the quality problems of the fresh bread obtained from

12 partially baked bread is the crust flaking resulting from the detachment of some part of

the crust.(124) This phenomenon has been ascribed to two different processes: the

concentration of water ice under the crust due to the presence of the freezing front and

the interface differences between the crust and crumb associated to the tensile forces and

16 stresses induced by the thermomechanical shock.(124) Le Bail et al (118)

reported that

chilling conditions after partial baking are the most determinant parameter on the crust

flaking followed by the proving conditions. In general high air humidity during those

processes tends to reduce the crust flaking.

20 Partially baked bread has a very short shelf life due to the absence of crust and its high

moisture content,(123,125) which increase the susceptibility to microbial growth. In fact, it

has been described the growth of spoilage bacteria such as Bacillus strains.(126) Different

approaches have been proposed for extending the shelf life of the partially baked breads.

24 The package either in a modified atmosphere containing 40% CO2 and 60% N2,(127) or in

polyethylene-polyamide-polyethylene vinyl alcohol bags containing 70% CO2,(128)

17
 considerably prolongs the shelf life of partially baked bread. Even the use of low

temperatures (2-6°C) have been successfully used for extending the shelf life of the

partially baked bread till ten days.(85,129) However the most extended practice is to keep

4 the partially baked bread frozen during the storage period up to its final baking. The

hygienic conditions in the bakeries should be carefully controlled, because, although the

microorganisms do not grow at frozen temperatures, the final baking is not sufficient to

inactivate microorganisms, particularly B. licheniformis spores.(126)

Bread obtained by the partially baking process has sensory and textural properties close

to those of the bread obtained by a conventional method,(119,121) although crumb

hardness increase with the time of frozen storage.(130)

12

Concerning the staling behaviour during storage, it should be distinguished between the

storage of partially baked bread and the bread after rebaking. Barcenas et al (130) did not

detect retrogradation of amylopectin during frozen storage of partially baked bread.

16 Nevertheless, when analyzing the aging of the rebaked samples, the time of frozen

storage produces a progressive increase of the retrogradation temperature range of the

amylopectin, and also great energy is required for amylopectin melting at longer storage

period, indicating that structural changes of amylopectin are produced during frozen

20 storage. Crumb hardness results of the fresh bread and also DSC studies indicate that

some changes are produced during the frozen storage. Hence, freezing-thawing cycles

produce dramatic effects on the bread properties even in the case of partially baked

bread which has already fixed the crumb structure.(130) Nonetheless, the crumb hardness

24 could be reduced by modifying the bread formulation, for instance the use of high

dosage of yeast, the addition of vegetal fats(131) or the addition of hydrocolloids.(92,129,132)

18
 It has been reported that hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) increases the specific

volume and the moisture retention of the bread from partially baked, moreover reduces

the crumb hardness and inhibits the effect of the frozen storage on the bread

4 staling.(85,92,129,132)

CONCLUSION

Frozen storage of bread dough or partially baked bread allows to have almost ready

8 products at any time of the day, and the retails should only give a special touch for

differentiating their products from the more commercial ones. From the previous

information it can be extracted that this market is still going to increase supported by the

improvement of these products quality and the development of new products based in

12 this technology. This change in the bakery market could be very advantageous in the

case of special breads, like gluten free bread or rich fiber bread. These type of products

are addressed to small groups and sometimes it is very difficult to find them in the

conventional bakeries, thus the use of frozen either dough or partially baked bread could

16 overcome those problems and provide a wide range of products.

REFERENCES

1. Hebeda, R. E., Bowles, L. K., Teague, W. M. Developments in enzymes for

20 retarding staling of baked goods. Cereal Foods World, 1990, 35, 453-457.
2. Pence, J. W., Standridge, N. N., Lubisich, T. M., Mecham, D. K., Olcott, H. S.
Studies on the preservation of bread by freezing. Food Technol., 1955, October,
495-499.
24 3. Pence, J. W., Standridge, N. N., Mecham, D. K., Lubisich, T. M., Olcott, H. S.
Moisture distribution in fresh, frozen, and frozen-defrosted bread. Food Technol.,
1956, February, 76-79.
4. Gajderowicz, L. J. Progress in the refrigerated dough industry. Cereal Foods World,
28 1979, 24, 44-45.

19
 5. Giannou, V., Kessoglou, V., Tzia, C. Quality and safety characteristics of bread
made from frozen dough. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 2003, 14, 99-108.
6. Vetter, J. L. Frozen unbaked bread dough: past, present, future. Cereal Foods World,
4 1979, 24, 42-43.
7. Bhattacharya, M., Langstaff, T. M., Berzonsky, W. A. Effect of frozen storage and
freeze-thaw cycles on the rheological and baking properties of frozen doughs. Food
Res. Int., 2003, 36, 365-372.
8 8. Lu, W., Grant, L. A. Effects of prolonged storage at freezing temperatures on starch
and baking quality of frozen doughs. Cereal Chem., 1999, 76, 656-662.
9. Boehm, D. J., Berzonsky, W. A., Bhattacharya, M. Influence of nitrogen fertilizer
treatments on spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour characteristics and effect on
12 fresh and frozen dough quality. Cereal Chem., 2004, 81, 51-54.
10. Gélinas, P., McKinnon, C.M., Lukow, O.M., Townley-Smith, F. Rapid evaluation of
frozen and fresh dough involving stress conditions. Cereal Chem., 1996, 73, 767-
769.
16 11. Perron, C.E., Lukow, O.M., Bushuk, W., Townley-Smith, F. The blending potential
of diverse wheat cultivars in a frozen dough system. Cereal Foods World, 1999, 44,
667-672.
12. Inoue, Y., Bushuk, W. Studies on frozen doughs. II. Flour quality requirements for
20 bread production from frozen dough. Cereal Chem., 1992, 69, 423-428.
13. Lu, W., Grant, L. A. Role of flour fractions in breadmaking quality of frozen dough.
Cereal Chem., 1999, 76, 663-667.
14. Varriano-Marston, E., Hsu, K.H., Mahdi, J. Rheological and structural changes in
24 frozen dough. Bakers Digest, 1980, 54 (1), 32-35.
15. Berglund, P. T., Shelton, D. R., Freeman T. P. Frozen bread dough ultrastructure as
affected by duration of frozen storage and freeze-thaw cycles. Cereal Chem., 1991,
68, 105-107.
28 16. Ribotta, P. D., Pérez, G. T., León, A. E., Añón, M. C. Effect of emulsifier and guar
gum on microstructural, rheological and baking performance of frozen bread dough.
Food Hydrocolloids, 2004, 18, 305-313.
17. Esselink, E. F. J., Van Aalst, H., Maliepaard, M., Van Duynhoven, J. P. M. Long-
32 term storage effect in frozen dough spectroscopy and microscopy. Cereal Chem.,
2003, 80, 396-403.

20
 18. Inoue, Y., Bushuk, W. Studies on frozen doughs. I. Effects of frozen storage and
freeze-thaw cycles on baking and rheological properties. Cereal Chem., 1991, 68,
627-631.
4 19. Inoue, Y., Sapirstein, H. D., Takayanagi, S., Bushuk, W. Studies on frozen doughs.
III. Some factors involved in dough weakening during frozen storage and thaw-
freeze cycles. Cereal Chem., 1994, 71, 118-121.
20. Ribotta, P. D., León, A. E., Añón, M. C. Effect of yeast freezing in frozen dough.
8 Cereal Chem., 2003, 80, 454-458.
21. Dasappa, I., Pichan, P., Jyotsna, R., Venkateswara-Rao, G. Effect of storage on the
rheological and parotta-making characteristics of frozen parotta dough. Eur. Food
Res. Technol., 2002, 215, 484-488.
12 22. Kenny, S., Wehrle, K., Dennehy, T., Arendt, E. K. Correlations between empirical
and fundamental rheology measurements and baking performance of frozen bread
dough. Cereal Chem., 1999, 76, 421-425.
23. Ribotta, P. D., León, A. E., Añón, M. C. Effect of freezing and frozen storage of
16 doughs on bread quality. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2001, 49, 913-918.
24. Holmes, J. T., Hoseney, R. C. Frozen doughs: Freezing and thawing rates. Cereal
Chem., 1987, 64, 348-351.
25. Havet, M., Mankai, M., Le Bail, A. Influence of the freezing condition on the baking
20 performances of French frozen dough. J. Food Eng., 2000, 45, 139-145.
26. Seguchi, M., Nikaidoo, S., Morimoto, N. Centrifuged liquid and breadmaking
properties of frozen-and-thawed bread dough. Cereal Chem., 2003, 80, 264-268.
27. Sharadanant, R., Khan, K. Effect of hydrophilic gums on the quality of frozen
24 dough. I. Dough quality. Cereal Chem., 2003, 80, 764-772.
28. Sharadanant, R., Khan, K. Effect of hydrophilic gums on the quality of frozen
dough. II. Bread characteristics. Cereal Chem., 2003, 80, 773-780.
29. Rasanen, J., Blanshard, J. V. M., Siitari-Kauppi, M., Autio, K. Water distribution in
28 frozen lean wheat doughs. Cereal Chem., 1997, 74-806-813.
30. Rasanen, J., Blanshard, J. M. V., Mitchell, J. R., Derbyshire, W., Autio, K.
Properties of frozen wheat doughs at subzero temperatures. J. Cereal Sci., 1998, 28,
1-14.
32 31. Tanghe, A., Teunissen, A., Van Dijck, P., Thevelein, J. M. Identification of genes
responsible for improved cryoresistance in fermenting yeast cells. Int. J. Food
Microbiol., 2000, 55, 259-262.

21
 32. Hino, A., Takano, H, Tanaka, Y. New freeze-tolerant yeast for frozen dough
preparations. Cereal Chem., 1987, 64, 269-275.
33. Matsutani, K., Fukuda, Y., Murata, K., Kimura, A., Nakamura, I., Yajima, N.
4 Physical and biochemical properties of freeze-tolerant mutants of a yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Ferm. Bioeng., 1990, 70, 275-276.
34. Jackel, S. S. Frozen dough opportunities keep heating up. Cereal Foods World,
1991, 36, 529.
8 35. Neyreneuf, O., Van Der Plaat, J. B. Preparation of frozen French bread dough with
improved stability. Cereal Chem., 1991, 68, 60-66.
36. Takano, H., Ishida, N., Koizumi, M., Kano, H. Imaging of the fermentation process
of bread dough and the grain structure of baked breads by magnetic resonance
12 imaging. J. Food Sci., 2002, 67, 244-250.
37. Oda, Y., Uno, K., Otha, S. Selection of yeasts for breadmaking by the frozen-dough
method. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Rev., 1986, 52, 941-943.
38. Manzoni, M., Popoli, A., Cavazzoni, V. Effect of freezing on some Saccharomyces
16 cerevisiae strains for breadmaking. Microbiol. Alim. Nutr., 1995, 13, 141-148.
39. Gélinas, P., Fiset, G., Willemot, C., Goulet, J. Lipid content and cryotolerance of
bakers' yeast in frozen dough. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1991, 57, 463-468.
40. Murakami, Y., Yokoigawa, K., Kawai, H. Lipid composition of a freeze-tolerant
20 yeast, Torulaspora delbureckii, and its freeze-sensitive mutant. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol., 1995, 44, 167-171.
41. Murakami, Y., Yokoigawa, K., Kawai, F., Kawai, H. Lipid composition of
commercial bakers' yeasts having different freeze-tolerance in frozen dough. Biosci.
24 Biotechnol. Biochem., 1996, 60, 1874-1876.
42. Takagi, H., Iwamoto, F., Nakamori, S. Isolation of freeze-tolerant laboratory strains
of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from proline-analogue resistant mutants. Appl.
Microbiol. Biotechnol., 1997, 47, 405-411.
28 43. Shima, J., Sakat-Tsuda, Y., Suzuki, Y., Nakajima, R., Watanabe, H., Kawamoto, S.,
Takano, H. Disruption of the CAR1 gene encoding arginase enhances freeze
tolerance of the commercial baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 2003, 69, 715-718.
32 44. Terao, Y., Nakamori, S., Takagi, H. Gene dosage effect of L-proline biosynthetic
enzymes on L-proline accumulation and freeze tolerance in Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2003, 69, 6527-6532.

22
 45. Morita, Y., Nakamori, S., Takagi, H. L-proline accumulation and freeze tolerance in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae are caused by a mutation in the PRO1 gene encoding
gamma-glutamyl kinase. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2003, 69, 212-219.
4 46. Gélinas, P., Fiset, G., LeDuy, A., Goulet, J. Effect of growth conditions and
trehalose content on cryotolerance of bakers' yeast in frozen doughs. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 1989, 55, 2453-2459.
47. Hino, A., Mihara, K., Nakashima, K. Takano, H. Trehalose levels and survival ratio
8 of freeze-tolerant versus freeze-sensitive yeasts. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1990,
56, 1386-1391.
48. Shima, J., Hino, A., Yamada-Iyo, C., Suzuki, Y., Nakajima, R., Watanabe, H., Mori,
K., Takano, H. Stress tolerance in doughs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae trehalase
12 mutants derived from commercial baker's yeast. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1999,
65, 2841-2846.
49. Shima, J., Suzuki, Y., Nakajima, R., Watanabe, H., Mori, K., Takano, H. Breeding
of freeze tolerant baker’s yeast by regulation of trehalose metabolism. Jpn Agric.
16 Res. Q., 2000, 34, 257-260.
50. Hirasawa, R., Yokoigawa, K., Isobe, Y., Kawai, H. Improving the freeze tolerance
of bakers' yeast by loading with trehalose. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 2001, 65,
522-526.
20 51. Salas-Mellado, M. M., Chang, Y. K. Effect of formulation on the quality of frozen
bread dough. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol., 2003, 46, 461-468.
52. Meric, L., Lambert-Guilois, S., Neyreneuf, O., Richard-Molard, D. Cryoresistance
of baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in frozen dough: contribution of cellular
24 trehalose. Cereal Chem., 1995, 72, 609-615.
53. Versele, M., Thevelein, J. M., Van Dijck, O. The high general stress resístanse of the
Saccharomyces cerevisiae fill adenylate cyclase mutant (CyrI(Lys1682)) is only
partially dependent on trehalose, Hsp104 and overexpression of Msn2/4-regulated
28 genes. Yeast, 2004, 21, 75-86.
54. Báguena, R., Soriano, M. D., Martínez-Anaya, M. A., Barber, C. B. Viability and
performance of pure yeast strains in frozen wheat dough. J. Food Sci., 1991, 56,
1690-1694, 1698.
32 55. Murakami, Y., Young-Sook, H., Yokoigawa, K., Endo, K., Kawai, H. Induction of
freeze-sensitive mutants from a freeze-tolerant yeast, Torulaspora delbrueckii.
Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 1994, 58, 206-207.

23
 56. Yokoigawa, K., Murakami, Y., Kawai, H. Trehalase activity and trehalose content in
a freeze-tolerant yeast, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and its freeze-sensitive mutant.
Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 1995, 59, 2143-2145.
4 57. Almeida, M. J., País, C. Leavening ability and freeze tolerance of yeasts isolated
from traditional corn and rye bread doughs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1996, 62,
4401-4404.
58. Honjoh, K., Oda, Y., Takata, R., Miyamoto, T., Hatano, S. Introduction of the hiC6
8 gene, which encodes a homologue of a late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein,
enhances freezing tolerance of yeast. J. Plant Physiol., 1999, 155, 509-512.
59. Van Dijck, P., Gorwa, M. F., Lemaire, K., Teunissen, A., Versele, M., Colombo, S.,
Dumortier, F., Pingsheng M., Tanghe, A., Loiez, A., Thevelein, J. M.
12 Characterization of a new set of mutants deficient in fermentation-induced loss of
stress resistance for use in frozen dough applications. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 2000,
55, 187-192.
60. Teunissen, A., Dumortier, F., Gorwa, M. F., Bauer, J., Tanghe, A., Loïez, A., Smet,
16 P., Van Dijck, P., Thevelein, J. M. Isolation and characterization of a freeze-tolerant
diploid derivative of an industrial baker’s yeast strain and its use in frozen doughs.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2002, 68, 4780-4787.
61. Codón, A. C., Rincón, A. M., Moreno-Mateos, M. A., Delgado-Jarana, J., Rey, M.,
20 Limón, C., Rosado, I. V., Cubero, B., Penate, X., Castrejón, F., Benítez, T. New
Saccharomyces cerevisiae baker's yeast displaying enhanced resistance to freezing.
J. Agric. Food Chem., 2003, 51, 483-491.
62. Gélinas, P., Lagimonière, M., Dubord, C. Baker's yeast sampling and frozen dough
24 stability. Cereal Chem., 1993, 70, 219-255.
63. Stecchini, M. L., Maltini, E., Venir, E., Del Torre, M., Prospero, L. Properties of
wheat dough at sub-zero temperatures and freeze tolerance of a baker's yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae). J. Food Sci., 2002, 67, 2196-2201.
28 64. Autio, K., Sinda, E. Frozen doughs: Rheological changes and yeast viability. Cereal
Chem., 1992, 69, 409-413.
65. Takano, H., Naito, S., Ishida, N., Koizumi, M., Kano, H. Fermentation process and
grain structure of baked breads from frozen dough using freeze-tolerant yeasts. J.
32 Food Sci., 2002, 67, 2725-2733.

24
 66. Junge, R. C., Hoseney, R. C., Varriano-Marston, E. Effect of surfactants on air
incorporation in dough and the crumb grain of bread. Cereal Chem., 1981, 58, 338-
342.
4 67. Crowley, P., Grau, H., Arendt, E. K. Influence of additives and mixing time on
crumb grain characteristics of wheat bread. Cereal Chem., 2000, 77, 370-375.
68. Aibara, S., Nishimura, K., Esaki, K. Effects of shortening on the loaf volume of
frozen dough bread. Food Sci. Biotechnol., 2001, 10, 521-528.
8 69. Inoue, Y., Sapirstein, H. D., Bushuk, W. Studies on frozen doughs. IV. Effect of
shortening systems on baking and rheological properties. Cereal Chem., 1995, 72,
221-225, 228.
70. Wang, Z.J., Ponte, J.G. Jr. Storage stability of gluten-fortified frozen dough. Cereal
12 Foods World, 1995, 40, 827-831.
71. Wang, Z.J., Ponte, J.G. Jr. Improving frozen dough qualities with the addition of
vital wheat gluten. Cereal Foods World, 1994, 39, 500-503.
72. Kenny, S., Wehrle, K., Auty, M., Arendt, E. K. Influence of sodium caseinate and
16 whey protein on baking properties and rheology of frozen dough. Cereal Chem.,
2001, 78, 458-463.
73. Hosomi, K., Nishio, K., Matsumoto, H. Studies on frozen dough baking. I. Effects of
egg yolk and sugar ester. Cereal Chem., 1992, 69, 89-92.
20 74. Gómez, M., del Real, S., Rosell, C. M., Ronda, F., Blanco, C.A., Caballero, P.A.
Functionality of different emulsifiers on the performance of breadmaking and wheat
bread quality. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 2004, 219, 145-150.
75. Stampfli, L., Nersten, B. Emulsifiers in bread making. Food Chem., 1995, 52, 352-
24 363.
76. Stauffer, C. E. Functional additives for bakery foods. Chapman & Hall. London.
1990.

77. Sahlstrφ m, S., Nielsen, A. O., Faergestad, E. M., Lea, P., Park, W. J., Ellekjaer, M.

28 R. Effect of dough processing conditions and DATEM on Norwegian hearth bread

prepared from frozen dough. Cereal Chem., 1999, 76, 38-44.
78. Abd-El-Hady, E. A., El-Samahy, S. K., Brümmer, J. M. Effect of oxidants, sodium-
stearoyl-2-lactylate and their mixtures on rheological and baking properties of
32 nonprefermented frozen doughs. Food Sci. Technol., 1999, 32, 446-454.

25
 79. Díez-Poza, O. Transglutaminase in baking applications. Cereal Foods World, 2002,
47, 93-95.
80. Gerrard, J. A., Newberry, M. P., Ross, M., Wilson, A. J., Fayle, S. E., Kavale, S.
4 Pastry lift and croissant volume as affected by microbial transglutaminase. J. Food
Sci., 2000, 65, 312-314.
81. Hozova, B., Kukurova, I., Dodok, L. Application of transglutaminase and
Fermizyme for sensory quality improvement of pastry. Nahrung/Food, 2003, 47,
8 171-175.
82. Sanderson, G. R. Gums and their use in food systems. Food Technol., 1996, 50, 81-
84.
83. Rosell, C. M., Rojas, J. A., Benedito, C. Influence of hydrocolloids on dough
12 rheology and bread quality. Food Hydrocolloids, 2001, 15, 75-81.
84. Bárcenas, M. E., Rosell, C. M. Effect of HPMC addition on the microstructure,
quality and aging of wheat bread. Food Hydrocolloids, 2005, 19, 1037-1043.
85. Bárcenas, M. E., Rosell, C. M. Different approaches for increasing the shelf life of
16 partially baked bread: low temperatures and hydrocolloid addition. Food Chem.,
2007, 100, 1594-1601.
86. Davidou, S., Le Meste, M., Debever, E., Becaert, D. A contribution to the study of
staling of white bread: effect of water and hydrocolloid. Food Hydrocolloids, 1996,
20 10, 375-383.
87. Schiraldi, A., Piazza, L., Brenna, O., Vittadini, E. Structure and properties of bread
dough and crumb: calorimetric, rheological and mechanical investigations on the
effects produced by hydrocolloids, pentosans and soluble proteins. J. Therm. Anal.,
24 1996, 47, 1339-1360.
88. Guarda, A., Rosell, C. M., Benedito, C., Galotto, M. J. Different hydrocolloids as
bread improvers and antistaling agents. Food Hydrocolloids, 2004, 18, 241-247.
89. Rojas, J. A., Rosell, C. M., Benedito, C. Pasting properties of different wheat flour-
28 hydrocolloid systems. Food Hydrocolloids, 1999, 13, 27-33
90. Collar, C., Martínez, J. C., Rosell, C. M. Lipid binding of fresh and stored
formulated wheat breads. Relationships with dough and bread technological
performance. Food Sci. Technol. Int., 2001, 7, 501-510.
32 91. Armero, E., Collar, C. Antistaling effects on fresh wheat bread quality. Food Sci.
Technol. Int., 1996, 2, 323-333.

26
 92. Bárcenas, M. E., Haros, M., Rosell, C. M. An approach to study the effect of
different bread improvers on the staling of prebaked frozen bread. Eur. Food Res.
Technol., 2003, 218, 56-61.
4 93. Collar, C., Andreu, P., Martínez, J. C., Armero, E. Optimization of hydrocolloid
addition to improve wheat bread dough functionality: a response surface
methodology study. Food Hydrocolloids, 1999, 13, 467-475.
94. Rosell, C. M., Rojas, J. A., Benedito, C. Combined effect of different antistaling
8 agents on the pasting properties of wheat flour. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 2001, 212,
473-476.
95. Rosell CM, Collar C, Haros M. Assessment of hydrocolloid effects on the thermo-
mechanical properties of wheat using the Mixolab. Food Hydrocolloids, 2007, 21,
12 452-462.
96. Rosell, C. M., Foegeding, A. Interaction of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose with
gluten proteins: small deformation properties during thermal treatment. Food
Hydrocolloids. 2006. doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.08.003.
16 97. Nemeth, L. J., Paulley, F. G., Preston, K. R. Effects of ingredients and processing
conditions on the frozen dough bread quality of a Canada Western Red Spring wheat
flour during prolonged storage. Food Res. Int., 1996, 29, 609-616.
98. Dubois, D. K., Blockcolsky, D. Frozen bread dough, effect of dough mixing and
20 thawing methods. Technical Bulletin of the American Institute of Baking, 1986, 8,
1-7.
99. Rouille, J., Le Bail, A., Corcoux, P. Influence of formulation and mixing conditions
on breadmaking qualities of French frozen dough. J. Food Eng., 2000, 43, 197-203.
24 100. Zounis, S., Quail, K. J., Wootton, M., Dickson, M. R. Effect of final dough
temperature on the microstructure of frozen bread dough. J. Cereal Sci., 2002, 36,
135-146.
101. Kenny, S., Grau, H., Arendt, E. K. Use of response surface methodology to
28 investigate the effects of processing conditions on frozen dough quality and stability.
Eur. Food Res. Technol., 2001, 213, 323-328.
102. Neyreneuf, O., Delpuech, B. Freezing experiments on yeasted dough slabs.
Effects of cryogenic temperatures on the baking performance. Cereal Chem., 1993,
32 70, 109-111.
103. Stauffer, C. E. Frozen dough production. In: Kamel, B.S. & Stauffer, C.E.
Advances in baking technology. VCH. New York, 1993.

27
 104. El-Hady, E. A., El-Samahy, S. K., Seibel, W., Brümmer, J. M. Changes in gas
production and retention in non-prefermented frozen wheat doughs. Cereal Chem.,
1996, 73, 472-477.
4 105. Autio, K., Laurikainen, T. Relationship between flour/dough microstructure and
dough handling and baking properties. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 1997, 8, 181-185.
106. Do-Hyung K., Bong-Kyung, K. Freezing and fermentation curves of the dough
frozen at the different freezing condition. Food Sci. Biotechnol., 2002, 11, 99-104.
8 107. Gélinas, P., Deaudelin, I., Grenier, M. Frozen dough: effects of dough shape,
water content, and sheeting-molding conditions. Cereal Foods World, 1995, 40, 124-
126.
108. Lehmann, T.A., Dreese, P. Stability of frozen doughs. I. Effects of freezing
12 temperatures. Tech Bull Am Inst Baking, 1981, 3, 1-5.
109. Zounis, S., Quail, K. J., Wootton, M., Dickson, M. R. Studying frozen dough
structure using low-temperature scanning electron microscopy. J. Cereal Sci., 2002,
35, 135-147.
16 110. Le Bail, A., Grinand, C., Le Cleach, S., Martinez, S., Quilin, E. Influence of
storage conditions on frozen French bread dough. J. Food Eng., 1999, 39, 289-291.
111. Berglund, P. T., Shelton, D. R. Effect of frozen storage duration in firming
properties of breads baked from frozen doughs. Cereal Foods World, 1993, 38, 89-
20 90, 92-93.
112. Ribotta, P. D., León, A. E., Añón, M. C. Effect of freezing and frozen storage on
the gelatinization and retrogradation of amylopectin in dough baked in a differential
scanning calorimeter. Food Res. Int., 2003, 36, 357-363.
24 113. Ishida, N., Takano, H., Naito, S., Isobe, S., Uemura, k., Haishi, T., Kosse, K.,
Koizumi, M., Kano, H. Architecture of baked breads depicted by a magnetic
resonance imaging. Magn. Reson. Imaging, 2001, 19, 867-874.
114. Yamauchi, H., Ichinose, Y., Takata, K., Iriki, N., Shiiina, T., Kobayashi, T. A
28 kinetic study on staling of white bread made by frozen dough method. J. Jpn. Soc.
Food Sci., 1999, 46, 212-219.
115. Stephan, H. Influence of pre-baking on bread quality. Getreide Mehl und Brot,
31(4), 1977, 100-102.
32 116. Labutina, N. V., Puchkova, L. I., Gubiev, Y., Ilyasov, S. G., Kats, A. M.
Khlebopekarnaya Konditerskaya Promyshlennost, 1981, 8, 27-28.

28
 117. Morgenstern, G. Interrupted baking method for crusty rolls. Getreide Mehl und
Brot, 1985, 39(2), 46-49.
118. Le Bail, A., Monteau, J. Y., Margerie, F., Lucas, T., Chargelegue, A., Reverdy,
4 Y. Impact of selected process parameters on crust flaking of frozen part baked bread.
J. Food Eng., 2005, 69, 503-509.
119. Ferreira, P. B. M., Watanabe, E., Benassi, V. T. Study of the production process
for pre-baked French type bread. Braz. J. Food Technol., 1999, 2, 91-95.
8 120. Unbehend, G., Neumann, H. Production of prebaked, deep frozen wheat rolls to
finish at home. Getreide Mehl und Brot, 2000, 54, 110-120.
121. Fik, M., Surowka, K. Effect of prebaking and frozen storage on the sensory
quality and instrumental texture of bread. J. Sci. Food Agric., 2002, 82, 1268-1275.
12 122. Bárcenas, M. E., Rosell, C. M. Effect of frozen storage time on the quality and
aging of par-baked bread. Food Chem., 2006, 95, 438-445.
123. Bonnardel, P., Maitre, H. Baking technique in production of partly-baked French
bread. Ind Cereales, 1988, 51, 31-37.
16 124. Lucas, T., Quellec, S., Le Bail, A., Davenel, A. Chilling and freezing of part-
baked breads. II. Experimental assessment of water phase changes and of structure
collapse. J. Food Eng., 2005, 70, 151-164.
125. Leuschner, R. G. K, O'Callaghan, M. J. A, Arendt, E. K. Optimization of baking
20 parameters of part-baked and rebaked Irish brown soda bread by evaluation of some
quality characteristics. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 1997, 32, 487-493.
126. Leuschner, R. G. K, O'Callaghan, M. J. A, Arendt, E. K. Bacilli spoilage in part-
baked and rebaked brown soda bread. J. Food Sci., 1998, 63, 915-918.
24 127. Leuschner, R. G. K, O'Callaghan, M. J. A, Arendt, E. K. Moisture distribution
and microbial quality of part baked breads as related to storage and rebaking
conditions. J. Food Sci., 1999, 64, 543-546.
128. Doulia, D., Katsinis, G., Mougin, B. Prolongation of the microbial shelf life of
28 wrapped part baked baguettes. Int. J. Food Prop., 2000, 3, 447-457.
129. Bárcenas, M. E., Rosell, C. M. Different approaches for improving the quality
and extending the shelf life of the partially baked bread: low temperatures and
HPMC addition. J. Food Eng., 2006, 72, 92-99.
32 130. Bárcenas, M. E., Haros, M., Benedito C., Rosell C. M. Effect of freezing and
frozen storage on the staling of part-baked bread. Food Res. Int., 2003, 36, 863-869.

29
 131. Carr, L. G., Tadini, C. C. Influence of yeast and vegetable shortening on physical
and textural parameters of frozen part baked French bread. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol., 2003, 36, 609-614.
4 132. Bárcenas, M. E., Benedito, C., Rosell, C. M. Use of hydrocolloids as bread
improvers in interrupted baking process with frozen storage. Food Hydrocolloids,
2004, 18, 769-774.
133. Vawser, M. J., Cornish, G. B. Over-expression of HMW glutenin subunit Glu-
8 B1 7x in hexaploid wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum). Aust. J. Agr. Res., 2004, 55,
577-588.
134. Oda, Y., Ouchi, K. Hybridization of bakers' yeast by the rare-mating method to
improve leavening ability in dough. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 1990, 12, 989-993.
12 135. Hahn, Y. S., Kawai, H. Isolation and characterization of freeze-tolerant yeasts
from nature available for the frozen-dough method. Agric. Biol. Chem., 1990, 54,
829-831.
136. Hahn, Y.-S., Kawai, H. Screening of freeze-tolerant yeasts and their bread dough
16 fermentative properties. J. Home Econ. Jpn., 1990, 41, 115-121.
137. Oda, Y., Tonomura, K. A selection of a novel baking strain from the Torulaspora
yeasts. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 1993, 57, 1320-1322.
138. Nakagawa, S., Ouchi, K. Improvement of freeze tolerance of commercial bakers
20 yeasts in dough by heat treatment before freezing. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem.,
1994, 58, 2077-2079.
139. Myers, D. K., Attfield, P. V. Intracellular concentration of exogenous glycerol in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae provides for improved leavening of frozen sweet doughs.
24 Food Microbiol., 1999, 16, 45-51.
140. Rodríguez-Vargas, S., Estruch, F., Rández-Gil, F. Gene expression analysis of
cold and freeze stress in baker’s yeast. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2002, 68, 3024-
3030.
28 141. Tanghe, A., Van Dijck, P., Dumortier, F., Teunissen, A., Hohmann, S.,
Thevelein, J. A. Aquaporin expression correlates with freeze tolerance in baker's
yeast, and overexpression improves freeze tolerance in industrial strains.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2002, 68, 5981-5989.
32 142. Tanghe, A., Van Dijck, P. L., Thevelein, J. M. Determinants of freeze tolerance
in microorganisms, physiological importance, and biotechnological applications.
Adv. Appl. Microbiol., 2003, 53, 129-176.

30
 143. Tanghe, A., Van Dijck, P., Colavizza, D., Thevelein, J. M. Aquaporin mediated
improvement of freeze tolerance of Sccharomyces cerevisiae is restricted to rapid
freezing conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2004, 70, 3377-3382.
4 144. Izawa, S., Ikeda, K., Maeta, K., Inoue, Y. Deficiency in the glycerol channel
Fps1p confers increased freeze tolerance to yeast cells: application of the fps1 Delta
mutant to frozen dough technology. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2004, 66, 303-
305.
8 145. Izawa, S., Sato, M., Yokoigawa, K., Inoue, Y. Intracellular glycerol influences
resistance to freeze stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: analysis of a quadruple
mutant in clycerol dehydrogenase genes and glycerol-enriched cells. Appl.
Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2004, 66, 108-114.
12 146. Du, X. Y., Takagi, H. N-acetyltransferase Mpr1 confers freeze tolerance on
Saccharomyces cerevisiae by reducing reactive oxygen species. J. Biochem., 2005,
138, 391-397.
147. Panadero, J., Rández-Gil, F., Prieto, J.A. Heterologous expression of type I
16 antifreeze peptide GS-5 in baker's yeast increases freeze tolerance and provides
enhanced gas production in frozen dough. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2005, 53, 9966-
9970.
148. Hino, A., Wongkhalaung, C., Kawai, S., Murao, S., Yano, K., Takano, H.,
20 Takagi, M. Construction of a genetic-transformation system for a freeze-tolerant
yeast Kluyveromyces-thermotolerans. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 1992, 56, 228-
232.
149. Lewis, J. G., Learmonth, R. P., Watson, K. Role of growth phase and ethanol in
24 freeze-thaw stress resistance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 1993, 59, 1065-1071.
150. Gélinas, P., Toupin, C. J., Fiset, G., Goulet, J., McGann, L. E. Yeast cell water
permeability and freeze thaw resistance in frozen dough. Cryobiol., 1987, 24, 546.
28 151. Hatano, S., Udou, M., Koga, N., Honjoh, K., Miyamoto, T. Impairment of the
glycolytic system and actin in baker's yeast during frozen storage. Biosci.
Biotechnol. Biochem., 1996, 60, 61-64.
152. Nishida, O., Kuwazaki, S., Suzuki, C., Shima, J. Superior molasses assimilation,
32 stress tolerance, and trehalose accumulation of baker’s yeast isolated from dried
sweet potatoes (hoshi-imo). Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 2004, 68, 1442-1448.

31
 153. Wren, R. Supergluten 80 in frozen bread and roll doughs. Cereal Foods World,
1977, 22, 459-459.
154. Berglund, P. T., Shelton, D. R., Asp E. H. Effect of gluten supplementation on
4 frozen dough stability. Cereal Foods World, 1988, 33, 661-661.
155. Song, K. A., Koh, B. K. Effect of enzymatically hydrolyzed vital wheat gluten
on dough mixing and the baking properties of wheat flour frozen dough. Food Sci.
Biotechnol., 2006, 15, 173-176.
8 156. Ribotta, P., Le Bail, A. Effect of additives on the thermo-mechanical behaviour
of dough systems at sub-freezing temperatures. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 2007, 224,
519-524.
157. Matuda, T. G. Influence of vegetable shortening and emulsifiers on the unfrozen
12 water content and textural properties of frozen French bread dough. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol., 2005, 38, 275-280.
158. Ando, M., Hitokoto, S., Arafune, Y. Studies on frozen dough method. 1. Effects
of dough expansion rate before freezing on roughness of bread crust. J. Jpn. Soc.
16 Food Sci., 1996, 43, 812-820.
159. Bruinsma, B. L., Giesenschlag, J. Frozen Dough performance. Compressed
yeast-Instant dry yeast. Bakers Digest, 1984, 58, 6-10.
160. Hsu, K. H., Hoseney, R. C., Seib, P. A. Frozen dough. I. Factors affecting
20 stability of yeasted doughs. Cereal Chem., 1979, 56, 419-424.
161. Hsu, K. H., Hoseney, R. C., Seib, P. A. Frozen dough. II. Effects of freezing and
storing conditions on the stability of yeasted doughs. Cereal Chem., 1979, 56, 424-
426.
24 162. Wolt, M. J., D’Appolonia, B. L. Factors involved in the stability of frozen
dough. II. The effects of yeast type, flour type and dough additives on frozen
stability. Cereal Chem., 1984, 61, 213-221.
163. Wolt, M. J., D’Appolonia, B. L. Factors involved in the stability of frozen
28 dough. I. The influence of yeast reducing compounds on frozen dough stability.
Cereal Chem., 1984, 61, 209-212.
164. Berglund, P. T., Shelton, D. R., Freeman T. P. Comparison of 2 sample
preparation procedures for low-temperature scanning electron-microscopy of frozen
32 bread dough. Cereal Chem., 1990, 67, 139-140.
165. Baier-Schenk, A., Handschin, S., von Schonau, M., Bittermann. A. G., Bachi, T.,
Conde-Petit, B. In situ observation of the freezing process in wheat dough by

32
 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM): Formation of ice and changes in the
gluten network. J. Cereal Sci., 2005, 42, 255-260.
166. Baier-Schenk, A., Handschin, S., Conde-Petit, B. Ice in prefermented frozen
4 bread dough - An investigation based on calorimetry and microscopy. Cereal Chem.,
2005, 82, 251-255.
167. Sharadanant, R., Khan, K. Effect of hydrophilic gums on the quality of frozen
dough: Electron microscopy protein solubility, and electrophoresis studies. Cereal
8 Chem., 2006, 83, 411-417.
168. Hamdami, N., Monteau, J. Y., Le Bail, A. Heat and mass transfer in par-baked
bread during freezing. Food Res. Int., 2004, 37, 477-488.
169. Vulicevic, I. R., Abdel-Aal, E. S. M., Mittal, G. S., Lu, X. Quality and storage
12 life of par-baked frozen breads. LWT-Food Sci. Technol., 2004, 37, 205-213.

33
Table 1. Overview of the research performed in the development of frozen doughs.

Formulation (51,97,99)

Flour (7,8,9,12,13,133)

Yeast Selection (31,42,43,44,45,49,55,60,61,134,135,

136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,14
4,145,146,147,148,149)
Stability (48,52,54,57,62,102,150,151,152)

Other ingredients Gluten (51,70,71,153,154,155)

Egg and sugars (73)
Milk derivates (72)

Additives Hydrocolloids (16,27,28,156)

Emulsifiers (22,77,157)
Shortenings (68,69,131)

Processing Make up (99,100,101,104,107,158,159)

Freezing (25,112)
Frozen storage (7,13,17,18,20,63,110,111,160,161,1
62,163)
Thawing (19)
Dough structure (15,109,164,165,166)

Bread quality (23,28,167)

Safety (5)
Structure (65,113)
Staling (114)

34
Table 2. Overview of the research performed in the development of partially baked
breads.

Ingredients (131)

Additives (84,130,132)

Processing (117,118,119,120,121,123,124,125)

Partially baked storage (126,127,128,129,168,169)

Bread quality (85,92,125)

35
FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1. Trend of research manuscripts included in the Science Citation Index related
to frozen dough and partially baked bread.

36
 Figure 1

4
60
Number of papers
50 Frozen dough
Partially baked bread
40
30
20

10
0
0

6
97
96

98

99

00

00
-1
-1

-1

-1

-2

-2
45

71

81

91

01
61
19

19

19

19

19

20
Years

37

View publication stats