On The Value of Scepticism - Bertrand Russell
On The Value of Scepticism - Bertrand Russell
On The Value of Scepticism - Bertrand Russell
from The Will To Doubt
by Bertrand Russell
I wish to propose a doctrine which may, I fear, appear wildly paradoxical and subversive.
The doctrine in question is this: that it is undesirable to believe a proposition when
there is no ground whatever for supposing it true. I must, of course, admit that if such
an opinion became common it would completely transform our social life and our
political system; since both are at present faultless, this must weigh against it. I am also
aware (what is more serious) that it would tend to diminish the incomes of clairvoyants,
bookmakers, bishops, and others who live on the irrational hopes of those who have
done nothing to deserve good fortune here or hereafter. In spite of these grave
arguments, I maintain that a case can be made out of my paradox, and I shall try to set it
forth.
First of all, I wish to guard myself against being thought to take up an extreme position. I
am a British Whig, with a British love of compromise and moderation. A story is told of
Pyrrho, the founder of Pyrrhonism (which was the old name for scepticism). He
maintained that we never know enough to be sure that one course of action is wiser
than another. In his youth, when he was taking his constitutional one afternoon, he saw
his teacher in philosophy (from whom he had imbibed his principles) with his head stuck
in a ditch, unable to get out. After contemplating him for some time, he walked on,
maintaining that there was no
sufficient ground for thinking he would do any good by pulling the man out. Others, less
sceptical, effected a rescue, and blamed Pyrrho for his heartlessness. But his teacher,
true to his principles, praised him for his consistency. Now I do not advocate such heroic
scepticism as that. I am prepared to admit the ordinary beliefs of common sense, in
practice if not in theory. I am prepared to admit any well‐established result of science,
not as certainly true, but as sufficiently probable to afford a basis for rational action. If it
is announced that there is to be an eclipse of the moon on such‐and‐such a date, I think
it worth while to look and see whether it is taking place. Pyrrho would have thought
otherwise. On this ground, I feel justified in claiming that I advocate a middle position.
There are matters about which those who have investigated them are agreed; the dates
of eclipses may serve as an illustration. There are other matters about which experts are
not agreed. Even when the experts all agree, they may well be mistaken. Einstein's view
as to the magnitude of the deflection of light by gravitation would have been rejected
by all experts not many years ago, yet it proved to be right. Nevertheless the opinion of
experts, when it is unanimous, must be accepted by non‐experts as more likely to be
right than the opposite opinion. The scepticism that I advocate amounts only to this: (1)
that when the experts are agreed, the opposite opinion cannot be held to be certain; (2)
that when they are not agreed, no opinion can be regarded as certain by a non‐expert;
and (3) that when they all hold that no sufficient grounds for a positive opinion exist, the
ordinary man would do well to suspend his judgment.
These propositions may seem mild, yet, if accepted, they would absolutely revolutionize
human life.
The opinions for which people are willing to fight and persecute all belong to one of the
three classes which this scepticism condemns. When there are rational grounds for an
opinion, people are content to set them forth and wait for them to operate. In such
cases, people do not hold their opinions with passion; they hold them calmly, and set
forth their reasons quietly. The opinions that are held with passion are always those for
which no good ground exists; indeed the passion is the measure of the holder's lack of
rational conviction. Opinions in politics and religion are almost always held passionately.
Except in China, a man is thought a poor creature unless he has strong opinions on such
matters; people hate sceptics far more than they hate the passionate advocates of
opinions hostile to their own. It is thought that the claims of practical life demand
opinions on such questions, and that, if we became more rational, social existence
would be impossible. I believe the opposite of this, and will try to make it clear why I
have this belief.
Take the question of unemployment in the years after 1920. One party held that it was
due to the wickedness of trade unions, another that it was due to the confusion on the
Continent. A third party, while admitting that these causes played a part, attributed
most of the trouble to the policy of the Bank of England in trying to increase the value of
the pound sterling. This third party, I am given to understand, contained most of the
experts, but no one else. Politicians do not find any attractions in a view which does not
lend itself to party declamation, and ordinary mortals prefer views which attribute
misfortune to the machinations of their enemies. Consequently people fight for and
against quite irrelevant measures, while the few who have a rational opinion are not
listened to because they do not minister to any one's passions. To produce converts, it
would have been necessary to persuade people that the Bank of England is wicked. To
convert Labour, it would have been necessary to show that directors of the Bank of
England are hostile to trade unionism; to convert the Bishop of London, it would have
been necessary to show that they are "immoral." It would be thought to follow that
their views currency are mistaken.
Let us take another illustration. It is often said that socialism is contrary to human
nature, and this assertion is denied by socialists with the same heat with which it is
made by their opponents. The late Dr. Rivers, whose death cannot be sufficiently
deplored, discussed this question in a lecture at University College, published in his
posthumous book on Psychology and Politics. This is the only discussion of this topic
known to me that can lay claim to be scientific. It sets forth certain anthropological data
which show that socialism is not contrary to human nature in Melanesia; it then points
out that we do not know whether human nature is the same in Melanesia as in Europe;
and it concludes that the only way of finding out whether socialism is contrary to
European human nature is to try it. It is interesting that on the basis of this conclusion
he was willing to become a Labour candidate. But he would certainly not have added to
the heat and passion in which political controversies are usually enveloped.
I will now venture on a topic which people find even more difficulty in treating
dispassionately, namely marriage customs. The bulk of the population of every country
is persuaded that all marriage customs other than its own are immoral, and that those
who combat this view do so only in order to justify their awn loose lives. In India, the
remarriage of widows is traditionally regarded as a thing too horrible to contemplate. In
Catholic countries divorce is thought very wicked, but some failure of conjugal fidelity is
tolerated, at least in men. In America divorce is easy, but extra‐conjugal relations are
condemned with the utmost severity. Mohammedans believe in polygamy, which we
think degrading. All these differing opinions are held with extreme vehemence, and very
cruel persecutions are inflicted upon those who contravene them. Yet no one in any of
the various countries makes the slightest attempt to show that the custom of his own
country contributes more to human happiness than the custom of others.
When we open any scientific treatise on the subject, such as (for example)
Westermarck's History of Human Marriage, we find an atmosphere extraordinarily
different from that of popular prejudice. We find that every kind of custom has existed,
many of them such as we should have supposed repugnant to human nature. We think
we can understand polygamy, as a custom forced upon women by male oppressors. But
what are we to say of the Tibetan custom, according to which one woman has several
husbands? Yet travellers in Tibet assure us that family life there is at least as harmonious
as in Europe. A little of such reading must soon reduce any candid person to complete
scepticism, since there seem to be no data enabling us to say that one marriage custom
is better or worse than another. Almost all involve cruelty and intolerance towards
offenders against the local code, but otherwise they have nothing in common. It seems
that sin is geographical. From this conclusion, it is only a small step to the further
conclusion that the notion of "sin" is illusory, and that the cruelty habitually practiced in
punishing it is unnecessary. It is just this conclusion which is so unwelcome to many
minds, since the infliction of cruelty with a good conscience is a delight to moralists.
That is why they invented Hell.
Nationalism is of course an extreme example of fervent belief concerning doubtful
matters. I think it may be safely said that any scientific historian, writing now a history of
the Great War, is bound to make statements which, if made during the war, would have
exposed him to imprisonment in every one of the belligerent countries on both sides.
Again, with the exception of China, there is no country where people tolerate the truth
about themselves; at ordinary times the truth is only thought ill‐mannered, but in war‐
time it is thought criminal. Opposing systems of violent belief are built up, the falsehood
of which is evident from the fact that they are believed only by those who share the
same national bias. But the application of reason to these systems of belief is thought as
wicked as the application of reason to religious dogmas was formerly thought. When
people are challenged as to why scepticism in such matters should be wicked, the only
answer is that myths help to win wars, so that a rational nation would be killed rather
than kill. The view that there is something shameful in saving one's skin by wholesale
slander of foreigners is one which, so far as I know, has hitherto found no supporters
among professional moralists outside the ranks of Quakers. If it is suggested that a
rational nation would find ways of keeping out of wars altogether, the answer is usually
more abuse.
What would be the effect of a spread of rational scepticism? Human events spring from
passions, which generate systems of attendant myths. Psychoanalysts have studied the
individual manifestations of this process in lunatics, certified and uncertified. A man
who has suffered some humiliation invents a theory that he is King of England, and
develops all kinds of ingenious explanations of the fact that he is not treated with that
respect which his exalted position demands. In this case, his delusion is one with which
his neighbours do not sympathize, so they lock him up. But if, instead of asserting only
his own greatness, he asserts the greatness of his nation or his class or his creed, he
wins hosts of adherents, and becomes a political or religious leader, even if, to the
impartial outsider, his views seem just as absurd as those found in asylums. In this way a
collective insanity grows up, which follows laws very similar to those of individual
insanity. Every one knows that it is dangerous to depute with a lunatic who thinks he is
King of England; but as he is isolated, he can be overpowered. When a whole nation
shares a delusion, its anger is of the same kind as that of an individual lunatic if its
pretensions are disputed, but nothing short of war can compel it to submit to reason.
The part played by intellectual factors in human behaviour is a matter as to which there
is much disagreement among psychologists. There are two quite distinct questions: (1)
how far are beliefs operative as causes of actions? (2) how far are beliefs derived from
logically adequate evidence, or capable of being so derived? On both questions,
psychologists are agreed in giving a much smaller place to the intellectual factors than
the plain man would give, but within this general agreement there is room for
considerable differences of degree. Let us take the two questions in succession.
(1) How far are beliefs operative as causes of action? Let us not discuss the question
theoretically, but let us take an ordinary day of an ordinary man's life. He begins by
getting up in the morning, probably from force of habit, without the intervention of any
belief. He eats his breakfast, catches his train, reads his newspaper, and goes to his
office, all from force of habit. There was a time in the past when he formed these habits,
and in the choice of the office, at least, belief played a part. He probably believed, at the
time, that the job offered him there was as good as he was likely to get. In most men,
belief plays a part in the original choice of a career, and therefore, derivatively, in all
that is entailed by this choice.
At the office, if he is an underling, he may continue to act merely from habit, without
active volition, and without the explicit intervention of belief. It might be thought that, if
he adds up the columns of figures, he believes the arithmetical rules which he employs.
But that would be an error; these rules are mere habits of his body, like those of a tennis
player. They were acquired in youth, not from an intellectual belief that they
corresponded to the truth, but to please the schoolmaster, just as a dog learns to sit on
its hind legs and beg for food. I do not say that all education is of this sort, but certainly
most learning of the three R's is.
If, however, our friend is a partner or director, he may be called upon during his day to
make difficult decisions of policy. In these decisions it is probable that belief will play a
part. He believes that some things will go up and others will go down, that so‐and‐so is a
sound man, and such‐and‐such on the verge of bankruptcy. On these beliefs he acts. It is
just because he is called upon to act on beliefs rather than mere habits that he is
considered such a much greater man than a mere clerk, and is able to get so much more
money ‐‐ provided his beliefs are true.
In his home‐life there will be much the same proportion of occasions when belief is a
cause of action. At ordinary times, his behaviour to his wife and children will be
governed by habit, or by instinct modified by habit. On great occasions ‐‐ when he
proposes marriage, when he decides what school to send his son to, or when he finds
reason to suspect his wife of unfaithfulness ‐‐ he cannot be guided wholly by habit. In
proposing marriage, he may be guided more by instinct, or he may be influenced by the
belief that the lady is rich. If he is guided by instinct, he no doubt believes that the lady
possesses every virtue, and this may seem to him to be a cause of his action, but in fact
it is merely another effect of the instinct which alone suffices to account for his action.
In choosing a school for his son, he probably proceeds in much the same way as in
making difficult business decisions; here belief usually plays an important part. If
evidence comes into his possession showing that his wife has been unfaithful, his
behaviour is likely to be purely instinctive, but the instinct is set in operation by a belief,
which is the first cause of everything that follows.
Thus, although beliefs are not directly responsible for more than a small part of our
actions, the actions for which they are responsible are among the most important, and
largely determine the general structure of our lives. In particular, our religious and
political actions are associated with beliefs.
(2) I come now to our second question, which is itself twofold: (a) how far are beliefs in
fact based upon evidence? (b) how far is it possible or desirable that they should be?
(a) The extent to which beliefs are based upon evidence is very much less than believers
suppose. Take the kind of action which is most nearly rational: the investment of money
by a rich City man. You will often find that his view (say) on the question whether the
French franc will go up or down depends upon his political sympathies, and yet is so
strongly held that he is prepared to risk money on it. In bankruptcies it often appears
that some sentimental factor was the original cause of ruin. Political opinions are hardly
ever based upon evidence, except in the case of civil servants, who are forbidden to give
utterance to them. There are of course exceptions. In the tariff reform controversy
which began several years ago, most manufacturers supported the side that would
increase their own incomes, showing that their opinions were really based on evidence,
however little their utterances would have led one to suppose so. We have here a
complication. Freudians have accustomed us to "rationalizing," i.e. the process of
inventing what seem to ourselves rational grounds for a decision or opinion that is in
fact quite irrational. But there is, especially in English‐speaking countries, a converse
process which may be called "irrationalizing." A shrewd man will sum up, more or less
subconsciously, the pros and cons of a question from a selfish point of view. (Unselfish
considerations seldom weigh subconsciously except where one's children are
concerned.) Having come to a sound egoistic decision by the help of the unconscious, a
man proceeds to invent, or adopt from others, a set of high‐sounding phrases showing
how he is pursuing the public good at immense personal sacrifice. Anybody who
believes that these phrases give his real reasons must suppose him quite incapable of
judging evidence, since the supposed public good is not going to result from his action.
In this case a man appears less rational than he is; what is still more curious, the
irrational part of him is conscious and the rational part unconscious. It is this trait in our
characters that has made the English and Americans so successful.
Shrewdness, when it is genuine, belong, more to the unconscious than to the conscious
part of our nature. It is, I suppose, the main quality required for success in business.
From a moral point of view, it is a humble quality, since it is always selfish; yet it suffices
to keep men from the worst crimes. If the Germans had had it, they would not have
adopted the unlimited submarine campaign. If the French had had it, they would not
have behaved as they did in the Ruhr. If Napoleon had had it, he would not have gone to
war again after the Treaty of Amiens. It may be laid down as a general rule to which
there are few exceptions that, when people are mistaken as to what is to their own
interest, the course that they believe to be wise is more harmful to others than the
course that really is wise. Therefore anything that makes people better judges of their
own interest does good. There are innumerable examples of men making fortunes
because, on moral grounds, they did something which they believed to be contrary to
their own interests. For instance, among early Quakers there were a number of
shopkeepers who adopted the practice of asking no more for their goods than they
were willing to accept, instead of bargaining with each customer, as everybody else did.
They adopted this practice because they held it to be a lie to ask more than they would
take. But the convenience to customers was so great that everybody came to their
shops, and they grew rich. (I forget where I read this, but if my memory serves me it was
in some reliable source.) The same policy might have been adopted from shrewdness,
but in fact no one was sufficiently shrewd. Our unconscious is more malevolent than it
pays us to be; therefore the people who do most completely what is in fact to their
interest are those who deliberately, on moral grounds, do what they believe to be
against their interest. Next to them come the people who try to think out rationally and
consciously what is to their own interest, eliminating as far as possible the influence of
passion. Third come the people who have instinctive shrewdness. Last of all come the
people whose malevolence overbalances their shrewdness, making them pursue the
ruin of others in ways that lead to their own ruin. This last class embraces 90 per cent. of
the population of Europe.
I may seem to have digressed somewhat from my topic, but it was necessary to
disentangle unconscious reason, which is called shrewdness, from the conscious variety.
The ordinary methods of education have practically no effect upon the unconscious, so
that shrewdness cannot be taught by our present technique. Morality, also, except
where it consists of mere habit, seems incapable of being taught by present methods; at
any rate I have never noticed any beneficent effect upon those who are exposed to
frequent exhortations. Therefore on our present lines any deliberate improvement must
be brought about by intellectual means. We do not know how to teach people to be
shrewd or virtuous, but we do know, within limits, how to teach them to be rational: it is
only necessary to reverse the practice of education authorities in every particular. We
may hereafter learn to create virtue by manipulating the ductless glands and stimulating
or restraining their secretions. But for the present it is easier to create rationality than
virtue ‐‐ meaning by "rationality" a scientific habit of mind in forecasting the effects of
our actions.
(b) This brings me to the question: How far could or should men's actions be rational?
Let us take "should" first. There are very definite limits, to my mind, within which
rationality should be confined; some of the most important departments of life are
ruined by the invasion of reason. Leibniz in his old age told a correspondent that he had
only once asked a lady to marry him, and that was when he was fifty. "Fortunately," he
added, "the lady asked time to consider. This gave me also time to consider, and I
withdrew the offer." Doubtless his conduct was very rational, but I cannot say that I
admire it
Shakespeare puts "the lunatic, the lover, and the poet" together, as being "of
imagination all compact." The problem is to keep the lover and the poet, without the
lunatic. I will give an illustration. In 1919 I saw The Trojan Women acted at the Old Vic.
There is an unbearably pathetic scene where Astyanax is put to death by the Greeks for
fear he should grow up into a second Hector. There was hardly a dry eye in the theatre,
and the audience found the cruelty of the Greeks in the play hardly credible. Yet those
very people who wept were, at that very moment, practicing that very cruelty on a scale
which the imagination of Euripides could have never contemplated. They had lately
voted (most of them) for a Government which prolonged the blockade of Germany after
the armistice, and imposed the blockade of Russia. It was known that these blockades
caused the death of immense numbers of children, but it was felt desirable to diminish
the population of enemy countries: the children, like Astyanax, might grow up to
emulate their fathers. Euripides the poet awakened the lover in the imagination of the
audience; but lover and poet were forgotten at the door of the theatre, and the lunatic
(in the shape of the homicidal maniac) controlled the political actions of these men and
women who thought themselves kind and virtuous.
Is it possible to preserve the lover and the poet without preserving the lunatic? In each
of us, all three exist in varying degrees. Are they so bound up together that when the
one is brought under control the others perish? I do not believe it. I believe there is in
each of us a certain energy which must find vent in art, in passionate love, or in
passionate hate, according to circumstances. Respectability, regularity, and routine ‐‐
the whole cast‐iron discipline of a modern industrial society ‐‐ have atrophied the
artistic impulse, and imprisoned love so that it can no longer be generous and free and
creative, but must be either stuffy or furtive. Control has been applied to the very things
which should be free, while envy, cruelty, and hate sprawl at large with the blessing of
nearly the whole bench of Bishops. Our instinctive apparatus consists of two parts ‐‐ the
one tending to further our own life and that of our descendants, the other tending to
thwart the lives of supposed rivals. The first includes the joy of life, and love, and art,
which is psychologically an offshoot of love. The second includes competition,
patriotism, and war. Conventional morality does everything to suppress the first and
encourage the second. True morality would do the exact opposite. Our dealings with
those whom we love may be safely left to instinct; it is our dealings with those whom we
hate that ought to be brought under the dominion of reason. In the modern world,
those whom we effectively hate are distant groups, especially foreign nations. We
conceive them abstractly, and deceive ourselves into the belief that acts which are really
embodiments of hatred are done from love of justice or some such lofty motive. Only a
large measure of scepticism can tear away the veils which hide this truth from us.
Having achieved that, we could begin to build a new morality, not based on envy and
restriction, but on the wish for a full life and the realization that other human beings are
a help and not a hindrance when once the madness of envy has been cured. This is not a
Utopian hope; it was partially realized in Elizabethan England. It could be realized
tomorrow if men would learn to pursue their own happiness rather than the misery of
others. This is no impossibly austere morality, yet its adoption would turn our earth into
a paradise.
Bertrand Russell