Forbidden by God, Despised by Men: Masturbation, Medical Warnings, Moral Panic, and

Manhood in Great Britain, 1850-1950

Author(s): Lesley A. Hall
Source: Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 2, No. 3, Special Issue, Part 2: The State,
Society, and the Regulation of Sexuality in Modern Europe (Jan., 1992), pp. 365-387
Published by: University of Texas Press
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 byGod,DespisedbyMen:
Forbidden
MedicalWarnings,
Masturbation, MoralPanic,
andManhoodin GreatBritain,1850 1950
LESLEY A. HALL
ContetnporgryMedicalArchives Centre
Institutefor theHistoryofMedicine
Wellcome

MASTURBATI O N I S a sexualmanifestation extremelycommonin

themalesexandalmostuniversal in themaleadolescent,atleastinmodern
westernsocieties.Itsconstruction asadiseaseentityandtheriseofthecon-
ceptof masturbatory insanityin thewakeofthepublication of Onanigand
of Tissot'sworkin the eighteenthcenturyhasalreadybeendescribed.l
Suchattitudesto thepracticewerenotmonolithic, however,eventhough
self-abusewas constructedasphysically and mentallydeleteriousaswellas
sinil, not only by the medicalprofession but by groups with interests
rangingfromthereligiousto thecommercial. Thevaryingattitudesto this
commonsexualmanifestation duringaparticularhistoricalperiodin apar-
ticularsocietyareworthconsideration, in the contextof what
especially
menthemselves feltabouta practiceuniversallystigmatized butneverthe-
lessindulgedin bythem.
Thisstudytherefore looksatbeliefsaboutmalemasturbation thatwere
promulgated in Britainfromthe middleof the nineteenthcentury,the
heightof theVictorianeraandallegedlyalsothehigh-water markof anx-

I amverygratefulto my fellowparticipantsin the conferenceon "TheRole of the State

andof 19ublicOpinionin SexualAttitudesandDemographicBehaviorsincethe Eighteenth
Century," Madrid,August31-September1, 1990, forthe discussionon anearlierversionof
thisessayandto the editorandthe anonymousrefereesof theJourxaloftheHistoryofSexuality
fortheirhelpfulcommentson the draftof this expandedversion.
1E.H. Hare,'<Masturbatory Insanity:The Historyof an Idea,"Joxrnal ofMental Science
108 (1962): 1-25; RobertH. MacDonald,"TheFrightfulConsequencesof Onanism:Notes
on the Historyof a Delusion,"Journal of theHistory ofIdeas 28 (1967): 423-31; H. Tristram
Engelhardt, Jr.,"TheDiseaseof Masturbation: ValuesandtheConceptof Disease,"Bulletinof
theHistory ofMedicine48 (1974): 234-48; AlexComfort,TheAnJcietyMakers:SomeCurious
Preoccupationsof theMedical Profession(London,1967), pp.69-113.

qfSexuality1992,vol. 2, no. 3]
[JosrnaloftheHistory
(C)1992 byTheUniversityof Chicago.Allrightsreserved.1043-4070/92/0203-0002$01.00

365

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366 LESLEY A. HALL

ietyovermasturbation, to themiddleof the twentiethcentury,bywhich

time the notion thatscaremongering aboutthehabitdidmoreharmthan
thehabititselfhadbecomeprevalent. Theimpactof varyingviewsof the
subjecton the manin the streetbetweenthetwoworldwars,a periodof
transition,will be illustratedfrom correspondence receivedby Marie
Stopes,whosebookMarriedLove, firstpublishedin 1918,generated thou-
sandsof lettersfromthesexually troubledandbewildered of bothsexesand
allsocialclassesforthesubsequent thirtyyears.
Thediscourses on masturbation discussedbelowarediscourses about
malesexuality, itsnatureanditscontrol.Men'sattitudestowardmasturba-
tion were attitudestowardthe natureof their own male sexuality,
unmediated throughthe female.Writers of sexadviceoccasionally might
warnyoungwomenagainstendangering malepuritybyprovocative dress
orbyconductleadingto thearousalof desiresthatcouldonlybeslakedby
masturbation orfornication, butmenweresubjected to abarrageof anxiety
oversolitarysexualactivity,bothwilled(asin self-abuse) andunwilled(as
in nocturnalemissions).2 Thenegativefeelingsaboutsexuality thatmight
alsohave been projectedin misogyny were here directed by men against
themselves.

WilliamActon'sfamousandmuchdiscussedTheFu¢ctionsandDisorders
of
theReproductiveOrgansix Iouth,AdultAge,andAdvaxced Life,Considered
Relations,firstpublishedin
Social,and Psycholosgical
in theirPhysioloLgiaal,
1857, is oftenconsideredto be the definitiveVictorianworkon sexual
fimctioning.Wasit notpointedoutbyHavelock of all
Ellisasanexemplar
thatwaswrongin Victorianattitudesto sex?3ForActon,sexuality wasa

2WinfieldScottHall,M.D., with JeannetteWinterHall,SexualKnowledge: In Plainand

SimpleLangua,ge; orKnowled,ge
Sexology ofSelfandSexforBothMale andFemale;Especiallyforthe
InstructionofrouthsandMaidens,IoungWivesandYoun,gHusbands, All FathersandAIIMoth-
andAllOthersWhoFeel
ers,School-TeachersandNurses, aNeedofProperandReliableInformation
onSexHy,giene, SexProblems,andtheBestWayandtheBestTimetoImpartSexual Knowledge to
BoysandGirlsabouttoEnterintoManhood andWomanhood (Philadelphia,1913;rpt.,London,
1926), pp. 184-85; NorahMarch,Towards RacialHealth:A Handbook forParents,Teachers,
andSocialWorkers ontheTrainingofBoysandGirls,with a forewordbyJ.ArthurThomson,4th
ed., rev.(London,1920), p. 175.
3WiHi Acton,TheFunctions andDisorders oftheReproductiveOrXans inIouth,AdultAge,
andAdvancedLife,Considered in TheirPhysioloyical,Social,andPsycholoyicalRelations,3d ed.
(London,1862);HavelockEllis,TheEroticRightsofVVomen andtheObjectsofMarria,ge,British
Societyforthe Studyof SexPsychology,no. 5 (London,1918), p. 9. SeealsoHavelockEllis,
EonismandOtherSupplesnentary Studiesn ofSex(Philadelphia,
vol. 7 of Studiesin tAsePsycholofly
1928).

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 byGod,DespisedbyMen
Forbidden 367

constantsourceof dangerto themale.Thepleasure of orgasmwastoo in-

tenseto besafelyexperienced often.While arguingthat amanaccustomed
to gratifyinghis urgesby self-abuse wasundermining his self-discipline
andtherefore waslesslikelyto be ableto resistothertemptations, Acton
believedthatwasteofthevitalspermatic fluid(evenin legitimatemarriage)
itselfcouldleadto debilitating disease.Masturbation wasonlyoneof the
lurkingperilsof manhood,butfarfromtheleastof them.
Somehistorians havesuggestedthatActonwasneitherinfluential nor
representativeof themedicalprofessionat large.4ButVictoriandoctors,
evenif theydidnot subscribe completely to Acton'sviewson thesubject,
commonly wereconvincedof thephysicalaswellasthemoralevilsof self-
abuse.In hisDictionaryof PrgsticalMedicine,a moregeneralguidethan
Acton'sspecialistwork,Dr.JamesCoplandwasvehementaboutthe dan-
gersof "pollutions,"in particular thoseproduced by"manustupration," to
whichhe attributed thedecreased lifeexpectancyandgreater morbidity of
thosewhoremained unmarried. Hisviewshadconsiderable andenduring
circulation.5
Sir JamesPaget'sclinicallectureon "SexualHypochondriasis" pub-
lishedin 1875 (thoughpresumably givenearlier)admittedly contradicts
thepictureof everyVictoriandoctorthreatening a stringof ailmentsend-
ingin insanityanddeathastheinevitable outcomeof onanism. Paget,even
thoughhe wishedthathe "couldsaysomethingworseof so nastya prac-
tice; an uncleanliness, a filthinessforbiddenby God, an unmanliness
despisedbymen,"wasemphatic thatmasturbation didnomoreharmthan
anyotherindulgence in excessandcertainly didnotleadinevitably to the
lunaticasylum.6 While,asJeannePetersonhasargued,Paget'sideasmust
haveinfluenced hisstudents,hiswritingson thissubjecthadconsiderably
lesscirculationthanActon's.7 FunctionsandDisorders wasissuedin three
editionsin its firstfiveyearsandcontinuedto be reprintedwell after

4F.B. Smith,ThePeople'sHealth, 1830-1910 (London,1979), pp. 294-315, and'iSexu-

alityin Britain,1800-1900: Some SuggestedRevisions,"in A WideningSphere:Changing
RolesofVictorianWomen, ed. MarthaVicinus(Bloomington,IN, 1977);M. JeannePeterson,
"Dr.Acton'sEnemy:Medicine,Sex,andSocietyin VictorianEngland,"Victorian Studies29
( 1986): 569-90, and"NoAngelsin the House:TheVictorianMythandthe PagetWomen,"
American Review89 ( 1984): 677-708; PeterGay,TheEducation
Historical oftheSenses,vol. 1
of TheBourXeoisExperience:VictoriatoFreud(New York,1984).
5JamesCopland,A Dictionaryof PracticalMedicine:Comprising GeneralPatholofy,The
NatureandTreatment MorbidStructures,
ofDiseases, andtheDisorders IncidenttoCli-
Especially
mates,to theSex,and to theDiJ0erentEpochsofLife,4 vols. (London,1844-58), 3: 441-48;
BritishMedicalJournal,1881, no. 2:904.
6SirJamesPaget,"SexualHypochondriasis," andEssays,
in ClinicalLectures 2d ed. (Lon-
don, 1879), pp.275-98.
7Peterson,"Dr.Acton'sEnemy."

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368 LESLEY A. HALL

Acton'sdeath.WhilePagetrepresented one significantalternative to the

Actonianview,itwasclearly nottheonly,oreventhepredominant, trendof
thoughtuponmasturbation amongtheVictorian medicalprofession.
Evenotherwiseradicalmedicalwriterson sexcondemned self-abuse.
Dr.GeorgeDrysdale's Malthusian workElements ofSoriglScience(firstpub-
lishedanonymously in 1854) advocatedearlymarriage with the use of
contraceptive measures, anathematized bymostofthecontemporary med-
ical professionas "conjugalonanism."For Drysdale,a secularistand
rationalist,
theunnatural restraintssocietyplacedontheindulgence ofnat-
uralurgesduringtheyearsof youthfulvitalityledinevitably to theevilsof
masturbation, apracticethathewasconvinced wasessentially pernicious.8
Horroroveronanismwasnot merelyabouta distinctionbetweennon-
procreative andpotentially reproductive sexualactivity.Drysdalewarned
against"injurious habitsof self-pollution,"whichhebelievedwouldlaythe
foundations of lingeringdiseaseduringthevulnerable periodof puberty.9
Doctorsand authoritieswho mightdisagreeon everythingelse could
nevertheless agreeon this.
Theapplication of brutalremediesforself-abuse is a chargeoftenlaid
to theVictorianmedicalprofession. Certainly,in 1870TheLcet recom-
mended,for casesof sexualdebilitation,"guarding the penisfor a time
againstimproper manipulation" by"keeping upslightsorenessofthebody
oftheorgan. . . sufficient to rendererectionpainful."Cauterization might
beroutinelyprescribed for"over-sensitivity"oftheorgan.10 Butremedies
thatmadeerectionuncomfortable werenot theprovinceof theorthodox
profession alone.The"American remedy," consistingof "aringof common
metal,withascrewpassingthroughoneof itssides,andprojecting intothe
centre,whereit hada buttonextremity. . . to be appliedto the 'partaf-
fected'at bed-time," wasanexpedientprobably"extensively used,"butit
waspurchased bysufferers atdisproportionate expensefrompurveyors of
quacknostrums, notimposedbydoctorsuponvictimizedpatients.1l The
horrorovermasturbation andtherelatedphenomenon of nocturnal emis-
sionswaswidespread in popularbelief.It wasintensified andexploitedby
quacksandcharlatans.
Wiseto thewidespread market fortheirwares,quacksfoundallsortsof
nichesto attractthe attentionof thesexuallytroubled:posters,handbills,
andnewspaper advertisements, as wellas catchpenny "anatomical muse-
ums."Exploitinga desireforinformation asmuchasprurient voyeurism,
8George Drysdale,Elementsof SocialScience;or,PhysicalSexual and NatxmalReligion,An
Expositionofthe TrueCauseand Only Cureofthe ThreePrimarySocialEvils:Poverty,Prostitution,
and CelibacynbyaDoctorofMedicine (London, 1905),pp.80-81.
9Ibid.,pp.77-78.
°The Lancet, 1870,no.2:159.
cet,1857,no.2:537.

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 Forbidden
byGod,DespisedbyMen 369

theseestablishments displayedwaxmodelsofthedreadfill consequences of

onanismnextto thosedepictingvenereal diseaseandhorrificportrayalsof
monstrosities andof childbirth.
Themuseums werealsocentersforthedis-
semination of quackpamphlets and''cures.''l2
Thetractsputaboutbythe
vendorsof patentdevicesanddrugspaintedluridpicturesofthedangers of
self-abuse,nocturnalpollutions,and"spermatorrhoca." Theywouldthen
offerthe poorvictimhopeof restoration throughthe use of "vegetable
compounds," or suchdevicesas "Pulvermacher's WorldFamedGalvanic
Belts"andthe i'EIectric LifeInvigorator.''l3
In a climateof sexualigno-
rance,guilt,andfear,the quackswereableto builda profitable edificeon
thesiteof masturbation, givingshapeto inchoatemaleanxieties.
Concernaboutmasturbation hadseveralaspects.Itwasa "filthinessfor-
biddenby God,"morallyreprehensible anda habitthatdecentmenwere
unitedin believingto be disgusting.It waswidelysupposedto be deplet-
ing to health.Sometimesit wascondemned asthefirststepin a courseof
impurity leadingto fornication,
disease,anddeath,erodingself-discipline
andself-control. Accordingto the HonorableEdwardLyttelton,a cler-
gymananda pedagogue,in The Causesand Preventionof Immorglityin
Schools,"theleastdefilementbyhandenormously increasesthedifficulties
of continencein manhood.''l4
Opinionsvaried,particularly amongthemedicalprofession. In a pam-
phlet containing"The Testimonyof MedicalMen,"publishedand
circulatedby a purityorganizationcalledthe WhiteCrossLeague,some
l2Forgeneralattackson quacksofferingcuresforsexualdisordersandtheirwiles,seeThe
Lancet,1870, no. 1:880,889, andno.2:72,89-90,124-26, 159-60, 224-25;BritishMedi-
calJournaln 1885,no.2:303-4;TheLancet, 1885,no.2:350;BritishMedicalJournal, 1892,
no. 2:753. Forthe involvementof anatomicalmuseumswiththe disseminationof quackrem-
edies duringthe nineteenthcentury,seeBritishMedicalJourxat) 1879, no. 1:823-24; British
MedicalAssociationArchives,Contemporary MedicalArchivesCentre(hereafterCMAC),
WellcomeInstitutefor the History of Medicine,London, "Medico-Political" files, "Birth
Control and Indecent Advertisements:Correspondence,c. 1929-1955" Sle (CMAC,
SA/BMA/C.483)containsa descriptionof sucha museum,whichhadsurvivedwellinto the
1950s andwas still doing businesswithout anyattemptto updatethe exhibits,the descrip-
tions, or the catalog.
13S.Gould,E.B.P.(medicalherbalist),ABriefTreatiseonVenereal DiseaseandSpermator-
rhea,Its CaxseandCure.(ForPrivateCirculation Only.Enteredat Stationers'Hall.) Manhood,
Howtost,byAcqsiredDiseases;HowRe,gained, byVegetableCompounds [>Bradford, c. 1910]; "A
Graduate,"A LecturetoIoungMenonthePreservation ofHealthandPersonal PurityofLife,7th
ed., publishedby Pulvermacher's WorldFamedGalvanicBelt Company(London, 1892);
Naturevs Revelationsfor theMarriedOnly,printedfor privatecirculationonly by ElectricLife
InvigoratorCompany,G. W.Ventnor,TheLimes,PainswickRoad,Gloucester[?1904],con-
tains, besides advertisementsfor the eponymousElectric Life Invigoratorand other
appliances,detailsof otherpublicationsissuedby G. W.Ventnor,includingStartlinfRevela-
tionsforMenOnly.
14Edward Lyttelton,TheCausesandPreventionofImmorality in Schoolsn
printedforprivate
circulationby the SocialPurityAlliance(London,1887), p. 15.

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370 LESLEY A. HALL

medicalauthoritiesagreedwithLytteltonthatmasturbation wasthehigh
roadto a careerof diversedebauchery. Theycontendedthat "thepre-
cociousindulgenceof boyhoodmay. . . ripeninto the ungovernable
passionof manhoodandbecomeresponsible forthe supportof prostitu-
tion.''15
Othersbelievedthattheviceof masturbation itselfwouldbecome
anoverridingobsession:"thehabitof solitarysin,learnedandcontracted
at school andnot discontinuedevenin laterandmorematureyears,"
wouldultimately"become theoneabsorbing anduncontrollable passionof
,"16

Thislatterviewledto the apocryphal prescriptionof fornication asthe

remedyforself-abuse. So harmfial wasmasturbation supposedto be that
copulation wasoftensupposedto bethe "cure." Inspiteofthe purityliter-
aturewarningagainstmedicalmenwhoadvocated fornication asessential
formalehealth,it is exceptionallyhardto findevidenceof doctors(orany-
one)actuallyrecommending thisremedy. Oneelderlyrnan(ageseventy-six
in 1924)didwritethe followingaccountto MarieStopesabouthisown
youngerdaysduringtheVictorianera:"Thedoctor. . . stronglyadvised
meto dropmasturbation. He evensuggestedcertainhouseswhereI might
meetwomenof a betterclass,andadvisedthe use of sheathsor injec-
tions.... Thedoctorevenadvisedwomanasa lesserevilthantheriskof
diseasein masturbation.''17Thisadvice,remarkably, wasproffered during
treatmentof the patientfor "a clap"contractedduringearlier(un-
protected)application of suchremedy.Suchanaccount,givenin a private
communication, is hardlyevidenceof widespread prescription of sucha
remedybythemedicalprofession, althoughtherearereportsin thesame
correspondence of (perhaps jocular)hintsbydoctorsin theinterwar years
to mensufferingfromthe strainsof continencethattheyshould"finda
woman.''18 Dr.J.Charsley Mackwood, M.C.,qualified in 1910andthere-
foreof a youngergeneration thanthe abovccorrespondent, suggestedin
1920thatthecampaign to makethehorrorsof sexually transmitted disease
morewidelyknownwas sucha successthat "theconvertpracticesself-
abuseratherthanriskinfection,"andthis couldbe considered"acrime
againsthumanity."l9 Thisis tenuousevidencecompared to the fulmina-
tions not onlyby puritycampaigners butby cloctorsinfluencedbythe
puritymovement againstthe prescription of fornication.
Theinfluence
of man-to-man, subcultural,almostfolkloric communications on thissub-
ject,however,shouldnotbediscounted.20
15F.LeGrosClark,quotedbyArthurT.Barnett,"TheTestimonyof MedicalMen,"in The
BlancoBook(London,1913), p. 223.
C. G. Wheelhouse,quotedin ibid.,p. 226.
MarieStopes Papers,CMAC,PP/MCS/A.1/25.
CMAC,PP/MCS/A.l9 DHB, A.165 DML, A.205 HVVP.
19British
MedicglJournalJ,
1920, no. 1:130.
20Considerthe persistenceof the superstition(reportedat least as late as the Second
WorldWar)thatvenerealdiseasecouldbe curedby "passingit on"to a virgin.

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h

byGod,DespisedbyMex
Forbidden 371

Therewasanother,stillsomewhathydraulic, modelof themalesexual

finction.Thismodeltoo assumedaninevitable build-upof pressurewith-
in the malegenitalsystemrequiringreleasebutpromulgated the theory
that, in a stateof health,nocturnalemissionsoccurringinfrequently
(monthly, paralleling
menstruationinwomen)were"Nature's way"of dis-
pellingpent-upsexualtensions.Anythingmorefrequent wasindicative of
andsignaledtheundermining
a generalstateof impurity of health.Delib-
eratemasturbation wouldundermine healthandprobably leadto excessive
involuntary emissionsaswellbystirringupfeelingsandfunctionsbestleft
n qulescence.

II
In the 1880sa growingconcernovertheneedto protecttheyoungfrom
sexualdangerproduced anewgenreof warningagainstmasturbation. The
workspreviously describedwerewritten either
by medical men at im-
least
plicitlyfor other membersof the profession,by individuals(radical
medicalmenor proponents of alternativehealthsystems)whowishedto
enlightenadultmembersof the public-, or by quacksanxiousto makea
quickprofitout of ignoranceandanxiety.In the wakeof the campaign
againstthe Contagious DiseasesActs,leadingto the formationof a self-
conscious, thoughfarfrommonolithic, puritymovement, aroseadiscourse
on masturbation emanating fromfiguresof establishment authority(doc-
tors,clergymen, educators) anddirectedprincipally attheyoungor those
with responsibilityfor them.Tensionbetweenperceptionof an urgent
needto warnof impendingdangersandfearof puttingundesirable ideas
intoformerly untouched mindsmeantthatthisdeparture wasfarfromuni-
versallyacceptedasbeingnecessary or desirable.2lHowever,the amount
produced
of literature in thisconnectionanditswidedissemination would
perhaps suggestthattheeraof greatestmasturbation anxietywasnot (asis
usuallythought)themid-Victorian periodbutthelateVictorian to Edwar-
dianera,indeedupto theoutbreak of WorldWar I.
Organizations suchas the WhiteCrossLeagueandthe Allianceof
Honoremergingout of the anti-ContagiousDiseasesActs campaigns
publishednumerous pamphlets aimedatyouthsandyoungmen,withthe
intentionof inculcatinga highandsinglestandard Theseat-
of chastity.
tainedwidedissemination: TrueManlinessbyJ.E.H.(purityworkerJane
ElliceHopkins)hadsoldoveronemillioncopiesby1909,presumahly not
includingits irther circulationin TheBlancoBook, acompilation of White
CrossLeaguepamphlets produced forissueto troops.22
2lBritishMedicalJournal, 1881,no.2:904; 1885,no.2:303-4; 1892,no. 1:1266-67;The
Lancet,1885, no. 2:350-51.
22EdwardBristow,Viceand ViBilance: PurityMovements in Britainsince1700 (Dublin,
1977), p. 138.

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372 LESLEY A. HALL

TrazeMo«nlixess,asitstitlesuggests,portrayed anidealofthetruemaleas
pureandchivalrous, emphasizing thevirilestrugglethatthemaintenance
of continence required. Thesexualdangersfacedbymenweredepictedby
dramatic metaphors: manwas"anintelligentbeingmountedon a spirited
horse,"whichhehadto master. Wouldtheyoungman"runtheriskoftaint-
ing yourbloodandmakingit a fountainof corruption, till you haveto
loatheyourbody,thetempleyouhavemadeintoa charnel-house, reeking
withthe verybreathof the grave," or wouldhe "playthe man,andfight
againsteverything lowandbeastly, determined thatyourlifeshallhaveno
shameful secretsin it"?Medicalmessageswereblendedwiththereligious
andmoral:"stored-up passion" wouldgenerate"splendid energy." Thelit-
eraturewarnedagainstquacksbutsuggestedthatreputable medicalmen
wereto be consultedif advicewereneeded."Dirty,shameful,secretsin
yourlife"mayhavesubsumedbothfornication andmasturbation, but"a
forbidden pleasure withinyourreach,forcingitselfonyournotice,"surely
mustalludeto self-abuse.23
Anxietyoverself-abuse beganat an earlyage. Child-rearing manuals
warnedparentsto be on the lookoutforthe earlymanifestation of auto-
eroticismin infants,butit is not easyto establishthe extentto whichthe
recommendations of stringentpreventivemethodswerecarriedout.24
Warning literature, orliteratureaidingparentsin givingwarnings to their
offspring,targetedyoungerandyoungeragegroups,in spiteof fearsthat
warnings wouldputideasintoinnocentminds.Bythe 1890sa numberof
suchbookswereavailable. Oneofthemostpopularandtypicalwas Whata
Younsg BoyOuflhtto IRnow,by Sylvanus Stall,an American divine.After
forty-seven pageson "God's purposein endowingplants,animals andMan
withreproductive organs," it movedstraighton to thedangerof abusing
the reproductive organs.25 Stallattributed
thisdangerto the existenceof
thehand:"Manis possiblytheonlyanimalwhichpersistently pollutesand
degrades hisownbody,andthiswouldnothaveeasilybeenpossibleif God
hadnot givenhimhands,whichHe designedshouldproveusefillanda
meansof greathelpandblessingto himin hislifeuponthe earth."Stall
threatened (echoingquacks)"idiocy. . . earlydeclineanddeath. . . con-
sumption. . . totalmentalandphysicalself-destruction" to thosewho
failedto resistthistemptation.26 Evenwhentheunfortunate victimofthe
pernicious habitlivedto manhoodandmanagedto becomea father,the
"inferior quality"of his "sexual secretion"
wouldbemanifested in hisoff-
in TheBlancoBook,pp. I 15-43.
23J.E.H ., TrueManliness,
24ChristinaHardyment,DreolmBabies:ChildCarefromLocketo Spock(London,tg83),
pp.137-38.
25SylvanusStall, Whata Ioun,gBoyOughtto Know,Self and Sex Series(Philadelphia,
1897), pp. 25-72.
26Ibid.,pp. 80-83

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 byGod,DespisedbyMen
Forbidden 373

spring.27Stall'sprescriptionsfor avoidanceof self-abuse,and for

recoupingstrengthif succumbed to, involvedlife-styleratherthanpatent
remedies:wholesomelightdiet,healthyexercise,earlyrising,hardbeds,
thepursuitof mentalimprovement, coldbaths.Thebookis nevertheless a
horrifying andprurient work,withitsdetaileddescriptiorl of theviceit so
roundlycondemns.
Workssuch as Lord Baden-Powell's Scoutinsgfor Boys (1908) and
Roverin,g ( 1922),whichaimedto regenerate
toS?occess theimperial racewith
a muchbroaderprogram, probably reachedanevenwideraudiencethan
booksspecifically on sex education.Initiallyreservedto the "Notesfor
Instructors" in the appendixof Sco?tingfor Boys,the remarks on "Conti-
nence"adviseddealingwith this problemin a frankandopenmanner,
giving "clearand plain-spoken instructions." Self-abuse,accordingto
Baden-Powell, "bringswithit wealuless of headandheart,and,if persisted
in, idiocyandlunacy."28 In latereditionsthecautionsweregivendirectly
to scoutsthemselves: "Thereis onetemptation thatis prettysureto come
to youatonetimeor anotherandI wantjustto warnyouagainstit."29
Fora somewhatolderagegroup,Baden-Powell produced Roverinsgto
Sxccess."Rocksyouarelikelyto bumpon"included"Women,t' butduring
the "ruttingseason"masturbation wasatleastasdangerous asactualrela-
tionshipswith women.30Readerswereremindedthat "theGermis a
SacredTrustforcarryingon the race." Thebestprecaution againstexces-
sivenocturnalemissionsor the temptation to self-abusewasto keep"the
organcleanandbathedin coldwatereveryday.''31 At leastBaden-Powell
wasconvincedthatrecuperation waspossiblethroughleadinga healthy
scoutinglife.His ideason the deleteriousness of masturbation remained
the sameover the yearsduringwhichhis workscontinuedto be re-
publishedandwerenotinfluenced bythechangingideasdiscussed below.
Likemanyotherindividuals andorganizations involvedin thefieldof sex
education,he received"aheavyburdenof correspondence with young
men."32 Amongthoseletterswhichsurviveareseveraldealingwiththat
particular "Rock."33
Althoughthe importance of eschewingself-indulgence in solitaryvice
in orderto buildupself-discipline to resistlatertemptations wasoftenem-
p.113.
27Ibid.,
28LordBaden-Powell,Scoutit,g for Boys:A Handbookfor Instructionin GoodCitizenship
(London,1908), p. 279.
29Ibid.,10th ed. (London,1922), p. 209.
30LordBaden-Powell, Roveringto Success: for Ioun<Men (London,
A BookofLife-Sport
1922), p. 103.
3lIbid., p. 104.
32Bristow,p. 147.
33Baden-PowellPapers,Scout AssociationArchives,Baden-PowellHouse, London,
"RoverinsgtoS?ccess c. 1922,"TC/2.
Correspondence,

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374 LESLEY A. HALL

phasized,enormousweightwasgivento the deleteriousness of the habit

itself.Thepracticewassupposedto be dangerously depletingto thevital
forcesof the adolescent at a timeof lifewhenthesewerenecdedforthe
maturing process,butit wasequallypernicious forthematuremale.Inthis
periodthemiddle-class malewasoftennotinapositiontomarrybeforethe
ageofthirtyorso, anddespiteclaimsmadebytheworksof advicethatmen
werenotfullymatureandfitformarriage andreproduction untiltheageof
irwenty-fiveatleast,therewasaprofoundawareness ofthestrainssuchpro-
longedcontinence causedandthedangersthatmightensue.
Whiletherewasintenseanxietyaboutthese"evilhabits"beinglearned
from"evilcompanions" duringschooldays, rathersurprisingly the fears
werenot of creatinga permanent homosexual or "inverted" tendency
throughadolescenthomoeroticexperimentation. The anxietyseemsto
havebeenfargreaterthatmutualexperimentation wouldleadto solitary
self-abuse. Homosexuality sometimesmightbe attributed to a continFued
habitof masturbation, justas it sometimeswasseenas the ultimatevice
intowhichtheworn-outheterosexual debauchee woulddecline,theendof
all "excess."34Buttheprimedangerof self-abuse usuallywasperceived as
the establishment of a habitof dangerous indulgence in sensualpleasure,
erodingself-discipline andleadingto a careerof self-gratification
likelyto
involvefornication withharlots,endingin venereal disease.
Thisapparent paradox mayberelatedto theriseof concepts of adistinct
"invert" identity,mutualandgroupmasturbation beingrecognized astoo
prevalent amongmaleadolescents to beconnectedwithwhatwascoming
to be perceived asa congenitally anomalous,physicallydistinctiveminor-
ity. 35 Anotherfactormaybethepersistent associationof homosexuality in
manymindswith the specificactof buggery,or arlalintercourse. While
writerson gaysexualpracticeandhistoryhaveindicatedthatwithinthe
subculture a considerablerangeof sexualpractices wouldhavebeenpur-
sued,commonassumptions, slang,andjokesconnecthomosexuality with
thisoneparticular sexualact.36Masturbation, singlyorwith"evilcompan-
34Forexample,thiswouldseemto bewhatActon(n. 3 above)wasimplying,verycovertly,
in his descriptionsof ancientdebauchees"pandering to theirvile desiresandgratification
of
everysensuality"(pp. 198-99).
35JeffreyWeeks,Sex,Politics,andSociety:
TheRegxlation ofSexualitysince1800,Themesin
BritishSocialHistory(London,1981), pp. 96-121.
36BarryR. Burg,Sodomy and thePerception
ofEvil:EnglishSea-Rovers in theSeventeenth-
CenturyCaribbean(New York,1983), pp. 135-38; R. Davenport-Hines,Sex,Death, and
Punishment:Attitudes toSexandSexualityinBritainsincetheRenaissance (London,1990),pp.
77-83. The latterarguesthatthe associationof buggerywith the sodomiteidentityenabled
manymento distancethemselvesfromthe latter;however,seeJeffreyWeeks,"Discourse,De-
sire,andSexualDeviance:SomeProblemsin a Historyof Homosexuality," in TheMakingof
theModernHomosexual, ed. KennethPlummer(London,1981), in whichhe arguesthe very
loose and inexactconnotations(legaHyand popularly)of buggery.BrigidMcConvilleand
JohnShearlaw,TheSlanguageofSenc: A DictionaryofModernSexualTerms(London,1984),
citea numberof termsthatimplybuggery,forexample,"arsebandit."

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 Forbidden
by God)DespisedbyMen 375

ions,"was seen as one of a varietyof deleterious habitsto whichmale

adolescentswereprone,suchas smoking,swearing,talkingsmut,and
hangingaboutstreetcorners.
Thedangerof someformof seductionbyoldermenwassometimes rec-
ognizedas a distinctthreat.A workentitledWhat a BoyShouldICxow
includedthedangers threatened by"menwhotakeanevildelightin telling
youngboysaboutthishabit,"andin sucha wayas "toencourage themto
commence orcontinuethisinjurious habit."Suchmen,it wasfeared,"will
leadyou filrther,andtowardsmoreinjuriousanddisgustingpractices,"
whichcertainly soundslikeacovertwarningagainsthomosexual advances.
Thereadershouldbeprepared, in sucha case,to "punchhishead."37
Whatthe authorswerealludingto (thoughonlyto condemnit) wasa
whollydifferentdiscourseaboutmasturbation, in whichthe practicewas
createdasasitenotoffearandguiltbutof manlypride.Wickedmenwould
not onlydeclarethat"itwilldo youno harm," buttheyevenwouldassert
that "itwill makea manof you."38Thisfainthint of a persistentsub-
cultural,evenfolJdoric, setof beliefsaboutmasturbation is alsofoundin
occasional remarksmadein thelettersto Stopes:"Iwastoldbygrownmen
thatit wasgoodformeandthatkindof thingmadeamanof one."39 How
muchthishasto dowithmasturbation beingseenasanecessary adolescent
stagein sexualdevelopment, whichwouldshortlybetranscended andpos-
siblyevencondemnedif continuedbeyondthatstage,is evenharderto
confirmthantheexistence of thisalternativeviewpointon thepractice.
Attitudestowardsolitarypleasurewereboundup with assumptions
aboutmasculinitJv. A "realman"hadsexualurges,or atleastthepotential
forthem;however,a truemanwasableto controlthese.He wasin charge
of whathisbodydid,notitsvictim.If thisdynamic werereversed it boded
ill, reflectinguponhis verymanhood.Masturbation was a temptation
manymenfoundthemselves unableto resist,whileinvoluntary emissions,
apparently beingcompletely beyondthe effortto achieveconsciouscon-
trol,wereexperienced asevenmorethreatening, akindof "automatism."40
It mightbe arguedthatopinionsaboutthe ill effectsof masturbation
and"pollutions" in generalsimplywereefisions by themedicalprofes-
sion,clergymen, andschoolmasters, andthatallthesediatribeshadlittle
effectupontheaverage youngman.Suchanargument ignoresthefactthat
masturbation wasequally,orevenmorestrongly, represented aspernicious
by underground andalternative sexualadvice.It cannotbe assumedthat
contactwitheitherpurityleafletsor quackpamphlets hadno effectupon
37Dr.A. R. SchofieldandDr.P. Vaughan-Jackson,
WhatABoyShould
Know,Questionsof
Sex Series(London,1913), p. 50.
38Ibid.

39CMAC, PP/MCS/A.107CHG.
40See,for example,G. StanleyHall,Adolescence:
Its Psychology
andIts Relationsto Phys-
iology,
Anthropology,
Sociology,
Sex,Crime,Reli,gion,
omdEducation(London,1904),p. 457.

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376 LESLEY A. HALL

individuals,or thatyoungmencouldignorea climateof opinionthat

blamedmasturbation fromwartson thefingersto
fora varietyof aiSrnents
impotence,consumption, convulsions,insanity,anddeathfor the man
hlmself,as wellas the corruption Theexistenceof these
of his posterity.
pervasivediscoursessuggeststhatmasturbation withthepo-
wasapractice
tentialfor generatingenormousanxietiesconnectedwith manhood,
strength,andsexuality.

III
Whilethe production of anxiety-generating aboutmasturbation
literature
continued,however,someauthorities beganto suggestthattheguiltand
shamearousedby purityliteratureandquackhorrorstoriesalso were
damaging. As earlyas the 1880sSirT. S. Clouston,writingon the "In-
sanityof Masturbation," thoughtthe quackscareadvertising to be as
productive of insanityastheviceitself,andsimilararguments fromtimeto
timewereexpressed in the columnsof the medicalpress.4lThisdidnot
mean,however,thatself-abuse wasperceived ascompletely harmless.
A newperspective on masturbation beganwithHavelockE!lis'sAuto-
Erotism,partof volume1 ofSt?wdres ofSex,firstpublished
in thePsycholo,gy in
1899.Ellisturneda radically criticalgazeon thereceivedwisdomconcern-
ingmasturbation andcommented: "Itseemsto methatthisfieldhasrarely
beenviewedin a scientifically soundandmorally sanelight,simplybecause
ithasnotbeenviewedasawhole.. . . Thenatureandevilsof masturbation
arenotseenin theirtruelightandproportions untilwerealizethatmastur-
bationis buta specialized formof a tendencywhichin someformor in
somedegreeaffectsnotonlymanbutallthehigheranimals." Hewentonto
explodecontemporary mythsthatautoerotic practicewasinevitably phys-
ically,mentally,or morallydebilitating, a uniquelyhumantrait,anda sad
sideeffectof civilization.Boys,he thought,particularly wereproneto the
riskof internalizing verynegativeattitudestowardmasturbation, through
encountering prevalent attitudesthatitwasan"unmanly" practice, aswell
as"exaggerated warningsandquackliterature."42
Elliswas by no meansaltogetherin favorof deliberate masturbatory
practices.Butwhilehe attributed thetraditional "morbid heightening of
self-consciousness withoutanyco-ordinated heightening of self-esteem"to
thepractitioner, it wasonlyin thecaseof thepersistent andhabitualmas-
turbator.43 AlthoughEllis certainlydid not ignorethe possibilityof
41SirT.S. Clouston,"TheInsanityofMasturbation,"inClinicalLecturesonMentalDis-
eases,6th ed. (London,1904); see alson. 12 above.
42HavelockEllis,Auto-Erotism, of Sex (Philadelphia,
vol. 1 of Studiesin the Psychology
1910), pp. 98, 263.
43Ibid.,p. 261.

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 Forbidden
byGod,DespisedbyMex 377

undesirable resultsin certaincasesof masturbation (prolonged, habitual,

orcombinedwithamorbidconstitution), hisviewofmasturbation asinev-
itablydeleterious onlyin specifiedcircumstances, ratherthanuniversally,
musthaveput manymindsat rest. His writingson the subjectfore-
shadowedchangingattitudestowardmasturbation. Giventhe limited
circulationof Studiesin the Psycholo,gy of Ses however,theirdirecteffect
musthavebeensomewhat circumscribed.
Wellafterthepublication of Ellis'swork,theoldbeliefscontinuedto be
propounded in worksof sexeducation.NorahMarchin TowrdsRacial
Health gaveprescriptions fordiscouraging "sexual laxityanddistress"in
thegrowingboy,which,in spiteof thelipserviceshepaidto Freud,hada
familiarring:"[He]shouldabsolutely freehimselffromthe dominionof
eroticism.. . . Themalementalattitudeshouldbepureandcoolenoughto
refrainfromsusceptibility....The morefrequentlyhe exertshis will-
powerto triumph,themoreeasilywillit actforhimin thedayof sudden
emergency."44 Whilethestresswasonmentalattituderatherthanphysical
measures, the underlying attitudeaboutthe needforandthe strugglein-
volvedin controlwasstillthere.Marchreiterated the usualexhortations
aboutearlyrising,hardbeds,wholesomediet,andcoldbaths.In dealing
withmasturbation in infants,sheadvocated makingsurethe handswere
outsidethe bedclothesanddistractinganychildengagedin "unhealthy
pursuits."45Thispolicyof distraction seemsto havebeenthenewideaof
thepost-WorldWarI period:someauthorities evensuggestedthat,asfar
aspossible,thegenitalaspectwasto beplayeddownandpreventive mea-
suresmadeto seemgeneralratherthanlocalized.46
As lateas 1925,ForMerlOnly,a workpurporting to be writtenby "A
Physician,"discussed"SecretHabitsandVices"in termsthatechoedthe
medicalviewscanvassed bytheWhiteCrossLeaguenearlyfiftyyearsear-
lier,withtheimageryof "patches of deceptive quivering slime"threatening
to engulftheunwaryaftera singlemisstep.Theauthorwarnedof "asecret
andhideoustravesty of themarriage embrace thatis practised aloneunder
thecloakof night,a travesty moreexhausting andmoredemoralising than
anyexcessin marriedlife,"andaddedthat"manya youthhashadhislife
utterlyruinedbythishabit."47
However,a lessgruesomeviewof the outcomeof onanismwasbeing
disseminated bysexeducators. (Atthisperiodmostsexeducators wereto
befoundamongthosewithanoverallcommitment to theidealsof thepu-
ritymovement, anxiousto promoteasinglestandard of sexualmorality.)
In
44March(n. 2 above),p. 175.
45Ibid.,p. 54.
46Hardyment (n. 24 above),p. 204.
47ForMen Only, by a Physiciatn,axthor of "How to Be Healthy" o«nd"For WomenOnly"
(London,1925), pp. 73-81.

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378 LESLEY A. HALL

avolumebytheReverend A. HerbertGrayissuedbytheNationalSunday
SchoolUnionduringthe 1920s,it wasclearlystatedthatmasturbation
"doesnot permanently injurephysicalvigour,sexualpower,ormentalca-
pacity."Nevertheless, it wasiiabadhabit"andliableto have"mischievous"
psychological effects.Furthermoreit militatedagainst''fillleiciency and
filllnervousvigour."48
Similar viewsweredebatedin a textbookforthemedicalprofession on
MoBle Disordersof Sex,in whichthe genitourinary specialistKennethM.
Walker arguedthatmasturbation in thematuremalewasdangerous only
becauseof "thementalconflictit engenders andtheexcessthatit encour-
ages."He wasinclinedto believethatin the young,andif "practised to
excess,. . . physicalhealthandgrowthmaysuffer." ForWalker, masturba-
tion was "anunpleasarlt andunsatisfactorypractice,"
andin somecases,
wheregreatstrainwasbeingcausedbycontinencehewasprepared to ad-
vocatecoitusasbeingthepreferable outletforunbearable sexualdesire.He
emphasized, however,thatfor manypatients,howevergood for health,
coituswouldbe counterproductively fraughtwithguilt.Anotherexpedi-
ent he suggestedfor the patient"overwhelmed with ungratified sexual
desire"was"asingleactof masturbation, deliberately
undertaken." This
would"causeno harm"if seldomresortedto; it shouldnotbeemployedas
a "source of pleasure."49
Thereis some evidencethat counselorsof youngmen (clergymen,
schoolteachers, andyouthworkers) hadsometimes recommendcd thisoc-
casionalhygienicoutlet in privateinterviews.One of Baden-Powell's
correspondents, writingabouthis son'sdifficultstrugglefor continence,
saidthathissonhadbeentoldbyreligious,medical,andeducational au-
thoritiesthat fortnightlyself-abuse was consistentwith leadinga pure
life.50It is not muchbeforethe 1920sthatsucha viewwasadvocated in
print,andusuallywiththeprovisothatit shouldnotbein anywayasensual
indulgence.
Althoughsomewritersclaimedthatthe ideathatmasturbation was
harmless wasgainingentirelytoo muchacceptance,5l mostwriterson the
subjectseemto havebeentryingto treadafinelinebetweenexplodingthe
oldscaremongering mythsaboutmasturbation andcontinuingto discour-
age the practice.For all theirup-to-dateparlance of "repressions" and
"sublimation" andtheirself-consciously modernappealsto the scienceof
48A.HerbertGray,SexTegshin,g (London,[n.d.]),pp. 50-57.
49KennethM. Walker,MaleDisordets ofSex(London,1930), pp. 100-111.
50Baden-PowellPapers(n. 33 above),TC/2.
5lMeyrickBooth, Iouth andSex:A Psychologieal
Stxdy(London,1932), p. 102n.;Marie
Stopes,Endurin,g
Passion:FurtherNewContributions totheSolutionofSexDificulties,Bein,gthe
Continuation
of"MgrriedLoveJ,2d ed. (London,1929), pp.62-63.

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 Forbidden
byGod,DespisedbyMen 379

psychology, thesewritersstillwerein the businessof issuingwarnings

againstself-abuse.Seriousrepercussions upon eventualnormalsex life
werethreatened, eitherthroughestablishing negativementalconnotations
withsexualarousal52 or (according to MarieStopefs) byaccustoming the
organto a particlllar typeof stimuluscoarsening to thesensitiveresponse
of the nerves.53Thesewarnings,however,appliedonly to a persistent
habit:thedangersof occasional lapseswereminimized.
An oftenalmostunconscious repugnance to the ideaof masturbation
wasstillprevalent. Althoughthepossibility of microscopic studyof semen
forinvestigations intofertilityhadbeenknownsinceatleastthebeginning
of thetwentiethcentury,doctorsseemto havebeenextraordinarily reluc-
tantto employit. Themechanisms of fertilitywerelittleunderstood, but
nonethelessdoctorswerehappyto recommend andperformmajorab-
dominaloperationsof sometimesdubiousvalueon womento correct
infertility,
whileneglectingto performa simpleandnoninvasive testupon
theirhusbands. Whilethiswaspartof a nexusof attitudesregarding male
reproductive fimctioningas a simpleheakhymatter,unlikethe innately
pathological femalesystem,is it fancifulto imaginethattherewasalsoa
repugnance towardthemodeof obtainingthespecimen?54 Thesomewhat
scantyevidencepresentedby Stopes'scorrespondents on thissubjectap-
pearsto indicatethatmen,reluctantto submittheirwivesto the knife
unlessit werestrictlynecessary, werelesshorrifiedat the prospectthan
theirdoctors,in occasional casesactuallyraisingthepossibility of suchan
examination themselves.55
Advocates of artificial
insemination foreugenicpurposes, onemustas-
sume,musthavecometo termssufiiciently witha procedure regarded in
mostcircleswithrepugnance or horrified
condemnation to recommend it
orevenregardit asmoredesirable thantheusualhaphazard methodof in-
creasing therace.Nevertheless theywentthroughenormous convolutions
in workingout how suchdesirablegeneticmaterialmightbe obtained,
apartfromwhatone wollldimagineto be the obviousmethodof "crude
masturbation.'z56
Sexeducationcontinuedto adhereto the neworthodoxyon the sub-
ject.Bythelate1940sCyrilBibbywaswritingin SexEducationthat"the

52Gray,p. 52; Walker,p. 108; LeonoraEyles,Commonsense

aboutSex (London,1933),
pp. 38-39.
53Stopes,EnduriaBPgssion,pp. 65-67.
54SeeNaomiPfeffer,"TheHiddenPathologyof the MaleReproductiveSystem,"in The
Sexl PoliticsofReproductioed. HilaryHomans(Aldershot,1985).
55CMAC,PP/MCS/A.36B, A.38 HHB.
56SeecorrespondencebetweenHerbertBrewerandC. P. Blacker,generalsecretaryof the
EugenicsSociety,in EugenicsSocietyArchives,CMAC,SA/EUG/C.43.

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380 LESLEY A. HALL

troubleis not so muchin the habitof masturbation . . . asin the mental

conflictwhichmayarisefromitscondemnation."57 Dr.EustaceChesserin
GrowUp and Live, whilestatingthatmasturbation "hasno ill-effects,
physicalormental"andspeakingoutagainst"thosebruiseswhichmaybe
causedto theyoungmindwhenthechild. . . is madeto havea feelingof
guilt and shame,"neverthelessconsideredthat although"it is not
wrong. . . it issomethingyoumightmakeaneffortto dowithout." While
"masturbation mayberegarded asquite'normal'. . . it iswiseandhealthy
to considerthe reasonsfordoingyourbestto refrain." Chesser,a prolific
andpopular writeronsexmatters, offeredsimilarlyambiguous adviceinhis
mostfamouswork,LovewithoHtEear.58
Suchconstantreassurance suggeststhatnotionsofthe harmcausedby
masturbation werestill widespread,whichperhapsis not surprising. A
mail-order lendinglibraryoperatingin NorthLondonandspecializing in
workson sexcontinuedto circulate allsortsofVictorian horrormongering
volumesin 1949, suchas Walling's or MacFadden's
Sen¢olo,gy The Virile
Powersof SuperbManhood.59Readerswho cameinto contactwith such
works,orevensoughtthemoutforprurient purposes oftheirown,didnot
necessarilyrealizethattheywere oroughtto havebeen "amusing mu-
seumrelics," asCyrilBibbydescribed them.60Underground talesof sexual
mythologydoubtlesspersistedandmusthavegone on producingtheir
ownhorrors.61 Evenrelativelyenlightened worksof sexadviceandeduca-
tion, in spite of their statedintentionof settingmindsat rest, were
profoundly ambivalent aboutself-abuse.

IV

It is possibleto makesomeessaytowardascertaininghow menactually

thoughtandfeltaboutmasturbation duringanerawhenattitudeswereun-
dergoingconsiderable change.In 1918 MarieStopes,a scientist(not a
57CyrilBibby,Senc Education:
A Gxidefor Parents,Teachers,
and IouthLegders(London,
1946), p. 109.
58EustaceChesser,GrowUp andLive (Harmondsworth,1949), p. 237; Lovewithout
Fear:A Plain Guideto Sex TechniqueforEveryMarnedAdult (London,1942), pp. 91-100.
59Thiscatalogis to be foundamongthe papersof the MassObservation"SexSurvey"in
the Tom-HarrissonMassObservationArchive,Universityof Sussex,A.9 file 16/A, "SexSur-
vey 1949:AdvertisingandPublications:PublishedMaterialon Sex."BernarrA. MacFadden,
The VinlePowersof SuperbManhood: HowDeveloped, HowLost,HowReBained(New York,
1900); andW.H. Walling,Sexolofly(Philadelphia,
1902),bothgivegruesomeaccountsofthe
outcomeof masturbationandthe dangersof sexual"excess."
60Bibby,p. 128.
6lRegrettably,
the MassObservation"SexSurvey"ofthe late 1940s (seen. 59 above)did
not askquestionsaboutattitudestowardmasturbation. However,numerouspejorativecom-
mentsaboutthemalesubculture,withinwhichmanymenfirstlearnedaboutsex,deploredthe
"smutty"andunpleasantassociationsthusacquired.

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 Forbiddex byMen
byGod,Despised 381

doctorof medicine),publishedatherownexpensea littlevolumeentitled

MarriedLove.62In spiteof herpublisher's lackof confidence in thework
andwarrestrictions,thebookbecamearunaway reprinting
best-seller, sev-
eraltimeswithin the year
first and sellingover halfa millioncopies within
sevenyears,morethanfamousfictionbest-sellers of theperiod.Shesubse-
quentlyproduced other works of sex advice: Wise Parenthood,giving
detailedinstructionson the subjectof birth control; a shortpamphlet
explaining
clearly to working-classwomen how to protect themselves from
weakeningpregnancies; a book of advice for mothers entitled Radignt
Motherhood;asexeducation manual, andtheIoxnsg;ashortvolumecon-
Senc
tainingTheTrxthaboutVenereal Disease;anda textbookon Controlception
aimedatthemedicalprofession.63
Thesebookssoldwell,bywhichwe canmakesomeassumptions about
the needforsexualinstructionduringthe period,althoughsalaciousin-
terestcannotbe excludedentirelyas a motivefor theirpurchase.(One
youngmanadrnitted thathehadinitiallypurchasedMarriedLove forauto-
eroticstimulus.)64Butreaderresponsewentbeyondpurchase or perhaps
recommendation to others.Fromthe firstpublicatlonof Mrried Love
Stopesreceiveda torrentof correspondence fromnearlyallsocialclasses
thatcontinueduntilherdeathin 1958,althoughit declinedradically after
WorldWarII. Severalthousandof theseletterssurvive.Over40 percentof
hercorrespondents weremen.65Inspiteofwhatappears to thepresent-day
readerasherexplicitbiasin favorof monogamous heterosesual marriage at
anearlyage, consequent upon achaste youth, what seems to have struckher
contemporaries washersympathyon the seldom-discussed topicof sex.
Menconfessedtheirpremarital and extramarital mercenary
affairs, oroth-
erwise,andrevealedtheiranxieties overmasturbation as well as problems
affectingsexlifewithinmarriage. Shewasevenconsultedby a few men
describingthemselves ashomosexual or atleastashavingi'effeminate" or
"inverted" sidesto theirnaturein the expectation of a certain sympathy,
andeventhe hopethatshemightwritesomethingparticularly gearedto-
wardtheirproblems.66 Theoverwhelming majority of hercorrespondents,
however,implicitly wereheterosexual andeithermarried or hopingto be.
Wethereforehaveat our disposala collectionof lettersrevealingat-
62Marie Stopes, MarriedLove:A NexYContribution witha
totheSolutionofSexDi;fficulties,
E. H. Starlin,g,F.R.S., gnd Father
PrefacebyDr. JessieMurray,gnd Lettersfrom Professor
St.Iohn,S.J.(London, 1918).
Stanislaus
A Checklist
63Peter Eaton and Marilyn Warnick,MarieStopes: ofHer Writinys(London,
1977); Billie Melman, Woman andthePopularImaginationin the1920s(London, 1988), p. 3.
64CMAC, PP/MCS/A. 168 AMM.
65Lesley A. Hall, "The Stopes Collection in the Contemporary Medical Archives Centre
theSociglHis-
of the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine," BulletinoftheSocietyfor
tory ofMedicine 32 (1983): 50-51.
66CMAC, PP/MCS/A.240 CDW, A.159 PL, A.174 CTM.

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382 LESLEY A. HALL

titudesto sexandto sexualconductfromthousands of menof allsocial

classes,coveringthe period1918-45. Mostof thesemenhadgrownup
withexposure to thetraditional Victorianandimmediately post-Victorian
viewson marriage, sex,andtherolesof thesexes.Theywerealsoexposed
to thenewideasbeingpromulgated byStopesherselfandbyotherwriters
reactingagainst"Victorianism." Thustheyarea valuable sourceforstudy
of changing(or persisting) attitudes during arlage of transition.While
theselettersobviouslyrepresent a self-selectedsample,on the basisof the
otherissuesaboutwhichcorrespondents consultedStopesit seemsreason-
ableto assumethattheyweretypicalof a considerable proportion of the
population,distinguished largelyby the determination to do something
abouttheirproblems thatledthemto writeto Stopes.
Themajority of the menwhowroteto Stopesdisplayeda remarkable
enthusiasm forheridealsof marriage. In somecaseswitha certainhesita-
tion,theywerereceptive to herdoctrinesconcerning birthcontrolwithin
marriage, andtheywerepassionately engagedbyhervisionof sexwithin
marriage as a mutualandreciprocal pleasure. Apparently, thereforenthey
wereveryreceptive to thenewmorality ofthe 1920s)if in manycasesthey
haddifficultieswiththe practicalities, fromactuallyobtainingcontracep-
tivedevicesto locatingtheclitoris.67 It is possible,of course,thatpreced-
ingattitudestowardmarriage werelessVictorian andlesspatriarchal than
is oftenassumed.
Thisattitudetowardmarriage anditspossibilities contrasts surprisingly
withthewaycorrespondents presented problems relatingto masturbation.
Sufferers(in theirowneyesit wassuffering) decried'Cthat pernicious and
shameful habit,self-abuse" and"theexquisite butpernicious souland body-
destroyingsinof masturbation."68 Theydeclared of themselves, "Iwasa
slaveto thevilepractice," and"Ihavebeenaweakandmiserable rotter."69
Suchpejorative termssuggestcollsiderable internalization of prevalentat-
titudestowardthesolitaryvice.Thepractice wassaidto havebeenpicked
up from"undesirable anddebasedcharacters" or "arottenset."70(Those
who statedthattheyhadacquiredthe habitas the resultof homosexual
seduction[or"degradation"] at anearlyageatschoolseemin allcasesto
havebeenapproaching Stopesaboutahabittheyfoundthemselves unable
to overcome,not aboutanyparticular senseof havingthusbecome"in-
verted"bynature.)7lSelf-abuse wasdescribed as"folly," even
a "mistake,'t

67SeeLesleyA. Hall,HiddenAnxieties:MaleSexuality,1900-1950 (Oxford,1991),chaps.

3 and4, fordiscussionofthe changingideologyof marriageatthisperiodandthe responseof
Stopes'scorrespondents.
68CMAC,PP/MCS/A.157ML, A.220 WS; similarfeelingswere often expressed:see
alsoA.228 AGS,A.245 MW,A.168 AMM,A.17 CH, A.128 JSH,A.244 WPW,A.64 GWC.
69CMAC,PP/MCS/A.183JMrA.157 FJL.
70CMAC,PP/MCS/A.54C, A.32 B.
71CMAC,PP/MCS/A.115HPH, A.244 WPW,A.232 CT,A.157 ML,A.65 C.

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 Forbidden
byGodvDespisedbyMen 383

a "disease,"72 andit waspresentedto Stopesas somethingof whichthe

sufferer wasa victim:"Theurgegot a greatholdon meuntilfinallyI was
unableto holdmyselfin."73Onemanclaimedthathe hadbeen"edected
[sic]" to it.74 In somecasesignorance waspleaded:"[I]wasdeniedsuch
knowledge asaboy,abusedmyself,wasneverwarned"; "Ididnotknowthe
dangersof it andbecame,I suppose,fascinated."75 Someclaimedthattheir
eyeshadfinallybeenopenedbysexeducationliterature: "Somehow I got
holdattheageof nineteenof a bookcalled'Whata YoungManOughtto
Know.'Havingreadit, andwitha violentassertionof will-power, I over-
cametheviceof masturbation, andhavekeptfreefromit eversince."76
Mendescribedthe feelingsandsymptoms theyexperienced asa result
(sotheybelieved)of thepractice.Forsomeit wasa matterof itseffectson
the "nerves": "Thishasgivenmeagreatfeelingof nervousness, shameand
remorse." Onecorrespondent wrote,"WhenI wasabouttwenty-two I had
a nervousbreakdown andthedoctorwhoattendedmesaidcasewastaken
justin timeandtheI wason thatvergeof PetitMal. . . It wasnotuntilI
readthatbookthatI realisedwhatharmI hadbeendoingto myhealth
throughself-abuse." Anothernoted,"Nervous systemallto pieces."77
Othersbelievedit hadhaddeleterious effectsupontheorganitself,ei-
ther by restrictingits growth("Mypenisis fartoo small.... This I
realise. . . is dueto abuse")78 or precisely
theopposite,aswith"'toofre-
quenterection,' a certain'flabbiness'
andpossible'overenlargement' ofthe
maleorgan"attributed to "youthful indulgence in solitude."79Varicocele
(a clusterof varicoseveinson onetesticle)widelywassupposedto be an-
othereffect.80Oneworking-class manbelievedthat"eventually nature's
desireandmasturbation turnedmeinsanein myopinion,"thetraditional
penalty.8lA youngrailwayclerkproduceda compendium of symptoms
readinglikea quackpamphlet's warningson thesubject:"Asa resultI am
verypaleandawfullydepressed, I cannotinterestmyselfin anything,I am
unfitformywork,sometimesI feelso depressed thatI wishI wasdead.I
amperfectlycertainthatmypresentconditionis dueto myawfialfollyas
describedabove.... Mychiefailmentsare:increasing headaches, aching
eyes,andI havea throbbingin my bodythatseemsto makemy whole
beinggivea littleautomatic jump,the jumpkeepingexacttimewithmy
72CMAC,PP/MCS/A.176MM, A.183 WN, A.107 GHG,A.232 CT,A.239 CW.
73CMAC,PP/MCS/A.132HPH.
74CMAC,PP/MCS/A.126JGH.
75CMAC,PP/MCS/A.194TCP,A.176 MM; see also A.252 AEW,A.222 PDS, A.222
JHS, A.123 HPH, A.117 CH.
76CMAC,PP/MCS/A.32JJB.
77CMAC,PP/MCS/A.126JGH,A.107 CHG, A.64 GWC.
78CMAC,PP/MCS/A.222 JHS.
79CMAC,PP/MCS/A.208AWR.
80CMAC,PP/MCS/A.194 TCP,A.89 F.
81CMAC, PP/MCS/A.65 C.

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384 LESLEY A. HALL

pulseandveins,thethrobbingis greatlypronounced nearthetempleand

ears."82Anothermanwas so convincedof the deleterious effectsof the
habitthathe attributed allhis troublesat the ageof twenty-nine to self-
abusecarriedon twelveyearspreviously, for a periodof fivemonthsand
thenabandoned.83 Masturbation wasalsoblamedforeczemabetweenthe
legsanda drippingafterurination.84 Others,whilenoticingno particular
adverseeffects,wereconcerned thatit mighthavedisastrous repercussions
on theirabilitieswhentheymarried orevenaffectanychildren theymight
father.85Somewonderedif sexualproblems theyexperienced duringmar-
riagecouldhavebeencausedbyit.86
Heroicremediesforthisailment(asit wasperceived) weredemanded:
"Wouldyou adviseme to be circumcised? . . . If youadvisecircumcision
couldI do it myselfasI don'twishto approach a doctoron thesubjectasI
amthoroughlyashamed of myself."87 "Nowwillyoutellmeif vasectomy
willcuremylossof semen,forI confessthatevenyetI getatintervals the
terriblecravingto indulgein this sin, and sometimeshavenocturrlal
losses."88The beliefthatvasectomy was a curefor "sexualweakness" is
alsofoundamongenquiriesreceivedby the EugenicsSocietyaboutthis
operation.89
Oneortwoof Stopes'sreaders didventureto voicea certainskepticism
abouttheallegedhorrendous effectsof self-abuse:"Iknowit shouldbedis-
couragedbutallboysdo it andnothingeverhappens"; "Ifeelsure[it] is
notso harmful asgenerallythoughtbutis obviouslyunpleasant andunde-
sirable."90
Someconsidered it a "lesserevil"thanfornication: "Iwastold
andI believed,thattheonlypossiblealternative to thiswasto gowithpros-
titutes,andthatthisalternativewasmoredegrading thantheother.''9l
Thecommonsense approach thatregulated self-relief
couldbea permis-
sibleexpedient-morally andevenhygienically preferableto fornication-
was advocatedby the clergymen amongStopes'scorrespondents rather
thanby doctors,presumably on groundsof comparative morality.One,
concedingthat"itcannotbe discussedin publicprints," suggestcdthatif

82CMAC, PP/MCS/A.189 WN.

83CMAC,PP/MCS/A.128 JSH.
84CMAC,PP/MCS/A.228AGS,A.232 EB.
85CMAC,PP/MCS/A.239CW,A.220 WS, A.63 C, A.80 SGE;similaranxietiesarealso
to be foundin A.252 AEW,A.222 PDS, A.183 JM,A.120 OLH, A.107 CHG, A.43 PAB.
86Both impotenceand prematureejaculationwere attributedto this cause: CMAC,
PP/MCS/A.185AGM,A.89 F, A.37 WB, A.64 GWC,A.88 FWF,A^157ML, A.109 EG.
87CMAC,PP/MCS/A.239CW;see alsoA.132 LACH(RoyalAirForce).
88CMAC, PP/MCS/A.220 WS.
89EugenicsSociety Archives,CMAC, SA/EUG/D.210-12, "VoluntarySterilisation:
Enquiries."
90CMAC,PP/MCS/A.248Sgt. HTW (in India),A.42 Lt. Col. VVVVB.
91CMAC,PP/MCS/A.109MajorGCGG,A.200 JP.

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 byGod,DespisedbyMen
Forbidden 385

masturbation "is only availedof for reliefand self-regulation (likethe

bowels,as aneminentLondonmedicalmanoncesaidto me)sayoncea
weekor in tendays,I not onlyseeno sinor faultin thisbutanactof self-
denial,of escape,andprobably of unselfishnesstowardsanother.It is cer-
tainlybetterthan eitherseducinga girl, or availingof prostitutes."92
Stopeswasinclinedto agreewiththe clergyman's pointof view.Suchan
attitudecontrasts,however,withthetalesof thosemenwhowereso hor-
rifiedbytheirpracticeof self-abuse thattheysoughtfornication asa cure,
an expedientthatdid not necessarily work:it mightevenexacerbate the
problem."Before I wasmarried I usedto haveunionsthreeandfourtimes
anight,twoorthreetimesaweekwithdifferent girlsin thehopeof curing
myselfbutit wasof no use."93
Obviously,masturbation wassurrounded formanymenby guiltand
fear,whichextendedto coveremissions thatwerenotproduced voluntarily.
Theuseoftheterm"pollutions" to describetheseemissions wouldseemto
haveembodiedthe emotionsthey raised.So adversewerethe feelings
aboutthesephenomena thateventhesexualsensations arousedbycontact
withanintendedwifesometimeswereperceived asfrightening aswellas
sinful.Oneyoungmanwasso horrifiedby the emissionshe experienced
whileembracing hisfiancee,he informedStopes,thathe hadreturnedto
the frontduringthe FirstWorldWaralmosthopingthathe wouldnot
return.94
Profoundworriesoverthe use of contraception seemto havebeen
boundup withtheseanxieties.Themostcommonly usedmethodat that
timewascoitusinterruptus, oftenknownas"onanism" (andcorrectlyso:it
is a misnomer whenappliedto masturbation).95 Thepractice of birthcon-
trolin generalsometimes wascondemned as"conjugal onanism"; thus,the
shrinking menfelt("asfromsodomy," oneremarked) perhapswasnotsur-
prising.96The stigmaaroundmasturbation also causedconsiderable
inhibitionin conjugallovemaking. Evenwhenmenhadcometo recognize
theroleof clitoralstimulationin femalearousalandsatisfaction, theywere
inclinedto questionwhetherthis mightbe C'tooindecentto the nicely
mindedwoman"or "savour of perversion orproveharmful."97 Howmen
themselvesfelt aboutbeinghandledand stimulatedis a subjectabout
92"AnOld Priest,"quotedin DearDr. Stopes:Sexin the1920s,ed. Ruth Hall (London,
1978), p. 65.
93CMAC,PP/MCS/A.33WWDB (in New Zealand).
94CMAC, PP/MCS/A.65C; see also A.145 BJ,A.118 SNCH, A.54 HC, A.132 HDH,
A.138 LRI,A. 165 HGL,A.92 F, A.230 LT,A.157 WAL,A. 240 JW.
95SeeGenesis38:9 for the originsof the word;for its use at this periodto denotecoitus
interruptus(in the contextof the expressionof anxietiesoverthe prevalenceof the practice),
seeArthurCooperinBritishMedicalJourngl 1914, no. 1:478.
96CMAC,PP/MCS/A.15A.
97CMAC,PP/MCS/A.156THL, A.56 RC.

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 3X6 LESLEY A. HALL

whichStopes'scorrespondentson the wholeweresilent.Veryoccasionally,

a manseekingfilrtherinformationaboutStopes'scommenton the woman
"playingan activepart"mightmentionsomethingsuchas "shenever'han-
dles'me and I neverreceivethose kissesandcaressesthat I am anxiousto
bestow."98One can readilyimaginethat this was a subjectshroudedin a
complexof taboos.The verypossibilitythatmalearousalmightnot be au-
tomatic but requirea certain degree of stimulationby his partnerwas
almostnevermentionedby writersof marriageadvicemanuals.99
On the evidence of the Stopes correspondence,therefore,it would
appearthatthe horrorof masturbationso often associatedwith the Victo-
rianswas exceptionallypersistent.It prevailedthroughouta periodduring
whichwell-meaningwritersof sexualadvice who, unlikethe quacks,had
no investmentin fosteringanxietyon the subject-were producingbooks
thatoverandoverreiterated the messagethatmasturbation did not necessar-
ilyhavethe appallingresultsattributedto it. Theunderlyingambiguitiesin
such writers'messages,and the continuingcirculationof the olderideas,
seem to havecombinedwith the existingnegativepotentialof masturba-
tion to continue to generateenormousfears.Correspondentswriting to
StopesduringWorldWarII werejustas concernedasthosewho hadwrit-
ten duringthe lastmonthsof WorldWarlI.
In spiteof the halfcenturyelapsedsinceEllis'sAxto-Erotism andtwenty
yearsof a new orthodoxyon masturbationpurportingto dispelVictorian
fearsal1dhorrors,in 1946 CyrilBibbycouldcitethe followingexamplesof
questionsaskedby boys of thirteento fifteen:"Does self-abusemakeyou
lose blood? . . . lose strength?lose weight?""Doesmasturbationcausein-
sanity[or] . . . consumption,venerealdisease,paralysis,pimples,etc.?""If
you do it, will you be ableto marry?''100 Nearlyfiftyyearslater,sex edu-
catorsof the 1980s found boys believingthat masturbationcould cause
impotence.101Anxietiesaboutthe possibleeffectsof masturbationappear
to have persistedwith a life of their own, distinct fromwhat respectable
andreputablesourcesof authorityweresaying.
The evidencesuggeststhatevenwhilemessagesaboutmasturbationand
its dangersapparentlywere beconiing more benign, the practiceitself
causedmen profoundanxiety.They were readilythreatenedby any hint
that it might have deleteriouscffectsand that a short momentof solitary
pleasuremight bringaboutdirerepercussions.The act was andstill is sur-
roundedby a burdenof derogatoryassociations("wanker" continuesto be
98CMAC,PP/MCS/A.220JLS,A.88 F.
990ne of the few who did was Dr. IsabelE. Hutton,in TheHy,gieneofMarriage, 4th ed.
(London,1933), pp. 65-66.
°°Bibby(n. 57 above),p. 157.
°lCarolLee,The OstrichPosition:Sex Schoolin,gand MystiJication(London,1983),p. 80.

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 Forbiddex
byGod,Despised
byMen 387

aninsult).Duringtheperiodunderdiscussione sexwasperceivedasanarea
of dangergenerally.
Intheworkscitedabove,men'ssexualdrivesandsexual
organstypicallyweredepictedas bothhardto control(only,if at all,by
majoreffortsof will)andultimately
fragile,readilydamaged
byamoment's
carelessness.
So loadedwasthe subjectwith negativeconnotations that
anyreassurances seemto havebeenfarlessaudiblethantheslightesthintof
potentialharm.

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