Battery Basics, Cell Chemistry,

and Cell Design

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 Battery Basics

What is a battery?
• A device that converts the chemical energy of its cell components into
electrical energy. It contains two materials that cannot undergo an
oxidation-reduction reaction directly, but that can do so if electrons are
allowed to travel from one material to the other through an outside circuit
while ions simultaneously travel within the cell.

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 Battery Basics

Cell vs. battery:

A “cell” is one basic electrochemical unit. It has a voltage (or “potential”)

that is defined by the chemistry.

A “battery” consists of one or more cells connected in series or parallel.

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 Battery Basics

Other terms:

Potential (voltage) – measured in volts. The open circuit voltage is defined

by the chemistry (i.e., the active materials). It is independent of the size of the
battery.

Current – measured in amps. This corresponds to the rate at which electrons

can be removed from the battery. The current capability of a battery depends
on the cell design and the chemistry.

Power – measured in watts. This is the product of the potential and the
current: for a given current, the higher the voltage, the higher the power.

Capacity – usually measured in amp-hours. This is a measure of the number

of electrons that can be removed from the battery. The capacity is
proportional to the size of the battery.

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 Battery Basics

All batteries contain:

Anode - negative electrode
A material that undergoes oxidation during the cell discharge.

Cathode - positive electrode

• A material that undergoes reduction during the cell discharge.

Electrolyte - medium for ion transfer

A medium, usually liquid, through which ions move from one
electrode to the other during the cell discharge. An ionic species,
the electrolyte salt, is dissolved in the electrolyte.

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 Battery Basics

Some familiar batteries:

Alkaline (used in toys, flashlights, etc.)

Anode – zinc
Cathode – manganese dioxide
Electrolyte – KOH in water
Voltage (open circuit) – 1.5 to 1.6 V

Mercuric oxide (formerly used in hearing aids)

Anode – zinc
Cathode – mercuric oxide
Electrolyte - KOH or NaOH in water
Voltage (open circuit) – 1.35 V

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 Battery Basics

Note that in most familiar battery types, the anode and the
cathode are solid materials, and the electrolyte is a liquid that
does not undergo reaction as the cell is discharged.

Electrochem primary lithium batteries, by contrast, use liquid

cathodes.

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 Battery Basics

Lithium batteries: Any battery that uses lithium metal as the anode
material is a lithium battery.

Some examples:
Li/MnO2 – used in cameras, watches, etc.
Li/SO2 – widely used in military applications (radios, etc.)
Li/FeS2 – available from Energizer, a lower voltage system that
can be used as a drop-in replacement for alkaline cells

• Lithium is an extremely reactive metal. In all lithium batteries, the

lithium reacts with the electrolyte to form a passivation layer (the
“SEI”) that prevents further reaction.

• Lithium melts at 180 C. When the lithium melts, the passivation layer
is destroyed, and the battery is very likely to burn or explode.

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 Battery Basics

Lithium Batteries made by Electrochem

Cell Power Typical
Classification Capability Cathodes

Liquid Moderate SOCl2,

Cathode to high SO2Cl2
SOCl2 + Br2/Cl2

Solid Low to MnO2, (CF)n

Cathode moderate SVO

Solid Very low I2 (PVP)

Electrolyte

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 Battery Basics

All of the current Electrochem products use a “liquid cathode.”

In liquid cathode systems, the active cathode material is a liquid that

also acts as the electrolyte.

A porous carbon material serves as the site at which the reduction of

the active material takes place. The carbon itself does not undergo
reaction in this process.

The lithium liquid cathode systems have a very high open circuit
voltage (3.6 V or 3.9 V) that contributes to their extremely high
energy density.

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 Energy Density
500
C Size Energy 450
Density 400
Comparison
350
300
Wh/Kg

250
200
150
100
50
0

2
X
C

nc
x

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e

de
nO
So
BC

CF
CS

lin
rid

Zi
xi
M

ka
o

on
hl

Al

er
lC

rb
lv

Ca
ny

Si
io
Th

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 Battery Chemistry

Advantages:

• The liquid cathode systems provide the highest energy density (Wh/L or
Wh/g) of any commercially available battery systems.
• They can operate over an extremely wide temperature range (-55 C to 200 C).
• These systems have a very low rate of self-discharge (typically <2% per year
at room temperature).

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 Battery Chemistry

Disadvantages:

• Because the electrolyte is so reactive, the passivation layer that forms on the
lithium is relatively thick. As a result, liquid cathode systems are subject to
significant voltage delay (i.e., voltage drop when a load is applied after long
storage).
• Because of the very high energy density and high reactivity, liquid cathode
batteries must be handled with care!
• The liquid electrolytes are strong oxidants and highly reactive with water.
They are very hazardous!
• However, when the batteries are properly treated after use, the end products
are environmentally friendly (simple inorganic salts, with no heavy metals
such as lead or cadmium).

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 Battery Chemistry

Electrochem makes three different types of liquid cathode primary cells:

• thionyl chloride
• sulfuryl chloride (CSC)
• bromine chloride (BCX)

Within each chemistry family there are electrolyte variations using different
electrolyte salts (aluminum-based or gallium-based), and different
concentrations of these salts.

The electrolytes are optimized for particular applications.

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 Battery Chemistry

Lithium / Thionyl Chloride

Anode Oxidation: Li  Li + + e-

Cathode Reduction: 2SOCl2 + 4e-  S + SO2 + 4Cl-

The open circuit cell voltage of Li/SOCl2 cells is 3.65 V.

Thionyl chloride is the most widely used of the liquid cathode electrolytes.
It can be used over the full temperature range.

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 Battery Chemistry

33-127-150MR (DD)
400 mA, 120 C

4.0

3.0
Potential (V)

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Capacity (Ah)

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 Battery Chemistry

Lithium / Sulfuryl Chloride (“CSC”)

Anode Oxidation: Li  Li + + e-

Cathode Reduction: SO2Cl2 + 2e-  SO2 + 2Cl-

The open circuit cell voltage of Li/SO2Cl2 cells is 3.93 V.

The CSC cells have the highest energy density of the Electrochem products.
They have excellent rate capability, but do not work well at the coldest
temperatures (<-20 C).

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 Battery Chemistry

CSC DD
16 ohms, 20 C
4.0

3.0
Potential (V)

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Capacity (Ah)

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 Battery Chemistry

Lithium / “BCX”

Anode Oxidation: Li  Li + + e-

Cathode Reduction:
BrCl + 2e-  Br- + Cl-
2SOCl2 + 4e-  S + SO2 + 4Cl-
The BCX electrolyte is a thionyl chloride electrolyte to which a bromine-chlorine
complex is added. The open circuit cell voltage of Li/SOCl2 cells is initially 3.9 V.

BCX cells operate well at the coldest temperatures. The electrolyte was developed
for improved safety in the case of deep discharge and overdischarge.

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 Battery Chemistry

BCX DD
20 ohms, 85 C

4.0

3.0
Potential (V)

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Capacity (Ah)

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 Passivation

In a liquid cathode cell, the active cathode material is always in

contact with the lithium anode. Instantaneous reaction between the
anode and the liquid cathode leaves a layer of reaction products
(mostly lithium chloride) on the anode surface.

This LiCl layer “seals” the lithium surface, protecting the lithium
from further reaction with the cathode.

Without the LiCl layer, this type of cell could not exist.

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 Passivation

Under some conditions, the LiCl passivation layer can lead

to a phenomenon known as “voltage delay” – a dip in
running voltage at the onset of load. As the discharge
continues, the passivation layer breaks down and the
voltage returns to normal.

The extent of passivation depends on the length of

storage and the storage temperature. If necessary, the
passivation layer can be removed by pre-loading the cell.

Lithium ion
Lithium atom
Anode Surface
Chloride ion

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 Passivation

An example of voltage delay

in a thionyl chloride cell

4.0

3.5

3.0
Potential (V)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
Load applied
0.5

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Time (min)

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 Passivation

Friend or foe?

• Without the passivation layer, liquid cathode systems could not

exist.
• The passivation layer helps keep the self-discharge rate extremely
low.
• But excessive passivation can lead to voltage delay.

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 Cell Design

Electrochem designs and manufactures primary lithium cells with three different
electrode configurations: bobbin, moderate rate (dual anode), and spirally
wound.

The amount of current that a battery can deliver depends on the surface area of
the electrodes. A spirally wound arrangement of two flat electrodes with high
surface area gives much higher rate capability than the same amount of material
arranged in a compact bobbin form.

However, the spirally wound configuration is not as rugged for conditions of

high shock and vibration as the simpler bobbin and moderate rate configurations.

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 Cell Design

Bobbin cells have low electrode surface area, and are therefore capable of
delivering only low current, typically in the micro-amp to milli-amp range,
depending on cell size. Bobbin cells are often used for memory backup and
other low current / low power applications.

Electrochem’s “QTC85”, “100”, “180” and “200” series cells use a bobbin
electrode configuration.

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 Cell Design

Glass-to-
Metal Seal
Stainless
Steel
Case
Separator

Lithium

Carbon
Cathode
Current
Collector
Spring

Bobbin (Low Rate)

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 Cell Design

Moderate rate cells have an electrode surface area roughly twice that of a
bobbin cell, and are capable of delivering moderate continuous current,
typically in the milliamp range, but as high as 1 amp for larger cells. Moderate
rate cells are used in a wide array of applications, but are most prevalent in the
downhole petroleum industry.

Electrochem’s “150MR”, “165MR”, “180MR” and “200MR” series cells use a

dual anode electrode configuration.

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 Cell Design

Glass-to-Metal
Seal
Stainless
Steel Case

Separator

Lithium

Carbon
Cathode
Current
Collector
Spring

Moderate Rate

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 Cell Construction

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 Cell Construction

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 Cell Design

Spirally wound cells have a relatively high electrode surface area and are
therefore capable of delivering higher continuous and pulse current, ranging
from several hundred milliamps for smaller cells to several amps for larger cells.
Spirally wound cells are used in a wide array of applications, including
oceanographic, military, aerospace, pipeline inspection and more.

Electrochem’s “BCX85”, “CSC93”, “PMX150/165”, MWD150 and “VHT200”

series cells use a spirally wound electrode configuration.

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 Cell Design

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 Cell Design

Carbon
“cathode”

Separator

Lithium anode

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 Cell Design

Cell designs for higher temperatures

Cells that operate at higher temperatures must be designed to handle higher

internal pressure. The cell hardware (can and cover) must be heavier or
otherwise designed to prevent breakage of the glass-to-metal seal.
Additional headroom is also required to allow for electrolyte expansion.

The “PMX” series uses the same sulfuryl chloride chemistry as the “CSC”
series, but is designed for use up to 150 C or 165 C. (The CSC cells are rated
to 93 C.)

Similar design considerations hold for the 150 C and 165 C versions of the
MR series.

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 Cell Design

Lithium alloy cells

Lithium-magnesium alloys that melt at higher temperatures than pure lithium

metal are used in the 180MR and 200MR series, as well as the spirally wound
VHT cells, which are rated to 200 C.

These cells are optimized for use at the very highest temperatures (150 C to
200 C). Lithium alloy cells give very poor performance below 70 C.
This performance limitation must be taken into account when these cells are
used.

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 Cell Design

• The cell cases and covers are made of stainless steel (304L or 316L).
• Most of the cells use nickel current collectors and internal tabs.
• Cells with low magnetic signature are available. The LMS cells use
stainless steel current collectors and tabs.

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 Cell Design

Other Design Considerations

Pressure Capability

• The cells are hermetically sealed; the cover is welded to the case.
• The positive and negative contacts are separated by a glass-to-metal seal.
• The glass-to-metal seal will fail under a pressure differential of
approximately 1000 psi.
• The cells can easily withstand a full vacuum.
• An interesting independent discussion of failure modes under high
external pressure is available: Ø. Hasvold, et al., Proc. 42nd Power
Sources Conf., Philadelphia, PA, 2006, pp. 75-78.

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 Cell Design

Other Design Considerations

Safety Devices

• Electrochem products are provided with electrical safety devices at the

cell level and/or the pack level as appropriate.
• All of the spiral wound cells include a fuse (or PTC) to prevent
hazardous behavior in case of a short.
• Do not attempt to replace the fuse or otherwise modify the cell
termination!
• A cell with a blown fuse will typically show an OCV of 0.0 V. However,
some fuses have a very high resistance when they have blown; this can
lead to an apparent low OCV that is greater than 0 V.

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 Thank you!

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