Basic Principle of petroleum 2

Exploration for oil and gas

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Sunil Goriah

Basic Principles of Petroleum 2

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Basic Principles of Petroleum 2

Exploration for Oil and Gas
Introduction
Welcome to the Basic Principles of Petroleum Program, Module 2: Exploration for Oil
and Gas.

Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites for this module.

Objectives
In this module you will learn: The difference between reserves of oil and gas and
petroleum as a resource, how a reservoir is formed, what the characteristics of a viable
reservoir are, the techniques used to identify potential reservoir formations the role
seismic surveys play in locating potential reservoirs and why exploratory drilling is only
used when the potential for a viable reservoir is high.

The Process of Turning a Resource into a Marketable Product

The processes whereby the resource of petroleum is turned into a marketable product
are divided into: Upstream, which includes exploration, drilling and production, and
downstream, which includes refining, marketing and transportation. In this module we
are concerned with the first of the upstream activities, which is exploration.

The Difference Between Reserves and a Resource

First let us consider the difference between reserves of oil and gas and petroleum as a
resource. Reserves refer to the estimated volume of petroleum that can be extracted
profitably and legally under existing conditions. Resource, on the other hand, refers to
the total amount of petroleum in place. Recoverable resource is that portion of the total
oil accumulation that could be extracted if the price were high enough, or technological
advances made it practical.

Formation of a Reservoir
In the previous module we looked at the formation of petroleum. Let us now consider
how oil and gas deposits form exploitable reservoirs. You recall that hydrocarbons are
generated within some rocks, like organic shales, which we refer to as source rock. The
source rocks contain the hydrocarbon, but the rock has very low permeability which
means that the spaces between the rock particles are not wide enough to permit the oil
to flow freely to a well. This prevents exploitation of the oil contained in the rock. Over
geologic time oil and gas can migrate into reservoir-quality rock if the conditions are
right. Reservoir rock must be porous and permeable enough for the oil or gas to flow
freely to a well if extracting the hydrocarbon is to be economical.
Oil and gas can only be held in a reservoir rock if there are seals that prevent it from
leaving once it has migrated in; the reservoir rock must also remain below the
temperature at which the hydrocarbons break down. Since oil and gas are less dense
than water, water tends to be displaced downwards by the hydrocarbon as it migrates
to the crest of the reservoir. Thus, the important seals lie above the reservoir. Pore water
is present in the porous rock, but below the layers of oil and gas. Finally, oil and gas
must be trapped within the reservoir rock in order to form any sizable accumulations for
potential exploitation. There are essentially two kinds of traps: Structural traps and
stratigraphic traps.

Structural Traps
Structural traps are the result of folding or faulting, such as an anticline or dome.
Hydrocarbons will naturally migrate to the highest point of the water-saturated porous
reservoir, which is overlaid with layers of impermeable reservoir rock. A fault can
produce similarly favorable conditions.

Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are the result of changes in the rock properties, usually permeability.
Unconformities are a common type of stratigraphic trap. An unconformity is a break or
interruption in the stratigraphic order and is commonly caused by an extended period
of uplift and erosion. The younger top layer can instead act as the impermeable cap
rock seal, when oil and gas migrate into the reservoir rock below.

Cap Rock (Reservoir Seal)

In either type of trap, the hydrocarbons are prevented from escaping through the sides
and the top of the trap by the presence of an impermeable cap rock or seal. The areas in
the reservoir rock saturated by oil or gas are labeled on the various trap types.

Characteristics of a Viable Reservoir

Not all reservoirs are created equal, and the goal of exploration is to find reservoir rock
that has most of the following characteristics: A proper trap - The reservoir must have a
proper cap or seal that prevents the petroleum from leaking to the surface, thus
trapping the oil and gas within the rock formation. A large accumulation of oil or gas or
both - The reservoir must be large enough to justify the costs of exploration and
recovery and to make the operation profitable. Sufficient porosity and permeability -
The reservoir rock must be porous and permeable so that the trapped petroleum will
move easily through the rock formation during recovery operations. Correct fluid
composition - Almost all traps will contain a mixture of gas, oil and water in various
proportions. Adequate pressure - Ideally the formation is under sufficient pressure, so
that once the reservoir is penetrated to recover the petroleum, the oil and gas will flow
to the surface on their own accord without the need of artificial lift. Natural and artificial
lift will both be discussed in greater detail when we reach module four.

Preliminary Exploration
Exploration is the search for and assessment of potentially profitable reservoirs. A
prospect is a mapped geologic feature with the potential to become an economic
reservoir or field. Once a potential reservoir has been discovered, every possible method
must be employed to assess its potential for economic development. Geophysical
search techniques are used to examine the earth’s subsurface formations for potential
reservoirs in folds, faults and stratigraphic traps.

The most common are: Geographical surveys - An airplane or satellite is used to conduct
aerial surveys that take highly detailed photographs from which potential reservoir
formations can be identified. Magnetic surveys - An airplane or boat is used to measure
the intensity of the earth’s magnetic fields. Sedimentary formations containing
hydrocarbons may be indicated by disturbances in the magnetic field. Drawing maps of
the magnetic field may show these anomalies. Gravimetric surveys - Using airplanes,
boats, or land stations, the earth’s gravity is examined for variations caused by
differences in rock density. The denser formations of rock usually lie deeper than the
less dense and stratigraphic maps may be developed as a result of the findings. All of
these techniques are employed to identify areas of potential, which are then subjected
to more detailed and sophisticated exploration.

Seismic Surveys
Various types of seismic surveys are used to evaluate the subsurface geometry of
potential reservoir rock formations with greater accuracy. Sound waves are transmitted
from a truck on land or from a vessel at sea, through the subsurface. Downward-going
waves are reflected back to the surface wherever the rock layers change in stiffness or
density. The reflected waves are detected at the surface by an instrument called a
seismograph. A "seismic source" is used to generate the transmitted energy waves. On
land, a weight may be dropped (Thumper), a gas gun employed (Dinoseis) or the surface
of the earth vibrated (Vibroseis). These techniques all employ a series of electronic
receivers called geophones, which are spread over the potential area to record the
energy wave reflected back from the different density formation layers underneath. At
sea, hydrophones are strung out on the sea surface. A fairly accurate seismic map is
compiled from the results in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Further processing
of the data can produce three-dimensional seismic images. The seismic images are used
to identify prospects, either structural or stratigraphic traps, that can be subject to more
detailed seismic study or wildcat drilling, the traditional industry term for exploratory
drilling.

Economics of Exploration
Magnetic and gravimetric surveys are the least expensive of the exploration techniques
discussed so far, followed by seismic studies. Drilling is far more expensive and doesn’t
always yield the expected results. Therefore, exploratory drilling only occurs after the
most exhaustive studies have been completed to assess the prospect's potential. With
luck, the exploratory drilling may discover a promising field. The next step is to develop
the field by drilling producing wells. This step comprises a set of drilling operations that
we will discuss in the next module.

Summary

Objectives
In this module you have learned: The difference between reserves of oil and gas and
petroleum as a resource, how a reservoir is formed, what the characteristics of a viable
reservoir are, the techniques used to identify potential reservoir formations, the role
seismic surveys play in locating potential reservoirs and why exploratory drilling is only
used when the potential for a viable reservoir is high.

Review
In this module, you learned that exploration is an upstream process that turns
petroleum from a resource into marketable products. You were taught the difference
between source rock and reservoir rock. Finally, you learned which characteristics are
valued most in the exploration for potential oil and gas reservoirs.