7: Intermolecular Forces

London Forces London forces occur between all molecular substances and noble gases. They do
not occur in ionic substances.

London Forces are also called instantaneous, induced dipole-

dipole interactions. They occur between all simple covalent
molecules and the separate atoms in noble gases.
In any molecule the electrons are moving constantly and randomly. As
this happens the electron density can fluctuate and parts of the
molecule become more or less negative i.e. small temporary or
transient dipoles form.
These temporary dipoles can cause dipoles to form in neighbouring
molecules. These are called induced dipoles. The induced dipole is
always the opposite sign to the original one.

Main factor affecting size of London Forces

The more electrons there are in the molecule the higher the chance that temporary dipoles will form. This
makes the London forces stronger between the molecules and more energy is needed to break them so
boiling points will be greater.

The increasing boiling points of the halogens down the group 7 series can be explained by the
increasing number of electrons in the bigger molecules causing an increase in the size of the London
forces between the molecules. This is why I2 is a solid whereas Cl2 is a gas.

The increasing boiling points of the alkane homologous series can be explained by the increasing
number of electrons in the bigger molecules causing an increase in the size of the London forces
between molecules.

The shape of the molecule can also have an effect on the size of the London forces. Long straight chain
alkanes have a larger surface area of contact between molecules for London forces to form than
compared to spherical shaped branched alkanes and so have stronger London forces .

Permanent dipole-dipole forces

•Permanent dipole-dipole forces occurs between polar molecules

•It is stronger than London forces and so the compounds have higher boiling points
•Polar molecules have a permanent dipole. (commonly compounds with C-Cl, C-F, C-Br H-Cl, C=O bonds)
•Polar molecules are asymmetrical and have a bond where there is a significant difference in
electronegativity between the atoms.

Permanent dipole forces

occur in addition to London
forces

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 Hydrogen bonding
It occurs in compounds that have a hydrogen atom attached to one of the three most
electronegative atoms of nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine, which must have an available lone pair of
electrons. e.g. a –O-H -N-H F- H bond. There is a large electronegativity difference between the
H and the O,N,F
+ δ-
δ- Hδ δ+
180o N O
180o H
δ+ δ -
δ -
+ δ +
+
H F H F Hδ H Hδ
δ+
δ+
δ- H δ+
N H
Always show the lone pair of electrons on the δ-
O,F,N and the dipoles and all the δ- δ+ charges δ+
H
O
Hδ +
H δ+ δ+
Hydrogen bonding occurs in addition to London forces δ+ H H
The hydrogen bond should have an bond angle of 180o with one O
of the bonds in one of the molecules
δ-
The bond angle is 180O around the H atom because there are two Water can form two hydrogen bonds
pairs of electrons around the H atom involved in the hydrogen per molecule, because the
bond. These pairs of electrons repel to a position of minimum electronegative oxygen atom has two
repulsion, as far apart as possible. lone pairs of electrons on it.
It can therefore form stronger
Alcohols, carboxylic acids, proteins, amides all can form hydrogen bonds hydrogen bonding and needs more
energy to break the bonds, leading to
a higher boiling point.
Alcohols form hydrogen bonds. This means alcohols have
higher boiling points and relatively low volatility compared to
Ice H H
alkanes with a similar number of electrons
O

H
H
O O
H
H H
HO O
H H
In ice the molecules are held further
apart by the hydrogen bonds than in
liquid water and this explains the lower
density of ice

Hydrogen bonding is stronger than the other two 400

types of intermolecular bonding. H2O
Boiling point K

The anomalously high boiling points of H2O, NH3 and 300 HF H2Te
HF are caused by the hydrogen bonding between H2Se SbH3
these molecules in addition to their London forces. NH3 H2S
HI
AsH3
The additional forces require more energy to break 200 HBr
PH3 HCl SnH4
and so have higher boiling points
GeH4
SiH4

The general increase in boiling point from H2S to H2Te or 100 CH4
from HCl to HI is caused by increasing London forces
between molecules due to an increasing number of
electrons.
25 50 75 100 125
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 Solvents and Solubility
Solubility of a solute in a solvent is a complicated balance of energy required to break bonds in the solute
and solvent against energy given out making new bonds between the solute and solvent.

Ionic substances dissolving in water

hydration of the ions

When an ionic lattice dissolves in water it

involves breaking up the bonds in the lattice
and forming new bonds between the metal
ions and water molecules.

The negative ions are attracted to the δ+

hydrogens on the polar water molecules and
The higher the charge density the greater the hydration
the positive ions are attracted to the δ- oxygen
enthalpy (e.g. smaller ions or ions with larger charges)
on the polar water molecules.
as the ions attract the water molecules more strongly.

Solubility of simple alcohols

δ- δ+ δ- +
O H O H δ
H
The smaller alcohols are soluble in water
because they can form hydrogen bonds C H
H δ+
with water. The longer the hydrocarbon H
chain the less soluble the alcohol. C
H
H

Insolubility of compounds in water

Compounds that cannot form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, e.g. polar molecules such as
halogenoalkanes or non polar substances like hexane will be insoluble in water.

Solubility in non-aqueous solvents

Compounds which have similar intermolecular

forces to those in the solvent will generally dissolve

Non-polar solutes will dissolve in non-polar solvents. e.g. Iodine which has only London forces between
its molecules will dissolve in a non polar solvent such as hexane which also only has London forces.

Propanone is a useful solvent because it has both polar and

CH3
non polar characteristics. It can form London forces with some
non polar substances such as octane with its CH3 groups. Its δ- δ+ δ- δ+
polar C=O bond can also hydrogen bond with water. O H O C
δ +
H CH3

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