SDH Concepts

J.T.O.
(Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission
SECTION – G
SDH CONCEPT
BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 334

J.T.O. (Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission
SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction
It is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing method.
The name of hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method which is
synchronous by nature. The evolution of this system will assist in improving the
economy of operability and reliability of a digital network.
1. Historical Overview
In February 1988, an agreement was reached at CCITT (now ITU-TS) study
group XVIII in Seoul, on set of recommendations, for a synchronous digital hierarchy
representing a single world wide standard for transporting the digital signal. These
recommendations G-707, G-708, G-709 cover the functional characteristic of the
network node interface, i.e. the bit rates and format of the signal passing over the
Network Node Interface (NNI).
For smooth transformation from existing PDH, it has to accommodate the

three different country standards of PDH developed over a time period. The different
standards of PDH are given in Fig.1.
The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started in

U.S.A. as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network). The aim of these standards was
to simplify interconnection between network operators by allowing inter-connection of
equipment from different vendors to the extent that compatibility could be achieved. It
was achieved by SDH in 1990, when the CCITT accepted the recommendations for
physical layer network interface. The SONET hierarchy from 52 Mbit per second rate
onwards was accepted for SDH hierarchy (Fig.1).
2. Merits of SDH
(i) Simplified multiplexing/demultiplexing techniques.
(ii) Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to

multiplex/demultiplex the entire high speed signal.

(iii) Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance and provisioning

capabilities.
(iv) Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission
technology.
(v) Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.
(vi) Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates.
(vii) Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator

environment.
3. Advantages
(i) Multi-vendor environment (mid span meet) : Prior to 1988 international
agreement on SDH all vendors used proprietary non-standard
techniques for transporting information on fibre. The only way to
interconnect was to convert to the copper transmission standards
(G702/703/704). The cost and complexity levels were very high.
(ii) Synchronous networking : SDH supports multi-point or hub

configurations whereas, asynchronous networking only supports point-
to-point configurations.
(iii) Enhanced OAM&P : The telecoms need the ability to administer,

surveil, provision, and control the network from a central location.
(iv) Positioning the network for transport on new services : LAN to LAN,
HDTV, interactive multimedia, video conferencing.
(v) HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed to

3 or more spur. It allows the nodes to communicate as an angle
network, thus reducing the back-to-back multiplexing and
demultiplexing.

4. S.D.H. Evolution
S.D.H. evolution is possible because of the following factors :
(i) Fibre Optic Bandwidth : The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be increased
and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.
(ii) Technical Sophistication : Although, SDH circuitary is highly complicated, it

is possible to have such circuitary because of VLSI technique which is also
very cost effective.
(iii) Intelligence : The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.
(iv) Customer Service Needs : The requirement of the customer with respect to
different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional
equipment.
The different services it supports are :
1. Low/High speed data.
2. Voice
3. Interconnection of LAN
4. Computer links
5. Feature services like H.D.T.V.
6. Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)
5. S.D.H. Standards
The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH networks
namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals (time for 1
byte in 64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH. The frame
structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte units as shown in
Figs. 2 and 3. As the speed increases, the number of bits increases and the single
line is insufficient to show the information on Frame structure. Therefore, this

representation method is adopted. How the bits are transmitted on the line is
indicated on the top of Fig.2.
The Frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns depending upon
synchronous transfer mode level (STM). In STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270
columns. The reason for 9 rows arranged in every 125 micro seconds is as follows :
For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard), there are 25
bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, there are 32 bytes in
125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for supervisory purposes, 27 bytes
can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second signal, i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns.
Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36 bytes are allotted in 125 micro
seconds, i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it could be said 9 rows are matched to
both hierarchies.
A typical STM-1 frame is shown in Fig. 3. Earlier this was the basic rate but at
present STM-0 which is just 1/3 rd of STM-1, i.e. 51.840 Mbit per second has been
accepted by CCITT. In STM-1 as in Fig.3 the first 9 rows and 9 columns
accommodate Section Overhead (SOH) and 9 rows x 261 columns accommodates
the main information called pay load. The interface speed of the STM-1 can be
calculated as follows :
(270 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits x 1/125 s) = 155.52 Mbps.
The STM-0 contains just 1/3rd of the STM-1, i.e. 9 rows x 90 columns out of
that 9 rows x 3 columns consist of section overhead and 9 rows x 87 columns consist
of pay load. The STM-0 structure was accepted so that the radio and satellite can
use this bit rate, i.e. 51.840 Mbit/s across their section.
The different SDH level as per G-707 recommendations is as given in Fig.4.

6. Basic Definitions
(i) Synchronous Transport Module

This is the information structure used to support information pay load and
over head information field organised in a block frame structure which repeats every
125 micro seconds.
(ii) Container
The first entry point of the PDH signal is the container in which the signal is
prepared so that it can enter into the next stage, i.e. virtual container. In container
(container-I) the signal speed is increased from 32 bytes to 34 bytes in the case of
2.048 Mbit/s signal. The additional bytes added are fixed stuff bytes (R), Justification
Control Bytes (CC and C’), Justification Opportunity bytes (s).
In container-3, 34.368 Mbit/s signal (i.e., 534 bytes in 125  seconds) is

increased to 756 bytes in 125  seconds adding fixed stuff bits(R). Justification
control bits (C-1, C-2) and Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2).
Detail follows : 756 bytes are in 9 x 84 bytes/125  seconds frame. They are
further subdivided into 3 sub frames 3 x 84 (252 bytes or 2016 bits). Out of this
1431 information bits (I),
10 bits (two sets) (C-1, C-2)
2 Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2)
573 (fixed bits)
In container-4, 139.264 Mbit/s signal (2176 bytes in 125  seconds) is

increased to 9 x 260 bytes. Details as follows :
9 x 260 bytes are partitioned into 20 blocks consisting of 13 bytes each. In

each row one justification opportunity bit(s) and five justification control bit(s) are
provided.

The first byte of each block consists of either
eight information bit (I)
or
eight fixed stuff bits (R)
or
One justification control bit (C) plus five fixed stuff bits (R) plus two overhead
bits (o).
or
Six information bits (I) plus one justification opportunity bit (s) plus one fixed
stuff bit (R).
The last 12 bytes of one block consists of information bits (I).
(iii) Virtual Container

In Virtual container the path over head (POH) fields are organised in a block
frame structure either 125  seconds or 500  seconds. The POH information consists
of only 1 byte in VC-1 for 125  seconds frame. In VC-3, POH is 1 column of 9 bytes.
In VC-4 also POH 1 column of 9 bytes. The types of virtual container identified are
lower orders VCs VC-1 and VC-2 and higher order VC-3 and VC-4.
(iv) Tributary Unit

A tributary unit is a information structure which provides adaptation between
the lower order path layer and the higher order path layer. It consists of a information
pay load (lower order virtual container) and a tributary unit pointer which indicates the
offset of the pay load frame start relating to the higher order VC frame start. Tributary
unit 1 for VC-1 and Tributary unit 2 is for VC-2 and Tributary unit 3 is for VC-3, when
it is mapped for VC-4 through tributary group-3. TU-3 pointer consists of 3 bytes out
of 9 bytes. Three bytes are H1, H2, H3 and remaining bytes are fixed bytes. TU-1
pointers are one byte interleaved in the TUG-2.

(v) Tributary Unit Group

One or more tributaries are contained in tributary unit group. A TUG-2 consist
of homogenous assembly of identical TU-1s or TU-2. TUG-3 consists of a
homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or TU-3. TUG-2 consists of 3 TU-12s (For 2.048
Mbit/sec). TUG-3 consists of either 7 TUG-2 or one TU-3.
(vi) Network Node Interface (NNI)

The interface at a network node which is used to interconnect with another
network node.
(vii) Pointer
An indicator whose value defines frame offset of a VC with respect to the
frame reference of transport entity, on which it is supported.
(viii) Administrative Unit

It is the information structure which provides adaptation between the higher
order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of information pay load
and a A.U. pointer which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start relating to the
multiplex section frame start. Two AUs are defined (i) AU-4 consisting VC-4 plus an
A.U. pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-4 with respect to STM-N frame, (ii) AU-
3 consisting of VC-3 plus A.U. pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-3 with
respect to STM-N frame. A.U. location is fixed with respect to STM-N frame.
(ix) Administrative Unit Group

AUG consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.
(x) Concatenation
The procedure with which the multiple virtual container are associated with
one another, with the result their combined capacity could be used as a single
container across which bit sequence integrity is maintained.

7. S.D.H. Layer Structure

The S.D.H. can be based on layered concept as shown in Fig.5. The Fig.6
shows the layer interconnection in detail.
8. Multiplexing Principles
The basic multiplexing principles and processing stage by stage, the
information signal is shown in Fig.7. In C-11, 1.544 Mbit per sec is mapped. In C-12
container, the entry is 2.048 Mbit/sec. In C-2 container the entry, i.e. 6.312 Mbit/sec
which is of American standard. These three containers passes through their
respective virtual containers and tributary unit pointers. At TUG-2 it can be either
4VC-11 with TU-11 or 3VC-12 with TU-12 or 1 VC-2 with TU-2. The C-3 container
takes the input 34 Mb/s or 44.7 Mb/s of the American Standard. These through VC-3
container and with tributary unit-3 goes to Tributary Unit Group–3. 3 Nos. VC-3 with
AU-3 can directly go to AUG and enter STM-frame. Similarly, 7 TUG-2 can be
mapped into one VC-3. Otherwise one VC-3 with TU-3 or 7 TUG-2 can go to TUG-3
and 3 TUG-3 are mapped into one VC-4. A 139.264 Mbit/sec signal can be mapped
into one VC-4 through C-4.
VC-4 with AU-4 goes to AUG and then to STM-frame. The different
possibilities are shown in Fig.7.
9. Section Overhead Brief Description

The section overhead portion of the STM-1 frame with their relevant bytes are
indicated in Fig. 9. From the figure, it is seen that 4th row 9 bytes are reserved for AU
pointers and this will be discussed separately. The top 3 rows x 9 columns of STM-1
frame reserved for Regenerator Section Overhead (R SOH). From the 5 th row to 9th
row with 9 columns are reserved for Multiplex Section Overhead (M SOH). A brief
idea of the different bytes in regenerator section overhead and multiplex overhead
are given below :
A-1, A-2 are framing bytes. Their values are :
A1 : 11110110
A2 : 00101000

(i) These two types of bytes form 16 bit Frame Alignment Word (FAW).
FAW formed by the last A-1 byte and the adjacent A-2 byte, in the
transmitter sequence defines the frame reference for each of signal
rates. There are 3 A-1 bytes in STM-1 and 3 A-2 bytes in STM-1. In
higher order STM their number increases with the STM order, i.e. in
STM-4, there will be 12 A-1 bytes and 12 A-2 bytes.
(ii) STM Identifier with C-1 Byte : In STM-1 there is a single C-1 byte
which is used to identify each of inter-leaved STM’s and in an STM-N
signal. It takes binary equivalent to the position in the inter-leave.
(iii) D-1 or D-12 : These bytes are for data communication channel. Inthis
D-1, D-2 and D-3 are for regenerator section. It can support 192 kilo
bit per section. D-4 to D-12 are for multiplex section. They can support
576 kilo bit per second.
(iv) E-1, E-2 for order wire purposes.
E-1 is for regenerator section order wire.
E-2 is for multiplex section order wire.
(v) F-1 is used for fault control purposes.
(vi) B-1 byte are called bit inter-leave parity-8. This is used for error
monitoring in the regenerator section. There is only 1 byte in STM-1 or
STM-4 or STM-16. On line monitoring can be done in this case.
(vii) B-2 bytes. These are used for error monitoring in the multiplex section.
There are 3 bytes for STM-1, STM-4 and 16 will have more number of
B-2 bytes as per their order.
(viii) K-1, K-2 bytes. There are 2 bytes for STM-1, 4 or 16. These are used
for co-ordinating the protection switching across a set of multiplex
section organised as protection group, they are used for automatic
protection switching.

(ix) Z-1, Z-2 : These bytes are located for functions and yet defined, as
per CCITT recommendations.
S1 – Synchronous Status Message
M1 – MUX SECTION R.E.I. (Remote Error Indication).

Customer residence
Fig. 1
Standardization of Digital Hierarchies

Fig. 2
SDH Interface Frame Representation Method

Fig. 3
STM-N Frame Structure

Fig. 4
SDH Standards – Bit Rates

Fig. 5
SDH–based Transport Network Layered Model

Fig. 6
SDH Layers

Fig. 7
Multiplexing Principles

Fig. 8
Layer Interaction

A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 C1
  E1  F1 RSOH
B1
D1   D2  D3
9 rows
AU–n pointers
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6
D7 D8 D9 MSOH
D10 D11 D12
S1 F2 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2
X – Byte reserved to national use
 – Media dependent
Blanks – Reserved for future use
Fig. 9
Section Overhead
Table indicating different combinations of P.D.H. Tributaries
INPUT OUTPUT
2 Mb 34 Mb 140 Mb STM–1
– – 1 STM–1
– 3 – STM–1
21 2 – STM–1
42 1 – STM–1
63 – – STM–1

H.O. POH : PATH OVER HEAD (VC3/VC4)

MODE 1 – A 64 BYTE FIXED LENGTH STRING
J1 J – PATH TRACE BYTE
(LIKE FAW) MODE 2 – 15 BYTE STRING & 1 BYTE HEADER (CRC–7)
B3 B – BIT INTERLEAVED PARITY CODE (BIP–8) BYTE FOR PATH ERR.

MON. CALCULATED OVER ALL BITS OF PREVIOUS VC BEFORE
SCRAMBLING.
C2 C – PATH SIG. LABEL BYTE TO INDICATE, SPE EQPD (1) OR NOT (0)
ATM – 00010011, MAN – 00010100, FDDI – 00010101, LOCKED TU –
00000011.
G1 G – PATH STATUS BYTE OR REMOTE STN. (BIT 1–4 FEBE, BIT 5 –

FERF, BIT 6–8 NOT USED)
F2 F – E.O.W. BETWEEN PATH
H4 H – MULTIFRAME ALIGNMENT BYTE OR DENOTE STARTING POSITION

OF ATM CELL
Z Z – FUTURE USE
(F3)
Z K3 – APS FOR PROTN. SWG. (b1 …. b4) SPARE (b5 …. b8) TO INCREASE
(K3) N/W CAPABILITY
Z N1 – TANDOM CONN. MON AND PATH DATA BYTE

(N1)
L.O. P.O.H (FOR VC–11, VC–12, VC–2)

V5 BIP–2 FEBE PT L1 L2 L3 FERF
FEBE – FAR END BLOCK ERROR.
FERF – FAR END RECEIVE FAILURE
PT – PATH TRACE
L1 – MAPPING IS IN ASYNCH. MODE
L2 – MAPPING IS IN BIT SYNCH. MODE
L3 – MAPPING IS IN BYTE SYNCH. MODE

J2 PATH TRACE
K–4 APS
N–2 TANDOM CONNECTION

Fig. 10
Multiplexing of STM–1 Signals

Fig. 11
Synchronous Multiplexers
Optional Tributary Interfaces
Fig. 12
Add Drop Multiplexer

10.0 Network Elements in SDH

Before the evolution of the standards covering synchronous transmission
systems, networks had to be built up from separate multiplex and line terminal
equipment. These are characterized by defined formats and electrical interfaces at
each level of the transmission hierarchy; whereas optical interfaces were entirely
proprietary. This gave rise to large amounts of multiplex and separate optical line
equipment.
On the other hand in SDH, multiplexers performs both multiplexing and line
terminating functions. Synchronous multiplexers can accept a wide range of
tributaries and offer a number of possible output data rates. Though the regeneration
of signal at repeaters is similar to PDH, there are some additional equipment in SDH
to perform function like cross–connection and OA&M functions as explained in
following sections.
10.1 Terminal Multiplexers

Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous
input signals into higher bit rate STM–N signals as shown in Fig.13 below. On the
tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accommodated. On the
aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STM–N signals.
Fig. 13
Terminal Multiplexer
10.2 Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from
or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes
it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that automatic back–
up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.

Fig. 14
Add/Drop Multiplexers
10.3 Digital Cross–Connects (DXC)

Cross connection is a synchronous network involves setting up semi–
permanent interconnections between different channels enabling routing to be
performed down to a VC level. This network element can have widest range of
functions such as mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers and
switching of various containers up to and including VC–4.
Fig. 15
Digital Cross–Connects
10.4 Regenerators
Regenerators, as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock
and amplitude of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted
by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream.
Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service
channels E1, F1, etc. in RSOH) and also can be output using these channels.

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J.T.O.

(Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 334

SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY FUNDAMENTALS

For smooth transformation from existing PDH, it has to accommodate the

The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started in

(ii) Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 335

(iii) Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance and provisioning

(v) Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.

(vi) Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates.

(vii) Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator

(ii) Synchronous networking : SDH supports multi-point or hub

(iii) Enhanced OAM&P : The telecoms need the ability to administer,

(v) HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed to

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 336

(ii) Technical Sophistication : Although, SDH circuitary is highly complicated, it

(iii) Intelligence : The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.

The different services it supports are :

1. Low/High speed data.

5. Feature services like H.D.T.V.

6. Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 337

(270 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits x 1/125 s) = 155.52 Mbps.

The different SDH level as per G-707 recommendations is as given in Fig.4.

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 338

(i) Synchronous Transport Module

In container-3, 34.368 Mbit/s signal (i.e., 534 bytes in 125  seconds) is

1431 information bits (I),

10 bits (two sets) (C-1, C-2)

2 Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2)

573 (fixed bits)

In container-4, 139.264 Mbit/s signal (2176 bytes in 125  seconds) is

9 x 260 bytes are partitioned into 20 blocks consisting of 13 bytes each. In

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 339

The first byte of each block consists of either

eight information bit (I)

eight fixed stuff bits (R)

The last 12 bytes of one block consists of information bits (I).

(iii) Virtual Container

(iv) Tributary Unit

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 340

(v) Tributary Unit Group

(vi) Network Node Interface (NNI)

(viii) Administrative Unit

(ix) Administrative Unit Group

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 341

7. S.D.H. Layer Structure

9. Section Overhead Brief Description

A-1, A-2 are framing bytes. Their values are :

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 342

(iv) E-1, E-2 for order wire purposes.

E-1 is for regenerator section order wire.

E-2 is for multiplex section order wire.

(v) F-1 is used for fault control purposes.

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 343

S1 – Synchronous Status Message

M1 – MUX SECTION R.E.I. (Remote Error Indication).

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 344