CHAPTER 1

Understanding Indian Music

1.1 The Chronological development of Indian Music
1.2 Technical Aspects of Indian Music

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 It’s my fortuity to born in a country having such a
magnificent and affluent culture; Music has always been a major
part of this culture. However the advent of modern historical and
cultural research has shown that Indian music has developed
within a very complex interaction between different peoples of
different races and cultures. It appears that the ethnic diversity
of present day India has been there from the earliest of times.
There are many important events in the history of Indian music.
These milestones show clearly the development of musical
thought from early history to the present day. It’s important to
understand this development along with the technicalities of
Indian music.

The chronological development of Indian Music

Regarded by many historians as the "oldest living civilization of

Earth", the Indian tradition dates back to 8000 BC, and has a
continuous recorded history since the time of the Vedas, believed
variously to be 3,000 to over 5,500 years ago, Music is pure
science and Indian Civilization has mastered this science much
before it was re-searched by other civilizations. This is the
greatness of Indian culture

Music has always been an indispensable part of Indian life.

The range of musical phenomenon in India extends from simple
melodies to what is one of the most well- developed "systems" of
classical music in the world.

5
 For any discussion of cultural matters pertaining to India
the following rough chronological sequence or historical
periodization is necessary and useful. I would like to brief the
diversification and growth of Indian music with the help of this
chronology.

2500 BC - 1500 BC

The oldest history of India is that of the Indus Valley

Civilization[1]. Mohenjo-Daro & Harappa are the two places where
historical finds of the civilization have been discovered. This
civilization is considered to be 5000 years old. very Little is
known of the musical culture of the Indus Valley civilization of the
3rd and 2nd millennia BC.

Some musical instruments, such as the arched or bow-shaped

harp and several varieties of drums, have been identified from
the small terracotta figures, the famous bronze statuette of a
dancing girl[1][2], probably representing a class of temple dancers,
clearly indicates the presence of music. Evidence of Rudra-
worship, the supreme deity of dance, drama and music has also
been found during this period

1. ^ Indian Muisic : Thakur Jaidev Singh : pp.1

2. ^A bronze statuette dubbed the "Dancing Girl" 10.8 centimetres (4.3
in) high and some 4,500 years old, was found in Mohenjo-daro in 1926.
In 1973, John Marshall, an archeologist at Mohenjo-daro, described the
figure as "a young girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture,
and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs
and feet
3. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective : Possehl,
Gregory : pp. 13
Dancing Girl

6
 1500 BC - 500 BC

The Vedic Litrature

Vedic Civilisation came to existence by the mid of 2nd Millennium

BC, the bard-priests composed hymns in praise of God that were
chanted at various religious ceremonies. This tradition continued
until a sizable body of oral religious poetry had been composed.
This body of chanted poetry grew to massive proportions, and the
best of the poems were compiled as an anthology called
Rigveda, which was then canonized. The hymns of the Rig-
Veda[1], the oldest Veda, are addressed to the elements of nature
personified as deities, and are prayers for Protection from
calamities and for attainment of prosperity - material as well as
spiritual. The Rig-Veda came into being between 1500 BC and
500 BC and the chanting formula were carefully handed down by
word of mouth from one generation to the next. The poems in the
Rig-Veda are arranged according to the priestly families who
chanted and, presumably, had composed the hymns.

The Yajurveda and the Samaveda were composed after the

Rigveda The Yajurveda, with portions in prose, is a manual,
describing the procedures to be followed in the sacrifice. The
Samaveda[2] contains hymns to be sung by those who did the
chanting. It is this Veda which is specifically connected with
music in India. A fourth Veda, the Atharvaveda, replete with
magical chants and incantations, was accepted as a Veda
considerably later and is quite unrelated to the other three.

1. Indian Music , p. 2
2. The dictionary of Hindustani Music, p 109

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The Rishis, to whom the hymns of the vedas appeared as
revelations, are the authors of those hymns. The seven rishis
(saptarshis) are referred to in the Shatapatha Brahmana as
Goutama, Bharadwaja, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Vashistha,
Kashyapa and Atri. The seven rishis are represented in the sky
by the seven stars of the Great Bear. The richas or the hymns
were often composed on the spur of the moment.The vedic
system analyses the entire music into seven categories . these
are called “Archika”, “gathika”, “samika” , “swarantara”, “odava”,
“sadav”, “sampurna”. Using one to seven notes in musical chants
respectively

Vedic Music

Vedic religion was based on performing sacrifices in order to

propitiate the gods. Music formed an important part of the rituals,
which structured the sacrifice. In fact, singing, instrumental music
and dance were described as divine in Vedic literature; it was
believed that they propitiated deities.

Vedic music is the earliest instance of the deep relationship

between religion and music in India. Many features of this music
later percolated in various ways and in different proportions into
different kinds of Indian music, including Hindustani Art music.
The Rigveda relied on recited hymns (richa). The musical
chanting of the Samaveda employed more notes (finally settling
on seven notes), and is said to be the source of the later secular
and classical music. In fact, the word sama itself is a compound
expression and includes two entities: the first component 'sa'
refers to hymns, i.e. richa, and the second component, 'ma' refers
to the musical notes.

8
Vedic music also included instrumental music of various types.
Music was used mainly for two functions: to propitiate deities and
to accompany sacrificial offerings. Both solo and choral music
were in vogue. Four major forms of music were prevalent in
Sama-gayan [1], taken as a whole. Each kind of music effected
different changes in Vedic mantras as were perceived to be
necessary by the concerned musician. The veena, tunav,
dundubhi, bhoomi-dundubhi and talav were the prominent
instruments - representing the four major instrumental categories,
autophones, membranophones, aerophones and chordophones.

The singing of sama was accompanied by the veena in

accordance with a procedure that connected body-movements,
gestures and correct intonation in singing. Seated properly, the
singer was to touch the middle phalanx of the fingers of the right
palm with the right thumb according to the pitch of the note
intended. A disciple learnt this procedure by imitating his
preceptor in pitch, intonation as well as in finger movements.

The Shiksha literature

As the early Indian music was based on ritual and mantra[2],

correct pronunciation was of great significance. Often, even a
slight mispronunciation signified 'death' instead of 'life'! And yet,
music makers in the Sama-gayan did not hesitate to bring about
changes in the words of the mantras they sang! Freedom was so

1. ibid, pp 3-4
2. ibid, pp 110-111

9
liberally enjoyed that rules were made to regularise these
deviations because they added to the quality of music produced.

Shiksha is the first branch of Vedic learning. It deals with the

science of correct pronunciation of vowels, consonants and
syllables. Basically six aspects are dealt with: Varna (syllable),
Swara (notes), Matra (duration), Bala (articulation), Sama (a kind
of balance in the total utterance) and Santana (the spacing of the
words). Some of the well-known Shikshas are Paniniya,
Yagnyvalkya Vashisthi, Katyayani, Manduki and Naradiya, the
last being associated with the sage, Narada.

500BC - 200BC

Guru-Shishya Parampara

Music in India has been passed on in a tradition best described

as Guru-Shishya Parampara[1] (preceptor-disciple tradition). This
method has occupied an important place in Indian culture. A guru
is regarded as the metaphysical father of his disciple and is
ranked higher than biological parents.

The Gurukul (guru's dynasty or family) system dates back to the

Vedic period. In the gurukul system of education, a pupil or
shishya, after his initiation (sacred thread ceremony), lived in the
house of his guru, or teacher, and studied the Vedas and other
subjects under his guidance, for a period of 12 years. Gurus were
expected to teach everything they knew to the disciple. The
institution was accessible only to the upper classes. The gurukuls
were well supported by kings who considered it their duty to
make them financially viable.

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 A sketch representing the Guru-Shishya parampara.

There were four kinds of gurus: Acharya, Pravakta, Shrotriya and

Adhyapak. It is from the samhita period that we have names of
Acharyas such as Angiras, Garga, Atri, Brihaspati and Vasishtha.
There were two types of shishyas: one, who paid fees to the Guru
were known as acharya-bhaga; the other, who learnt by
performing domestic chores in the guru's house, was described
as dharma-shishya.

The Gurukul was the direct precedent of the concept of gharana

in Hindustani music. Of course[2], in a gharana the learning was
confined to the scholastic and the performing arts, and there was
no religious teaching.

1. Indian Music : pp. 13

2. The Music of India: pp. 8

11
Ramayana and music
The first Indian epic, Ramayana[1], was composed by the sage
Valmiki. It was written in shloka form. The word shloka refers to a
particular kind of metrical composition known for its brevity, easy
tempo and lilting rhyme. From the lavish use of musical
metaphors in the epic, it is evident that the precise concept of
music or sangeet had been adequately established and
appreciated. Rama was an expert in gandharva, the 'classical'
music of the time.

Margi Sangeet
The term Margi sangeet is also used in the epic to denote the
accepted and prestigious mode of music. There were three
important features of Margi Sangeet. It was created and
propagated by Brahma and other deities. It was not meant for
entertainment. It was presented before the Gods to please them.

The epic tells us that musical instruments were collectively

mentioned as atodya. Four major types of instruments were
identified. A wide variety of instruments were used such as the
Veena, Venu, Vansha, Shankha, Dundubhi, Bheri, Mridang,
Panav[2] and Pataha[3]. The knowledge of music was widespread.
Ravana the demon-leader was proficient in music. The
[4]
Ravanahatha (ravana hasta veena) is a bowed fiddle
popular in Western India.
1. Panav : A kind of Mridanga in which there was a hole in the
center of the body
2. Indian Music : pp. 15
3. The Music of India: pp. 10
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravanahatha
Ravanahatha

12
It is believed to have originated among the Hela civilisation of Sri
Lanka in the time of King Ravana The use of technical terms in
popular literature signifies that knowledge in the concerned field
of study is widespread in society. Musical terms such as
pramana, laya, tala, samatala , kala , matra and shamya regularly
feature in the epic.

Pathya sangeet
Pathya in Indian musicology describes a special mode of making
music. Bharata laid down six main features of Pathya:

Seven notes (saptaswara)

Three basic locations for tone-production (sthanas)
Four fundamental ways of empowering tonal arrangements (varnas)
Two basic intonation modes (kakus)
Six embellishments (alankaras)
Six aspects (angas).

Pathya sangeet was not expected to entertain. Its aim was to

inform and instruct. Even today wandering musicians create
Pathya sangeet.

Mahabharata and Music

“Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa” composed the epic Mahabharata in
24000 shlokas. There is less about music in the Mahabharata
than in the Ramayana.

Mahabharata used the term gandharva instead of sangeet. The

epic therefore referred to a more specific kind of music.

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 Photo : Eon Image, Image date: ca. 1913

Musicology or the science of music was called gandharva

shastra. Superhuman beings called Gandharvas were the expert
practitioners of this music. Both gandharvas and their consorts,
the apsaras‚ were experts in singing, playing musical instruments
and dancing.

Arjuna[1], had learnt these musical arts from Chitrasen

gandharva. Kings maintained their own music schools to train
princesses and their maids-in-waiting in the performing arts. The
names of the seven basic musical notes (shadja) have been
clearly mentioned in the Mahabharata[2], which was composed
around 400 BC. The epic therefore bears testimony to the long
living tradition of Indian Classical music.

1. The Music of India : pp. 10

2. Indian Music : pp. 15-17

14
Music in Buddhist literature

Valuable insights into the evolution of music can also be gained

from Buddhist literature[3] and sculpture in India and in the
countries to which the religion spread. In basic religious texts like
Thergatha and Therigatha language was used in a way
conducive to music making.

Sculpture showing music in Buddhist period

Photograph : Benoy K. Behl

1. ibid : pp. 15
2. ibid : pp. 18-19

15
 Jatakas are stories written in Pali
around 300 BC about the previous
births of Buddha. The jatakas describe
Buddhist monks singing and dancing to
the accompaniment of instruments like
the veena, vepamei, tunak and panak.
They contain a wealth of material of
musicological interest. Sculptures
based on Buddhist lore are a major
source of information on music.

Photograph : Benoy K. Behl Sculptures in Bharhut (200-150 BC)

and Sanchi confirm that music
flourished during the Buddhist period in spite of theological
opposition. The opposition was because music was seen as a
distraction.

Music in Jain sources

Jain literary sources interpret the prevalent music in important
periods in Indian cultural history. Both Buddhist and Jain sources.
often focus on those strata of society otherwise not described in
Sanskrit texts. Hence it is critical to examine the Jain sources. At
the same time, many terms are clearly derived from the Sanskrit
tradition indicating an overall musical continuity.

For example, the Sthanangsootra lists the merits and demerits of

vocalists. Interestingly, these nearly tally with Naradiya-shiksha.
Jain texts list many instruments not mentioned elsewhere.
Rayappasenaijja lists instruments in 18 classes. In all 63
instruments are itemised- bhambha, mukund, machal, kadamb

16
and many others. Buddhist and Jain texts cover a wider gamut
than the Sanskrit texts and very often include instruments used in
folk music

200 BC - 300 AD

Bharat - Natyashastra
With a rich history of a deep-rooted
religious tradition, Indian music has a
divine importance and origin, Narada
Muni was the first sage to reveal the
laws of music, Tumburu was the first
Singer, Saraswati was the Goddess of
music and Bharat was the first to draw
up the rules for theater, of which the
music was a major and indispensible part. Natyashastra, or the
Science of Theatre, a treatise on dramaturgy, is said to have
been authored by Bharat sometime between 200BC and 200AD.
It devotes itself mainly to theatre, dance and music. It also
touches on the related areas of cultural life of India. It is the
foundation on which Indian philosophical thinking squarely rests.
It is composed in prose and verse, though verse predominates.

The chapters on music contain descriptions of various classes of

instruments. Gandharva music, the techniques of playing musical
instruments and the rules for talas are explained.

1. Photograph courtesy : Benoy K Behl

2. Frontline Volume 24 - Issue 18 :: Sep., 2007 (India's National
Magazine from the publishers of The Hindu): pp. 08-21

17
Natyashastra also defines the Rasa theory. The theory states that
"Rasa arises from a (proper) combination of the vibhavas (the
Stimulants), the anubhavas (the physical Consequents) and the
vyabhicharibhavas (the Transient Emotional States)". Natyarasa
is the primary emotion generated by the interaction of the various
bhavas. It is presented by the appropriate modulation of the
voice, the movements of the body and the involuntary reactions
that favourably impact the aesthetic sensibility of the spectator.

Bharata Muni enunciated the eight Rasas in the Nātyasāstra, an

ancient work of dramatic theory. Each rasa, according to
Nātyasāstra, has a presiding deity and a specific colour. There
are 4 pairs of rasas. For instance, Hasya arises out of Sringara.
The Aura of a frightened person is black, and the aura of an
angry person is red. Bharata Muni established the following

Rasa Mood
Sringaram : Rati (Love)
Hasyam : Hasya (Mirth)
Raudram : Anger (Fury)
Karunyam : Soka (Sorrow)
Bibhatsam : Jugupsa (Disgust)
Bhayānakam : Bhaya (Terror)
Viram : Utsaha (Energy)
Adbhutam : Vismaya (Astonishment)

1. Natyashastra part 2, Bharat

2. Indian Music, pp. 23, 379-381
3. The Music of India, pp. 12

18
This theory of Rasa enunciated by Bharata and interpreted by his
major commentator Abhinavagupta, who added the ninth rasa
Shantam (Peace or tranquility). Whose deity is Vishnu and the
color is perpetual white.

300 AD - 600 AD

The Gupta period

The period of the Gupta kings shone in literary excellence. It is

often described as the Golden Age of culture, arts and learning in
ancient India. Kalidasa[1], who was in the court of Vikramditya
(380-413 AD), epitomizes the artistic accomplishments of the
Gupta period. He was a lyrical poet and a writer of epics and
plays. The poem 'Meghadoot', the epic 'Raghuvamsha' and the
play 'Shakuntala' are some of his creative masterpieces that
adorn the Indian literary tradition. The numerous references to
music and dance in Kalidasa's works show the importance
accorded to music in man's life during his period. Vatsyayana[2]
wrote his famous manual, Kamasutra (400 AD) during this period.
In it, he lists 64 'Kala's or arts essential to refined living, which
include singing, playing musical instruments and dancing.

The Gupta king Harshavardhan (606-648 AD), was himself a

singer. There are references to music making in his plays,
'Nagananda', 'Ratnavali' and 'Priyadarshika'

1. Swatantra kala shastra,: pp. 18,

2. Indian Music: pp. 30
3. Ibid pp. 32
4. The Music of India: pp. 26

19
 India In The Gupta Period

India at the time of Gupta Dynasty

Map Collected from Archeological survey of India archives

20
Dattilam: gandharvashastra

The music of ragas, as we know it today, is the culmination of a

long process of development in musical thinking that aimed to
meaningfully organise melodic and tonal material
A landmark step towards the evolution of the raga was taken
when sama-gayan gave way to gandharva gaan as the
mainstream of the sacred music of India. Dattilam, dated roughly
400 AD, is the main text for this music.

Dattilam[1] also describes the 18 jatis which are the fundamental

melodic structures for the jati-gayan. The jatis have ten basic
characteristics, which closely resemble the structuring and
elaboration of the contemporary raga in Hindustani music. The
names of some jatis like andhri, oudichya may reflect their
regional origins, as do the names of many Hindustani ragas
today, e.g. Sorath, Khamaj, Kanada, Gauda, Multani and
Jaunpuri.

Jati-gayan was entirely pre-composed. However, Hindustani

music stressed improvisation which completely changed its
nature. But the approach and concepts of Dattilam made the
transition from sama-music to the contemporary raga-music
significant and smooth

1. Ibid, p 34
2. Ibid,p 45
3. Swatantra kala shastra, pp. 19 ,

21
Narad
Narada is mentioned as gandharva in all the books on music, his
vina is said to be Mahati which had twenty-one strings. In natya
shastra, he is mentioned as one to whom vocal music was
entrusted in the performance of the first drama, and as inventor
on nirgita or bahirgita. As a human gandharva, narad is said to be
the author of Nardiya-siksa,

Nandikesvara
nandikeswara was another important musicologist of the ancient
period. He is also refered to as Nandin, nandisa or nandibharata.
Sarangdeva mentioned four hasta-patas described bu
Nandikesvara. nanyadev in his Bharat-bhasya refers to Nandi as
an authority on membrophonic instruments. He is said to be
flourished between 400 and 600 A.D.

600 AD - 1200 AD
The Deshi Sangeet
Brihaddeshi by Matanga was the first work to describe music in
the period after Bharata, before the advent of Islam began to
influence music. Matanga probably hailed from south India.
Brihaddeshi is the first major and available text to describe the
raga, which has been the central concept in Indian art music for
centuries. It also introduced the sargam, or notation in the names
of notes.

1. Indian music: pp 98

22
 Statue and Sculpture of Matanga, Elora Caves

In Matanga's discussion of musical scales and micro- tonal

intervals he clarifies what Bharata had said in the Natyashastra.

One of Matanga's major contributions is his scholarly focus on

the regional element in music. 'Deshi' has to be understood in
contrast to 'Margi' music, which is sacred and pan-Indian in its
scope. According to Matanga, "Deshi is that which is sung
voluntarily and with delight and pleasure by women, children,
cowherds and kings in their respective regions". Deshi music
captured the flavour of a range of human emotions from different
regions. Through notes it was formalised into ascending and
descending scales.

1. Indian music: pp 100

2. Map source: national museum of achieves, Janpath, new Delhi

23
 India after Muslim intrusion

India after Muslim Intrusion

Map Collected from Archeological survey of India archives

24
The Muslim Intrusion

Hindustani art music began to evolve after pre-medieval Indian

music passed through certain stages of transformation and
development till the beginning of the 11th century. Many Indian
and non-Indian cultures took an active part in this transformation.

India at the time of Gupta Dynasty

India after Muslim Intrusion

Around the 9th century, the Sufis secured a firm foothold in India
with their great love for music and acceptance of many
indigenous customs. The followers of Nizamuddin Chishti (1324
AD) included the 'Basant' and 'Rang' celebrations in their
religious practices. Similarly during the time of Kaikubad (1287-
1290 AD), both Farsi and Hindi songs found a place in
performances.

1. Indian music: pp 106-107

2. A historical study of India: pp 106-109
3. Maps by Archeological survey of India

25
The advent of Islam at the end of the 12th century brought
Persian music and culture with it. The attitude of the Muslim
rulers toward Hinduism varied. Some like Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
were strongly anti-Hindu. Others like the great Akbar (1556-1605)
were well-disposed towards their Hindu subjects. Muslim India
had a long, complex and eventful cultural history. Ultimately it
became an inextricable part of the Indian cultural ethos.

1200 AD - 1700 AD

Amir Khusro – Delhi Sultanate

Yaminuddin Abul Hasan Ameer Khusro,
born at delhi in 1253AD, In 1262, when
he was nine years old, Amir Khusro
began to compose poetry. He composed
almost half a million verses in Persian,
Turkish, Arabic, Braj Bhasha, Hindawi
and Khadi Boli. He is supposed to have
Amir Khusro (1253 - 1325
enriched or invented qawali, qasida,
qalbana, naqsh and many others forms of music. Varying
degrees of secularity permeated these musical forms. The
zeelaph and sarparda ragas are also associated with Amir.

He is regarded as the "father of qawwali" (the devotional music of

the Sufis in the Indian subcontinent). He is also credited with
enriching Hindustani classical music by introducing Persian and
Arabic elements in it, and was the originator of the khayal and
tarana styles of music. which complemented the prevalent array
of musical forms. Neither, however, was novel to the Indian

26
musical scene. This only reinforced the fact that Khusro's
Indianisation of the Islamic musical tradition complemented the
Hindu tradition.

Khusro lived for 70 years. During 60 of those years, that is,

between 1265 and 1325, Khusro spent time in the courts of as
many as ten different Muslim rulers. Each court he stayed in was
culturally active and different from the others. Khusro's stay in
Multan brought him in contact with Persian music, while his visit
to Bengal exposed him to the music of the Vaishnavite tradition.
Khusro is said to have created a new system of musicology,
called 'Indraprastha Mata' or 'Chaturdandi Sampradaya'. While he
was not a historian, his poems “provide the fullest single
expression extant of medieval Indo-Muslim civilization” and
reveal “the religious, ethical, cultural and aesthetic ideas of
courtly, educated and wealthy Indian Muslims in that era.

Sangeet Ratnakara : (sharangdev)

The medieval age was characterised by an impressive and varied

musical expression. There was an abundance of musical
instruments. Drums and rhythm-instruments, in particular were
widely used. The Sangita-Ratnakara of Sharngadeva (the 13th
century) is one of the most important musicological texts from
India, which both Hindustani music and Carnatic music regard as
a definitive text.

1. Indian music: pp 115

2. A historical study of Indian music: pp 115
3. Hindustani Music 13th to 20th century: pp 163

27
Sharngadeva was attached to the court of Yādava King
Singhaņa, whose capital was Devagiri. (the present Daulatabad,
in the South Maharashtra). This was the place where Sangeet
Ratnakar was created around 1210-1247 A.D,. Sharangdev’s
father was a Kashmiri Brahmin. After shifting from Kashmir to
Maharashtra he collected information about various types of
Sangeet that were prevalent during the time, and all of this
information was put together to form the ‘Sangeet Ratnakar’. The
text is also known as Saptadhyayi as it is divided into seven
chapters. These 7 chapters in Sangeet Ratnakar are as follows:

1. Swaradhyay: which includes the study of swara, shruti, gram,

murchana and Jaati.
2. Raag Vivekadhyay: includes information about the graha,
ansha, nyaas of the ragas.
3. Prakirnakadhyay: Here there is information given about the
qualities and abilities of a singer, gamaka, aalapti (rupakaalapti
and raagalapti).
4. Prabandhadhyay: this chapter is about the ‘Prabandha’.
5. Taaladhyay: A study of the prevalent taals in this era like
Margataal, Deshitaal etc.
6. Vaadyadhyay: as the name suggests this is a detailed study
about the existing musical instruments (Vaadya), the process of
instrument making and the way they were supposed to be played.
7. Nrityadhyay: The study of the various expressions and poses
in the Nritya, the bhav that is created using certain poses and the
Rasa or feelings that the dance form brought about
.
1. Indian music: pp 106-107
2. A historical study of India: pp 106-109

28
Ratnakara emphasised the ever changing nature of music, the
increasing role of regional influences on it, and the increasing
complexity of musical material that needed to be systemised time
and again.

Raja Mansingh Tomar

Raja Mansingh Tomar of

Gwalior (1486-1516 AD) was
the driving force behind
introducing and consolidating
Dhrupad, a genre of
Hindustani music that enjoys
esteem even today. Raja Mansingh Tomar
Dhruvapada, a combination of Dhruva = structured or rigid and
Pada = word. He replaced traditional Sanskrit songs by Hindi
songs. He is also credited with composing three volumes of
songs: (i) Vishnupadas (songs in praise of lord Vishnu), (ii)
Dhrupads, and (iii) Hori and Dhamar songs associated with Holi.
Mansingh's support gave pride of place to these genres. He also
thus related music to the lives and language of the laymen.

He was a generous patron of the arts. Both Hindu and Muslim

musicians were employed in his court. With the talent available in
his court he initiated a major project to systematise the prevalent
music. It was this project that resulted in the creation of that
comprehensive treatise on music in Hindi, 'Mankutuhal'.

1. A historical study of India: pp 164

2. Indian Music: pp 141
3. Hindustani Music13th to 20th century, pp 125

29
The Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the
main spiritual practice is loving devotion among the Shaivite and
Vaishnava saints. The Bhakti movement originated in ancient
Tamil Nadu and began to spread to the north during the late
medieval ages when north India was under Islamic rule. The
Islamic rulers were pressing public to convert religion from Hindu
to Islam. The Bhakti movement had its own importance to save
Hinduism. There was no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and
Vaishnava devotees as in the south. The movement was
spontaneous and the mystics had their own versions of
devotional expression. In due course 'Bhakti' became a
widespread Hindu religious movement and way of life, inspiring
copious volumes of superb religious poetry and art.

Swami Haridas teaching Tansen in the presence of Mughal Emperor Akbar.

30
In the Bhakti movement as in Hindustani Art Music, songs and
composite presentations, using elements of speech, dance and
drama, played a major role in propagating ideas in art and music.
The works of composers like Jayadeva (11th century), Vidyapati
(1375 AD), Chandidas (14th-15th centuries), Bhakta Narasimha
(1416-1475 AD) and Meerabai (1555-1603 AD)

“Swami Haridas” who is said to have been the teacher of Tansen,

one of the 'nine gems` of Akbar's court, and the renowned
dhrupad singer and composer Baiju Bawra is credited with a
large body of devotional compositions, especially in the Dhrupad
style, he is also the founder of the Haridasi school of mysticism,
still found today in North India. His work influenced both the
classical music and the Bhakti movements of North India, He was
deeply learned and widely acquainted with the music of his time.

Ashtachap, Pushti and Haveli sangeet

Vallabhacharya propounded the Shudhadvaita Vedanta (pure
non-dualism) or Pushtimarga (the road to grace). His sect was
known as the 'Rudra Sampradaya'. The Vallabhacharya cult
revived an older stream of music. The religious and musical
procedures of the cult were systematized by Vallabhacharya's
son Goswami Vitthalnathji (1516-1698 AD). The 'Ashtachap'
stream of music was thus established (1607-8 AD). It was named
after the eight musical acharyas or preceptors who composed the
music of the cult. The legendary Tansen too came under its
influence.

1. Hindustani Music13th to 20th century, pp 138

2. Bhakti Sangeet, pp 107

31
'Haveli sangeet' was the temple music practised by the 'Pushti
Margi Sampradaya'. Nathadwara in Rajasthan was the main seat
of this Vaishnava devotional cult. The cult has created a rich
historical tradition of temple-based music described as 'Haveli
sangeet'. 'Haveli' is a temple visualised as a palace that the deity
chooses to live in.
The musical history of the post-Ashtachap period of Pushti-
sangeet coexists with many developments in Hindustani Art
Music The advent of the Dhrupad, Khayal and Tappa, the
dissociation of dance from music, and the shift from the pakhawaj
to the tabla, all happened during this period.

Tansen

Tansen, the legendary musician of Akbar's court, had his early

training in the school founded by Raja Mansingh Tomar of
Gwalior. Among the many works attributed to him are a treatise
named the 'Ragamala', many 'Dohas' describing the 'lakshanas'
or the attributes of ragas, 'Sangeet Saar', and 'Shri Ganesh
Stotra'. According to some scholars, Tansen reduced the 4000
ragas and raginis of his time into a system of 400. He also
reduced 92 talas to 12. He is said to have created many ragas
like 'Miyan Malhar' and 'Miyan ki todi'.

Tansen's Senia gharana divided into two streams. His elder son
Bilaskhan headed the Rabab-players gharana and his second
son Suratsen the sitar-players gharana.

1. Indian music , pp 164

2. Hindustani Music13th to 20 th century, pp 125-127

32
The Mughals - Music in Akbar's court

During the Mughal period, and especially under Akbar's reign,

temple music took a back seat and Darbar Sangeet came into
being. Music was composed mainly to eulogise patrons.
Information about music in Akbar's court comes from the "Ain e
Akbari" of Abul Fazl (1551-1602 AD). Abul was a courtier in
Akbar's darbar. There were numerous musicians in the court,
Hindus, Iranis , Kashmiris and Turanis, both men and women.
The musicians were divided into seven orders. There was one for
each day of the week. Headed by the legendary Tansen, there
were 19 singers, three who chanted and several instrumental
musicians. The main instruments were the swarmandal, bin, nay,
karna and tanpura. The musicians came from far and wide, and
the music was rich and varied. Akbar's court was witness to a
complete fusion of the Persian and Indian music systems.

India in the sixteenth century was politically and geographically

fragmented. There were also multiple cultural forces at work.
More than nine rulers vied with each other to promote their own
respective court cultures. Commoners were allowed freedom in
matters like religion. In various courts a sophisticated court
culture evolved and crystallised. This enabled the emergence of a
chunk of art or classical music distinct from devotional or folk
music. This court music exhibited a great deal of Muslim
influence.

1. Hindustani Music13th to 20th century, pp 125

33
The Kitab-e-nauras of Ibrahim Adil Shah-II (1580-1626 AD) of
Bijapur vividly describe the court music of this period. The work
reflects the confrontation
between the prevalent and flourishing musical traditions in the
South and the one taking shape under Muslim influence. Ibrahim
Adil Shah was the moving spirit behind the famous Ragamala
painting, pictorially representing the musical modes.

Jehangir (1605-27 AD) was genuinely interested in music and

generously patronised the art. His 'Jehangirnama' describes in
detail the music enjoyed by his court.

Aurangzeb (1618-1707 AD) was a puritan unfavourably disposed

to music. But he patronised one major effort to shed light on the
music current in his times. He enabled the publication of
'Ragadarpana'. This was Fakirullah Saifkhan's translation into
Persian, in 1665-6 AD, of Raja Mansingh's 'Mankutuhal' written
two centuries earlier. It was not a complete translation of
'Mankutuhal'. But it contained the history of music between the
times of Mansingh and Aurangzeb. It also describes the art music
of the 17th century.

1700 AD Onwards
The Modern Period
Music in India, and especially art music, went through a
metamorphosis for four centuries from the sixteenth, to result in
the Hindustani music of today. This modern period saw an
increasing number of musicological works in Persian, Urdu, Hindi

1. Ibid, pp 120

34
and other regional languages, instead of Sanskrit. All these tell
us the story of how Hindustani Art Music, as we know it today,
evolved and took shape. The modern period saw the birth of
many of the musical forms dominant today, like Khayal and
thumri

The central Mughal power in Delhi weakened after Aurangzeb's

death and there was a quick succession of emperors. One of
them was the legendary “Muhammadshah Rangeele (1716-1748
AD)”. He was a Loving and generous patron to many musicians.
The Mughal court at his time had musicians such as Niyamat
Khan, also known as Sadarang, and his nephew Firoz Khan
(Adarang), whose compositions popularized the musical form of
khyal. This key component of Indian classical music evolved,
ascended and received princely patronage at the court of
Muhammad Shah.

The presentations of Krishna-lore sowed the seeds of Modern

hindustani Theater. The Thumri form of romantic and devotional
music also became popular in the 19th century. The prototype of
the thumri is traced to the 'Chhalikya' presentation in the
Harivamsha (400 AD). The Chhalikya genre combined song and
dance with dramatic gestures. Ramnidhi Gupta, or
nidhubabu(1741-1839) , gave us bengali tappa, a new genre. this
assimilated the features of the tappa in Hindustani Music and the
lifting lilting rhythm of Bengali music. Another musical stalwart of
the 19th century was Sourendra Mohan Tagore, (1840-1915 AD).
The mission of his life was to make Hindustani music
international in its appeal and reach.

35
1. Ibid 132-133

In the early 20th century, two people revolutionized Indian music:

Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Pandit Vishnu Narayana
Bhatkhande.

V. D. Paluskar (1872-1931 AD)

belonged to a family of Haridasi-s, a
community engaged in Harikatha --
reciting the Hindu epics, giving
religious discourses, and singing
Bhajans. He introduced the first
music colleges. Gandharva
Mahavidyalaya, a chain of music
schools, which is now a full-fledged
university, and a major force in
ensuring a place for classical music in the mainstream culture.
The institution was launched from Lahore, and spread speedily to
Bombay, Pune, Nagpur, and several other cities He gave an
entirely new perspective to the education and propagation of
music. It was his efforts that elevated music and musicians in the
social hierarchy.

V.N.Bhatkhande (1860-1931 AD)

pioneered the introduction of an
organised musical system reflecting
current performance practices. The
historical tradition of music in India
was completely disrupted during the
medieval times. Since then, music in
India has changed so considerably
that no correlation or correspondence was possible between

36
Sanskrit musicological texts and the music practised in modern
times. It was Bhatkhande who bridged this enormous gulf. He
successfully undertook the arduous task of restating the
musicological framework underlying contemporary musical
performance.

He did extensive musicological fieldwork across the length and

breadth of the country. He meticulously collected data on music, and
documented and analysed performing traditions. His literature on
music remains unparallelled even today and is essential for a
systematic study of Hindustani Art Music. It elucidates his views on
grammatical structures, historical evolution, performance norms and
aesthetic criteria relevant to Hindustani music. He classified a total
number of 1800 compositions from the major gharanas accessible to
him, dividing them in ten thaats according to his codification. The
Ten Thaats Suggested by him are Bilawal , Marwa , Bhairav, Poorvi,
Bhairavi, Todi, Asavari, Kalyan, Khamaj and Kafi.

Gharanas in Hindustani music

The term gharana is derived from the Hindi word 'ghar'. This in
turn can be traced to the Sanskrit word 'griha', which means
'family' or 'house'. The gharana concept gained currency only in
the nineteenth century when the royal patronage enjoyed by
performers weakened. Performers were then compelled to move
to urban centres. To retain their respective identities, they fell
back on the names of the regions they hailed from. Therefore,
even today, the names of many gharanas refer to places. Some
of the gharanas well known for singing khayals are: Agra,
Gwalior, Patiala, Kirana, Indore, Mewat, Sahaswan, Bhendibazar

1. Ibid , pp 146

37
2. Indian Classical Music and Gharana Tradition, Ramanlal C. Mehta

and Jaipur. Major Gharanas for Dhrupad singing are Betia ,

Dagar and Darbhanga.

The Influence of theater and Indian cinema

Right from the advent of Indian

cinema in 1931, musicals with
song numbers have been a
regular feature in Indian cinema.
In 1934 Hindi film songs began
to be recorded on gramophones
and later, played on radio
channels, giving rise to a new
form of mass entertainment in India which was responsive to
popular demand. Songs are deliberately crafted with lyrics often
written by distinguished poets or litterateurs, and set to music
(inspired from Indian classical music and folk music), carefully
choreographed to match the dance routine or script of the film.
Earlier the actors sing their self, but later with the advancement
of Recording techniques, playback singing came into existence
and the songs are sung by professional playback singers and lip-
synched by the actors.

Indian cinema, with its characteristic film music, has not only
spread all over Indian society, but also been on the forefront of
the spread of India's culture around the world.

38
UNDERSTANDING THE TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF INDIAN MUSIC

Every Fine art has its own technicalities, Most of the books define
these terms as per their use in Indian Music, I would like to give a
brief focus on the technicalities of music, which we will refer in
Later chapters,

Naad : Naad is sound. It is a series of regular vibrations in a

medium like air (as opposed to irregular vibrations, which would
be heard as noise). The frequency of a vibration decides the
pitch of the sound it represents (how high or low the sound feels
to the ear). The frequency is reported in a unit called Hertz (Hz).

The frequency range of a sound the human ear can hear is 20 Hz

to 20,000 Hz. This frequency in Music (audible sound) the
Sounds that we hear with our Ears is Aahata Naad. The
frequencies below and above this range are termed as Anahata
Naad (Inaudible Sound) .It is an internal sound within the body,
signifying spiritual growth, especially associated with awakening
of Kundalini, when that Power reaches the Anahata chakra
situated at the level of Heart, the kundalini energy starting from
Mooladhara and passing through Svadishtana and Manipoora
Chakras before reaching Anahata Chakra. In fact, at that level
(Anahata),there are ten types of sound a spiritual practitioner
hears within himself known as Dashavida nada, such as the
sound of a blowing of conch cell (shankha nada), of flute (venu
nada), of bell (ghantha nada), of drums, of strings instrument
(veena),of trumpet (shehanai),of thunder,of water flow and so on.

1. Ibid, pp 170

2. Elements of Hindustani Classical Music, pp86

39
Hearing such sounds are a sign of spiritual growth, somewhere in
a mid way journey, not yet the end of the journey, the end would
be a brilliant, scintillating Silence at the level of Sahasrara
Chakra in the centre of the brain!

Shruti[1] : a sound (or tone) having a frequency of 100 Hz.

Another sound, having twice the frequency, that is, 200 Hz, will
sound the same. But it will sound 'higher'. The frequency ratio
200:100, which is 2:1, represents what is called an octave. The
number of sounds that the human ear can hear, in an octave, is
infinite. But the number of sounds that it can discern,
differentiate, or grasp, is 22. They are called shruti-s
(microtones).

1. Ibid, pp 148

2. Ibid, pp 78

40
Swara : The octave is represented by the ratio 200:100, or the
interval 2:1. This sound of reference is called tonic, key, or "Sa",
etc. In Indian musical terminology, it is known as shadja, "Sa" for
short. It is represented by the symbol S. Out of the 22 shruti-s, 7
are selected to form a musical scale. The tonic is fixed first,
followed by 6 more shruti-s to form a 7-ladder scale. These 7
sounds, or tones, are called swara-s (or notes).

Saptak & Octave : The tonic, in our example, would fall on the
sound represented by 100 Hz. This would be our "Sa (S)". The
Sa would be followed by 6 more notes, 7 in all. The 8th note, the
sound represented by 200 Hz, would sound like the tonic, but it
would sound "higher". The 7 notes form the "saptaka" of Indian
music; the 8 notes-- the eighth note being the "higher" Sa -- form
the "octave" of the Western music. The seven notes are named
as follows:

Shadja, "Sa”, Rishabha, "Re", Gandhara, "Ga", Madhyama, "Ma",

Panchama, "Pa", Dhaivata, "Dha" and Nishada, "Ni" .

The first and the fifth notes, namely C (Sa) and G (Pa), are
regarded immutable ("Achala Swara"). The remaining 5 swaras
have two states each. Thus we have 12 swaras in a Saptak

Thaat

A that[1] (scale) is a 7-ladder scale, made up of 7 primary notes.

A thaat must contain all 7 notes, each in any one of the
"shuddha", "komala", or "teevra" state. The word thaat is
synonymous with "mela". We have the following 10 thaat-s, with
their names and the included 7 notes in each:

1. Ibid, pp 153

41
Each Thaat is a group of seven notes from which raga-s have
been formed (or can be formed). The musicians perform raga-s,
never thaat-s. Note: The notes in Western music use the
tempered scale, while in Indian music the notes use the natural
harmonic scale.

Aroha, avaroha :

Aroha is the successively ascending notes of a raga, starting on

the tonic ("Sa"), and ending in the "Sa" in the higher octave.

Avaroha is the successively descending notes of a raga,

starting on the "Sa" in the higher octave.and ending on the tonic
("Sa"), it is the opposite of aroha.

Aroha-avaroha indicate the notes comprising a raga. They are

useful in a very general way: they do not specify characteristics
of a raga. In fact, it is possible for two raga-s to have the same
aroha-avaroha, though the ragas may be totally different
aesthetically.

Jaati-s of a raga [Classification of a raga]

A raga may be classified, based on the number of notes it
contains. Thus, we have three types: "audava", with 5 notes;
"shadava", with 6 notes; "sampoorna", with 7 notes. Depending
on the number of notes in the aroha, and in the avaroha, we
derive the following nine theoretical classes:

(i) audava-audava: 5 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.

(ii) audava-shadava: 5 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(iii) audava-sampoorna: 5 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.

42
 (iv) shadava-audava: 6 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.
(v) shadava-shadava: 6 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(vi) shadava-sampoorna: 6 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.
(vii) sampoorna-sampoorna: 7 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.
(viii) sampoorna-shadava: 7 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(ix) sampoorna-audava: 7 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.

Poorvaana and Uttaraanga

In Indian musicology Saptak is Divided in two Parts

"poorvaanga" (poorva + anga), which comprises of the First four
swaras (sa re ga ma), "uttaraanga" (uttara + anga) last four
swaras (pa, dha, ni sa).

Raga

Raga, in the Sanskrit dictionary, is defined as "the act of coloring

or dyeing" (the mind in this context) and "any feeling or passion
especially love, affection, sympathy, vehement desire, interest,
joy, or delight". In music, these descriptions apply to the
impressions of melodic sounds on both the artist(s) and
listener(s). A raga consists of required and optional rules
governing the melodic movements of notes within a performance.

The rules of a raga can be defined by

• The list of specific notes that can be used during playing of
the raga
• The manner in which the notes are used, i.e. specific ways
of ornamenting notes or emphasizing/de-emphasizing them
• Manner in which the scale is ascended or descended
• Optional or required musical phrases, the way in which to
reveal these phrases, and/or combine them

43
 • The octave or frequency range to emphasize
• The relative pacing between the notes
• The time of day and/or season when the raga may be
performed so as to invoke the emotions of the raga for
maximum impact on the mental and emotional state of the
performer and listener

Vadi, Samvadi, Anuvadi, Vivadi [Sonant, Consonant,

Assonant, Dissonant]

Vadi. It has been described as the King of the notes occuring in

a raga. It dominates the development of the raga, it is
accentuated, it is emphasised. The melodic patterns are woven
around the vadi. If it is located in "poorvanga"(the lower
tetrachord), the raga is developed with greater emphasis in the
lower tetrachord, Similarly for "uttaranga" (the upper tetrachord).
See 2.4(C). Also, if the vadi of a raga is located in the
"poorvanga', that raga is performed at any time except the
morning. If the vadi of a raga is located in the "uttaranga', that
raga is performed in the morning. The samvadi is always a fifth
or a fourth in relation to the vadi. The relationship of the fifth is
called "shadja-panchama bhava". The relationship of the fourth
is called "shadja-madhyama bhava". Vadi-samvadi relationships
exemplify perfect consonance.

Anuvadi. The notes occuring in a raga, apart from the vadi and
the samvadi, are called anuvadi notes. They bring the number of
notes in the raga to atleast five. They help in creating aesthetic
tension, to be followed by resolution. (See 2.3, 2). Sometimes.

44
an anuvadi can have great importance, the same as, or next only
to samvadi. Such an anuvadi can be called "pranuvadi". Very
often, an anuvadi acts as the leading note, creating aesthetic
tension, till it leads to "Sa" (especially in higher octave), resolving
the tension.

Vivadi. They are the notes which do not occur in a raga.

However, quite often, a vivadi is included, in a specific way, in
the develpoment of a raga. This is because a vivadi can
embellish a raga by making it sound exceptionally charming.

Time Theory of Raga-s

The Time theory of Ragas is an ancient theory. Every Ragas has

a three-hour time slot in the day. One slot is called a "Pehar".
There are 8 Pehars in a 24 hour day. A Ragas performed in its
time slot has the most effect on the listener and the performer.
The time theory of Ragas is directly connected to the notes used
in a Raga. Every Note, when used with certain other notes, has a
different effect. That creates certain moods. Based on that, we
can divide Rags into three categories:

1. Rags with ‘Komal’ ‘Re’ and ‘Dha’ (second and sixth flat) -
These Ragas are called ‘Sandhi-prakash’ (dawn/dusk or
twilight) Ragas. As the name suggests, these Ragas are sung
in the early morning and early evening. Ma’ (the fourth) note
plays a very big role to separate the morning Raags from the
evening Raags. In the morning Raags, ‘Ma’ is usually natural
and in the evening Raags it is usually sharp.

1. ibid , pp 156

45
2. Rags with ‘Shudh’ ‘Re’ and ‘Dha’ (second and sixth natural) -
These Ragas are sung right after the ‘Sandhi-Prakash (twilight)
Ragas. So their time slot is around 7-10 a.m. and p.m. These
Rags must have a Shudh ‘Ga’ (third natural), otherwise they will
go under the next category. ‘Ma’ (fourth) plays a big role in these
Ragas too. The same rule applies here, the ‘a.m.’ Rags have
natural ‘Ma’ and the ‘p.m.’ Ragas have Tivar ‘Ma’ (fourth sharp).

3. Ragas with ‘Komal’ ‘Ga’ and ‘Ni’ (third and seventh flat) - These
Rags have the next time slot in both day and night. In these
Ragas, the position ‘Re’ or ‘Dha’ does not matter. However, these
Ragas must have Komal ‘Ga’ (third flat). Importance of komal ‘Ni’
(the seventh) is not as high as the position of the ‘Ga’ (third).

Time chart depicting the time period[1] (prahar) and the associated raga

1. http://www.itcsra.org/sra_others_samay_index.html

46
Tala - Rythmical groupings of beats
There is a perfect balance in the
universe. This balance is the
essence of Tala and therefore Tala
is in classical music is an important
factor. The Tala is the theory of time
measure. It has the same principle in Hindustani and Carnatic
music, though the names and styles differ. The musical time is
divided into simple and complicated metres. When accompanying
the dance, vocal and instrumental music, the Tala maintains the
balance which is the most essential function of music. Tala is
independent of the music it accompanies: it has its own divisions.
It moves in bars, and each beat in it is divided into the smallest
fraction.

Rythm has three aspects:

Tala, Laya and Matra. Tala is a complete cycle of Metrical phrase
composed of a fixed number of beats. There are over a 100
Talas, but only 30 Talas are known and about 10-12 are used.
The Laya is the tempo, which keeps uniformity of time span and
it has 3 divisions -- Vilambit, Madhya and Drut. The Matra is the
smallest unit of the tala.
Tala is the most important aspect of classical music, and it can
be considered to be the very basis or pulse of music. To
appreciate the structure of simple and complicated divisions, the
improvisations of Tala and its theory, one should listen to an
accomplished solo drummer. A classical drum player requires at
8-10 years of methodical training and another 4-5 years of hard
practice.

47
There is unique intricacy and rhythmic sophistication in Indian
music. There are talas ranging from a 3 beat cycle to 108 beats
within a cycle! The most popular talas are those which have
5,6,7,8,10,12,14, and 16 beats to a cycle. There are also other
cycles such as 9,11,13,15,17, and 19 beats, etc., which are only
played by outstanding musicians on rare occasions.

The basic beat or theka of a tala is described using words called

bole-s which relate to the different sounds of the tabla. The beat
that starts a cycle is called the sam and marked with an\ X.
Another beat that is given importance is the khali (o), which is
usually the beat at the beginning of the second half of the cycle.
These two beats, which have distinct sounds in each tala aid the
musician in remaining in laya or tempo. The most commonly used
tala is the teental or trital, which has 16 beats or matra-s per
cycle, broken into four sub-groups of four beats each.

The following beats are tabulated according to the ascending

order of beat counts. The divisions of the phrases (known as
theka) are marked by red vertical lines.

Please notice the Jati (Group/Category) of the beats. There are 5

Tisra - 3 (counts) or multiple of 3
Chatasra - 4 or multiple of 4
Khanda - 5 or multiple of 5
Misra - 7 or multiple of 7
Shankirna - 9 or multiple of 9

1. Ibid, pp 198-210
2. www.tabla.sr/technical_aspect.html

48
Indian Music is very minute and very vast, it is impossible to capture
the minute details in a few words. In this chapter, I have tried to tie
up the chronology and some important technical aspects in a few
words

Information has many dimensions, for research work in Indian music,

any researcher needs to work out on information derived as a result of
some research work done before. And so on, any topic may require
information from any other related or unrelated topic. The next chapter
will throw light on information in Indian music

49