2 Revised PrinciplesofEcology PDF

Unit - 2 Principles of
Ecology
What is the Environment?
• The physical and biological habitat

surrounding us is the environment
• Abiotic Environment:
Air, land, water, rocks
• Biotic Environment: Living

\organisms such as plants,
Segments of the Environment
• Lithosphere: Earth’s Crust, rocks, minerals. Huge
reservoir, less transport (conveyer)
• Pedosphere: soil
• Hydrosphere: oceans and water,
huge reservoir and transporter
• Biosphere: small reservoir,
moderate transporter;
huge impact on the environment.
• Atmosphere: small reservoir,
efficient transporter.
Zones of the Atmosphere
• Exosphere: 500 – 1000 km up to 10,000 km,
• Thermosphere: from 80 – 85 km to 640+ km
temperature increasing with height.
• Ionosphere: auroras, long distance radiowave
propagation.
• Mesosphere: 50 km to 80 to 85 km temperature
decreasing with height. Meteors burn up when
entering the atmosphere.
• Stratosphere: 7 to 17 km range to about 50 km
Temperature increases with height. Ozone—few
ppm (Mainly 15 to 35 km)
• Troposphere: Surface to between 7 km at the
poles and 17 km at equator,
• Weather variations , vertical mixing
Atmosphere
http://view.ge/page/sience/15-atmosphere-of-earth?lang=english
http://www.theozonehole.com/atmosphere.htm
Principles of Ecology
- Segments of the Environment
- Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Biosphere
- Ecosystem: Biotic and Abiotic Factors
- Structure of the Ecosystem
- Ecological Pyramids
- Functions of Ecosystems
- Productivity
- Food Production
- Energy Flow
- Food Chain and Food Web
- Nutrient Recycling
- Biogeochemical Cycles - Water Cycle, C, N, P, S
Cycles
- Development and Stabilization
- Community Associations
- Community Adaptations
- Ecological Succession
Structure of the Ecosystem - Ecological
Pyramids or Trophic Pyramids
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web
Types of Ecological Pyramids or Trophic
Pyramids: Terrestrial Vs Aquatic Ecosystem
http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/ecology/food.html
Variations in Ecological Pyramid
Ecosystem Functions[ref], [ref]
Productivity - Food Production
Energy Flow - Food Chain, Food Web
Nutrient recycling - Biogeochemical Cycles
Development and Stabilization - Associations,

Adaptations, Succession
Productivity - Food Production
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Phot
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis
osynthesis_Block_diag.gif
Energy Flow
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/3/3a/Ecological_Pyramid.svg/2000px-
Ecological_Pyramid.svg.png
https://encrypted-
tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRzjOz_0Z0
hjtz-
ioqM43GrS3M9qDzOnXmtwQPp0BA6TFDfDpFC7g
https://encrypted-
tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTsDoYoxXGLYH2SGytHwsD2fyUZEuA232wDRu4pn9AfnbGF-xRh8w
Flow of Chemical and Pollutants through Food
Chain
http://iasmania.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Bioacc-VS-Biomag1.png
Detritus Food Chain
●Less dependent on direct sunlight
●Depends on influx of organic matter from
another system
●Generally small
●E.g. Mangrove leaves (detritus)—
microorganisms—crabs
●E.g. Caves: bat colonies—guano—organisms
(salamanders)
●E.g. Ocean floor—dead carcasses—organisms
feeding on it.
Nutrient recycling - Biogeochemical Cycles
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sSscHv8Kmtw/VUQHMBL1rSI/AAAAAAAAB18/YKOplqNSdTM/s1600/1A%2B-
%2BBiogeochemical%2BCycle%2BComponents.jpg
Hydrological Cycle
Hydrological Cycle & Earth’s Albedo
● Evaporation—cloud
formation
● Increased albedo or
reflection coefficient is a
measure of the ‘whiteness’ of
the earth when viewed
through space.
● Greater the albedo→lower is
the solar radiation absorbed
by the earth→lower is the
temperature of the globe
(Greater cooling).
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Albedo-e_hg.svg/549px-Albedo-e_hg.svg.png
Albedo and Tree Cover
● Trees tend to have a low albedo
○ Deciduous trees: 0.15-0.18 (15-18%)
○ Coniferous trees 0.09-0.15 (9-15%)
● Hence, removing forests → increases albedo →localized
climate cooling.
● However, trees also provide local evaporative cooling and
carbon sequestration; loss of trees reduces these cooling
effects.
● Cloud feedbacks and snow cover further complicate the
issue.
● Studies of new forests indicate:
○ A net cooling effect in tropical and mid-latitude areas
○ A net neutral or slightly warming effect in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia)
●Betts, Richard A. (2000). "Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo". Nature 408 (6809): 187–190.
doi:10.1038/35041545.PMID 11089969.
Phytoplankton, Clouds, Albedo
● Phytoplankton produce dimethylsulfoniopropionate

(DMSP)
● Converted to Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) in ocean
● Escapes to atmosphere, oxidizes to SO2 and
nucleates clouds.
● This is an example of how the biosphere (plankton)
regulates the hydosphere (global precipitation),
earth’s albedo and global temperature.
● CLAW Hypothesis: negative feedback; regulation of
global temperature.
● Anti-CLAW Hypothesis: positive feedback;
escalation of global warming.
warm oceans→more phytoplankton → more DMS → More clouds
→ cooling (negative feedback; regulation)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f5/CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_1_AYool.png/598px-
CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_1_AYool.png
warm oceans → stalling of thermohaline ocean currents→ocean
stratification → less nutrients from ocean bottom in euphotic zone
→ less phytoplankton → less DMS → less clouds → more heating
(positive feedback; escalation)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cc/CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_2_AYool.png
Global Conveyer Belt
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png
Plants: Significance in Water Cycle
• Taproots go up to 100x deeper than canopy
Short-circuit pathways for soil water redistribution

• In dry spells, water from below brought to surface,
to increase nutrient extraction, photosysnthesis
and transpiration.
• In wet spells, promote percolation
Plants: Significance in Water Cycle
• Plants pump huge quantities of water from soil to
air.
• Regulate T and humidity. In a clearing in Nigeria, soil
T up to 5°C higher; humidity reduced by 50%
compared to adjacent forest.
• Evapo-transpiration of trees—nature’s pump and

cooler
Importance of Rainforests
● 25% of rain never reaches the ground.; wets canopy

and evaporates
● 25% of total—runoff
● 50% of total pumped up and transpired by plants.
● 75% of rainwater is returned to the atmosphere; new
clouds, new rain,
● Colossal heat pump—energy of six million atom
bombs/day; redistributes energy to higher latitudes
● Up to 80% incident solar energy carried by hot, humid
air;
○ rises rapidly and develops into thunder clouds that
simultaneously
○ ater areas further downwind
○ releases latent heat
Importance of Rainforests
● Absorb 2 billion tonnes of CO2/yr; about 20-30%
of fossil C emissions
● Destruction of the Amazon:
○ May stall the heat pump
○ Accelerate drought and desertification (positive
feedback)
○ Loss of CO2 sink; accelerate global warming.
○ Reforestation cannot replace natural stands. Loss of
soil carbon.
Sources:
Prof. Eneas Salati from the University of São Paulo, Piracicaba – Brasil http://www.fgaia.org.br/texts/e-
rainforests.html
http://www.hydrogen.co.uk/h2_now/journal/articles/1_global_warming.htm
http://www.hydrogen.co.uk/h2_now/journal/articles/2_global_warming.htm
http://www.greendiary.com/entry/increasing-global-warming-decreases-forests-co2-absorption-capacity
http://www.i-sis.org.uk/LOG4.php
Availability of Carbon
● Earth’s C content = 0.19% (0.032% in
lithosphere)
● Atmospheric CO2 is the main utilizable
reservoir
● 18% in biomass
● Main reservoirs air, rocks (carbonates),
oceans.
http://image.slidesharecdn.com/biogeochemicalcycles-120914165417-phpapp01/95/biogeochemical-cycles-6-
728.jpg?cb=1347641775
Potential contributors to climate change
● Complex interactions in the climate puzzle

● Feedback mechanisms
● Some interesting twists
○ Increasing temp. reduces CO2 solubility (reduced C-sink
capacity of the ocean)
○ Ocean Acidification reduces C-sequestration in the form
of CaCO3
○ 740ppm CO2 in water by 2100. Reduction in population of
mussels by 25% and oysters by 10%
○ At 1800ppm, shells will dissolve
Human Impacts on Carbon Cycle
● Burning of Fossil fuels

● Deforestation and Poor Agricultural practices
● Increase in atmospheric greenhouse gasses
such as CO2, methane, SOX, NOX, etc. leads to

Greenhouse effect, global warming and climate
change.
Nitrogen Reservoir
● N is an essential component of proteins,

nucleic acids and other cellular constituents.
● Reservoirs – 79% of the atmosphere is N2
gas.
● The N=N triple bond is relatively difficult to
break, requires special conditions. As a result
most ecosystems are N-limited.
● N2 dissolves in water, cycles through air, water
and living tissue.
Nitrogen Fixation
● Abiotic: lightning (very high T and P) 107 metric

tons yr-1 ~ 5-8% of total annual N fixation.
(weathering of rocks is insignificant)
● Biotic: Nitrogen fixation by microbes, 1.75 x108
metric tons yr-1 (symbiotic bacteria: azobacter or
rhizobium- legumes
● Industrial: The Haber-Bosch process (1909) 5x107
metric tons yr-1 – high P & T, Fe catalyst to
convert N2 to NH3;& NH4NO3
● Combustion Side Effect: 2x107 metric tons yr-1.
High T and P oxidizes N2 to NOx
Nitrification-Denitrification
● Nitrification by chemoautotrophs
○Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize
NH3 to NO2
-
○Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the
nitrites to NO3
-
●
-
Denitrication Anaerobic respiration of NO3 to
dinitrogen gas by several species of
Pseudomonas, Alkaligenes, and Bacillus
Human Impacts on Nitrogen Cycle
● Burning of Fossil fuels add Nitrogen Oxides
(NO2) and Nitric Acid vapor (HNO3).
● Nitrous Oxide (N2O) released by the action of
anaerobic bacteria on Livestock waste.

● Nitrogen stored in Soil and Plants released by
destruction of forestlands, grassland and

wetlands.
● Upset the nitrogen cycle in aquatic ecosystem
by adding excess of nitrates to the body

● Harvest nitrogen-rich crops, irrigate crops, wash
out nitrogen from topsoils

Fate of N
● Sources of anthropogenic N loads: Fertilizers,
Legume Crops, Combustion and forest burning,
livestock.
● In most terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems N is a
limiting nutrient, gets cycled efficiently.
● What happens when plants have enough N (i.e.
greater 16:1 N:P ratio)?
● When N saturation of ecosystem occurs, excess N
tends to leave the system in the form of nitrate.
● Flushing/erosion – dissolved and particulate matter in
streamwater, (DIN, DON, TN, Org N)
●
-
Leaching to groundwater – NO3 poor sorption to
clays, highly water soluble.
Effects of Increased N loading
Since 1940s amount of N available for uptake has
more than doubled. Anthropogenic N inputs are
now equal to biological fixation.
● Eutrophication in aquatic systems, coastal algal
blooms and “Dead Zone”, fish kills, increased turbidity
Eutrophication
(1.54mm)
Credit:Fuse School - Global Education Source https://youtu.be/6LAT1gLMPu4

● Selective pressures in terrestrial systems favoring
species-poor grasslands and forests
● Nitrate MCL – 10 mg/L …
● Nitric oxide – precursor of acid rain and smog
● Nitrous oxide – long lived greenhouse gas that can
trap 200 times as much heat as CO2
Phosphorus Cycle
Ref
● One of the longest cycles
● Essential nutrient; DNA, ATP, ADP, fat, cell
membranes
Human Impacts on Phosphorus

Cycle
● P-containing detergents
● Mining phosphate rock
● P-containing fertilizer use
●P in water leads to eutrophication

Sulphur Cycle
Human Impacts on Sulfur Cycle
● SO2 from industry and combustion (e.g. coal,
petrol).
● SO2 from Refine industry convert the Petroleum
to Gasoline Products
● SO2 from Metallic ore Industries.
● SO2 from Mining industries - Acid mine
drainage
Group Work 1 - Discuss human
influence on Biogeochemical Cycles
and Impacts to our Environment
Group Work 2 - How do we maintain

the Biogeochemical Cycles to
balance our ecosystem
Gaia Theory
● By James Lovelock; Greek Earth Goddess
● Earth with all intricate and interacting systems is like
a Super-Organism
Gaia Hypothesis -
James Lovelock
(28.46mm)
Credit:Naked Science. Source https://youtu.be/GIFRg2skuDI

● Self regulation: chemistry of oceans, atmosphere,
temperature, living beings
● Earth behaves as if it had a purpose
● Purpose is to nurture life and maintain life-friendly
conditions.
● This perspective brings a new awareness that can
be the foundation of all future development
● It will enable the further evolution of mankind
Thank You

2 Revised PrinciplesofEcology PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 Revised PrinciplesofEcology PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 Revised PrinciplesofEcology PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit - 2 Principles of

• The physical and biological habitat

• Biotic Environment: Living

Energy Flow - Food Chain, Food Web

Nutrient recycling - Biogeochemical Cycles

Development and Stabilization - Associations,

● Phytoplankton produce dimethylsulfoniopropionate

Short-circuit pathways for soil water redistribution

• Evapo-transpiration of trees—nature’s pump and

● 25% of rain never reaches the ground.; wets canopy

● Complex interactions in the climate puzzle

● Burning of Fossil fuels

● Increase in atmospheric greenhouse gasses

such as CO2, methane, SOX, NOX, etc. leads to

● N is an essential component of proteins,

● Abiotic: lightning (very high T and P) 107 metric

anaerobic bacteria on Livestock waste.

destruction of forestlands, grassland and

by adding excess of nitrates to the body

out nitrogen from topsoils

Credit:Fuse School - Global Education Source https://youtu.be/6LAT1gLMPu4

Human Impacts on Phosphorus

● P-containing fertilizer use

●P in water leads to eutrophication

● SO2 from Refine industry convert the Petroleum

Group Work 2 - How do we maintain

Credit:Naked Science. Source https://youtu.be/GIFRg2skuDI

You might also like