Rehearings:Late Verdi

Ancoraun bacio.:

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Three Scenes from Verdi's Otello
ROGERPARKERANDMATTHEWBROWN
I sawfromout the waveherstructuresrise
As fromthe strokeof the enchanter'swand.
-Byron
We intend to explore through these three scenes that inevitably involves discussion of the inter-
(the "storm" scene and "love duet" from act I, action of words and music); or to the function of
and the final scene of the opera)some of the dif- motives; or to the possibilities of large-scale
ficulties that analysts of Verdihave to confront, tonal movements. Three brief examples may
some of the different systems of which they clarify the point.
must be aware. During the past few years there Julian Budden's good sense and perspective
has been a remarkable flowering of Verdi re- on matters of formal and traditional usage are
search, and valuable new insights into the well known by now; but he has been criticized
structure of his operas have been presented. of late (in one case rathersharply)for his lack of
However, while the growth of analysis has led concern with large-scale motivic and tonal
to a healthy proliferation of analytical tech- working, and his general reticence concerning
niques, there has perhaps been a tendency to the innovations of Verdi's harmonic language.'
limit unnecessarily the terms of any given in- Even if one feels that such criticism is harsh
quiry.The dangerhas been one of over-speciali- given the nature of Budden's books, one must
zation, of adheringtoo rigidly to one particular agreethat it is in tonal and motivic matters that
analytical perspective, whether to the presence his work is most in need of amplification. It is
or absence of formal archetypes (an approach also certainly true that Budden's conservative
stance becomes less tenable as he progresses
through Verdi's ceuvre. What was plain com-
An earlierdraftof this paperwas presentedat a joint meet- mon sense in Nabucco becomes debatablein Il
ing of the American Musicological Society and the Ameri-
can Institute for Verdi Studies, New York City, December Trovatore,and (some would say) even dubious
1983. We should like to acknowledge the advice and assist- in Falstaff.
ance of William Ashbrook,JenniferWilliams Brown,David
Lawton, Lewis Lockwood, Pierluigi Petrobelli, and Harold
Powers,all of whom readand commented upon versions of 'JulianBudden,The Operasof Verdi,3 vols. (London,1973,
this paper. 1978, 1981);see GaryTomlinson, "VerdiafterBudden," this
journal5 (1981), 170-82; and JamesA. Hepokoski's review
19th-CenturyMusic IX/1 (Summer1985). ? by the Regents of Budden'sthird volume in Journalof the American Musi-
of the University of California. cological Society 35 (1982),577-85.
50
 Frits Noske, on the other hand, could never ture"of a tonal piece of music, makes only pass- PARKER/
BROWN
be accused of conservatism. His writings on ing referenceto its tonal motion. Verdi's
Verdi represent motivic analysis of this com- To take our third example, an article on the Otello
poser's work at its most thoroughgoing.2 "bacio"theme in Otello by David Lawton does
Noske's method is best describedas taxonomic: consider tonal motion, and was indeed an im-
it involves the dissection and classification of portant stimulus to the present inquiry.5 The
numerous surfacedetails; musical examples are originality of Lawton's work should not be un-
usually very short, and are commonly assem- derestimated; until very recently, his articles
bled paradigmatically. Such a technique often were virtually the only ones to explore Verdi's
leads to valuable revelations, and few will come harmonic language in any detail, and his ac-
away from Noske's account of Otello without count of the voice leading in the final pages of
many insights. But one wonders whether his act I is exemplary.6 It is, then, doubly disap-
claims for "structural" significance are fully pointing that Lawton's remarks concerning the
justified. Noske sees the "workingof poison" as overall harmonic structure of the opera should

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"the most important structural feature of the reveal, to the present authors at least, a pro-
opera." After describing how Iago's poison nounced shift toward Noskerismo. ForLawton,
works in a three-fold musical manner, by means the C-major chord in the final cadence of the
of descending chromatic scales, by the use of "bacio" theme has "universal" significance: it
triplets, and by a "special motive," he wonders spells, in the context of the entire opera, "disas-
whether "beforeor after Verdi, a composer ever ter for Otello." On the other hand, F major
used the device in such a penetrating manner, (which plays so prominent a part in the love
making it the structural essence of his work."3 duet) is said to represent "the fulfillment of
For many, such sweeping statements, and the Iago's most devious ambitions."7 Quite apart
use of terms such as "structural essence," will from the logical difficulties such an attitude
seem unjustified by the material presented. presents, many will find the semantic net cast
Like Arnold Whittall, who raises similar ques- over these keys to be disconcertingly broad.Af-
tions in his review of David Epstein's Beyond ter all, the operais constructed very tightly, and
Orpheus, some might even be tempted to cast to look for adumbrationsof Otello's downfall is,
into the ring Heinrich Schenker's famous pas- to paraphrase Vladimir Nabokov, rather like
sages on motive from Der freie Satz: searchingfor references to aquatic mammals in
Coherencein languagedoes not arisefroma single Moby Dick. Again, as with Noske, concern
with one element of operatic language leads to
syllable,a singleword,orevena singlesentence;de-
spitethe correspondence of wordsandthings,every distortions when an overall view is sought.
coherentrelationshipin languagedependsupon a To be sure, it is easy to criticize. The har-
meaning hidden in a background.Such meaning monic and formal language of Verdi's final per-
achievesno fulfillmentwith merebeginnings.Simi- iod presents formidable difficulties for the ana-
larly,music findsno coherencein a "motive"in the lyst, particularly if his interest is directed
usual sense. Great composers trust their long-
rangevision.....
Forthis reasonthey do not basetheir toward large-scale issues. Though frequently
compositionsupon some "melody,""motive,"or suggesting the forms and practices traditional
"idea.,"4 to nineteenth-century Italian opera, Verdi
achieves in his last operas a profoundindividu-
But one need hardly be a card-carrying
Schenkerian to feel uneasy with a method
which, while offering to identify the "struc-
5"Onthe 'Bacio' Theme in Otello," this journal 1 (1978),
211-20.
6See in particular"Verdi'sNon-Definitive Revisions: The
2See his book The Signifierand the Signified (The Hague, EarlyOperas"(jointauthorshipwith David Rosen), in Atti
1977),in particular"Otello: DramathroughStructure,"pp. del 1110congressointernazionale di studi verdiani (Parma,
133-70. 1974),pp. 189-237, especially pp. 206--20;"TonalStructure
3Noske,p. 157. andDramaticAction in Rigoletto,"in Rigoletto: Bollettino
4Whittall's review is in Journalof Music Theory 25 (1981), dell'Istituto di Studi Verdiani,III/9(Parma,1982), 1559-81;
319-26. The Schenkerquotations come from ErnstOster's and Tonality and Drama in Verdi's Early Operas (Ph.D.
translationof Der freie Satz (New York, 1979),pp. 131 and diss., University of California,Berkeley, 1973).
26. 7Lawton,"On the 'Bacio'theme," pp. 215 and 218.
51
 19TH ality: the analyst has fewer opportunities to not, in other words, merely the replacement of a
CENTURY well-defined tonic with an unexpected new
MUSIC check his intuitions against a repertoire;"back-
ground"and "foreground"elements may all too tonal excursion. In at least three cases-the
easily become confused. Nowhere is this more storm, the brindisi, and the love duet-it bites
evident than in the first scene we have chosen deeperinto the overall harmonic structure.
for detailed study, the "storm" scene that be- Perhapsthe most striking featureof the open-
gins act I. ing storm scene (up to the victory chorus) is its
prevailing sense of tonal ambiguity. As we see
II from ex. 1, although the passage ends with the
As has often been noted, the sequence of emphatic E of the victory chorus, progress to-
"numbers"in act I is nothing less than a picture wardthat key is anything but obvious.
gallery of set pieces: the storm, the victory cho- The openingchord,a dominanteleventh on C,
rus, the fireside chorus, the brindisi, and of is devoid of immediate tonal associations. In-
course the love duet. In an immediately obvious stead of resolving, it "dissolves" on to a dimin-

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manner, all but the last of these is given firm ished-seventh chord on Db. Though several
musical characterization. The storm and vic- keys are subsequently suggested by passing
tory choruses are underpinnedby an organpedal tonicizations (notablyD minor and C minor), it
of low C, C#, and D, a kind of "white noise" that is not until "Dio fulgor della bufera" (13/1/1)8
stops on cue as the chorus announces "Si calma that a clear tonality is defined-in this case, A
la bufera"("the storm has settled"); the fireside minor. There is no doubt about the authority of
chorus is in E almost throughout;the brindisi is this tonic: the first part of "Dio fulgor" modu-
dominated by driving 6 rhythms. Nevertheless, lates to the dominant, and the second weaves its
on occasions the form and/or tonality of these way back to A by a long stepwise ascent in the
pieces denies in an important sense their con- bass. But, just as tonal closure seems imminent,
ventionality. The tonal stability that in earlier
times was a strong-often defining-element of
such fixed forms is absent, or at least equivocal. sReferencesare to the currentRicordipiano-vocalscore, pl.
no. 52105, ed. MarioParenti.The firstnumberindicates the
This is, one might add,not merely an inevitable page, the second the system, the third the measure within
reflection of the increased formal continuity-- that system.

"Dio fulgor" - Chorus "E' salvo" "Esultate"- "Vittoria"

dim 7tl C#-E-G-B U
Otello Chorus
dim 7th
dim. 7th C-EV-FO-A G#-B-D-F4

p. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 21 22
Allegro agitto
~=76

Iv7 V IV V12 V Vi

Organ Pedal D min. B min. C min. A min. E min.

CC D

Example 1
52
the decisive tonic is denied: Iago interrupts the have seen, introduced at the very beginning of PARKER/
chorus and the expected root-position tonic is BROWN
the opera, and has an important pivotal func- Verdi's
replaced by Vj of Bb (16/2/2). A succession of tion in the first tonal event: its prolongation Otello
dominant sevenths then passes around the cy- serves as the link between the opening "elev-
cle of fifths to another diminished-seventh enth" and the first cadence onto D minor (3/2/
chord on CO,which leads in turn to a cadential 2). As we see from ex. 2 (a-c), this same dimin-
progression in E major, as the chorus rings out ished chord then returns twice at crucial
with "E' salvo!" (18/1-2). Again, however, the moments in the storm. Iago's second comment
expected tonic is evaded, this time by a decep- in the opera,"L'alvofrenetico del mar sia la sua
tive cadence onto CO.Otello's magnificent en- tomba," is underpinned by a sustained sound-
trance immediately tonicizes C#, and it is only ing of the chord, which then leads to the frus-
afterhe has reportedthe defeat of the Turks that tratedcadential 6 in E majorof "E'salvo!" (2a).It
E majoris finally achieved (22/3/1). also acts as the interstice between the two
Description such as this, though a useful phrases of Otello's "Esultate!" (2b), and thus

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enough starting point, gives little indication of again pushes the music toward a cadential pro-
what binds the scene together, what impels the gression in E major, one that is now completed
drama in a musical sense. For example, al- satisfactorily. As a final demonstration of its
though the long organ pedal much mentioned power to generate tonal closure, the same di-
by commentators clearly has a unifying effect, minished chord precedes the cadential 6 of the
it contributes more to the tinta of the passage victory chorus (2c). Thunder and lightning are
than to the structure. It is, of course, quite in- requestedin the score, as if to highlight the mo-
capable of taking part in the generative pro- ment scenically.
cesses. However, even a rapid glance at the Elsewhere in the scene Verdi tends to avoid
score shows that Verdi'suse of the stock devices the other two diminished-seventh forms in the
of operatic storms-diminished-seventh context of cadential progressions. This differ-
chords; rushing scales; abrupt changes of tex- ence in function between diminished sevenths
ture, rhythm, and harmony; irregularperiods; on C and B and those on Db reinforces the lat-
and the absence of strong cadential progres- ter's role in the generation of E major and, as a
sions-is anything but casual. On the most ob- consequence, highlights the importance of the
vious level, we find that thematic recall inter- tonal model shown in ex. 2. The point is of
acts with harmonic motion to emphasize the significance because, as we shall see shortly,
tonal interruptions mentioned earlier. When this particularmodel has a most important part
lago frustratesthe final cadence in A at the close to play in the closing stages of the act.
of "Dio fulgor della bufera" (16/2/2), Verdi re- Though strictly outside the scope of our ar-
turns to an idea first heard several pages earlier ticle, it is interesting to note that the second
(P3in ex. 1);similarly, the deceptive cadence in E partof act I, sc. 1, is guided by many of the same
before Otello's entrance (18/2/3) heralds the re- techniques we find in the first, even though the
turn of a three-against-two motive (a in ex. 1) main tonalities are more clearly articulated.
that had accompanied Montano's and Cassio's Buddenhas pointed out an obvious example of
commentary on the storm near the beginning of thematic recall-by no means the only one-in
the scene. the orchestral introduction to the brindisi (59/
More subtle, certainly with broaderimplica- 1/1): the use of a rhythmic motive from the cen-
tions, is the fact that we find a distinctive pat- tral G-major section of the preceding chorus,
tern to the arrangementof the diminished-sev- "Fuoco di gioia" (43/1/1ff.), casts a bridge be-
enth chords, that "rock and refuge ... of the tween the two closed forms, a frequent device
modern school," as Verdi once scornfully throughout the opera.'0 A further, more com-
dubbed the chord.9 What we might term the plex example of recall occurs in Iago's two reci-
"principal form," that based on Db, is, as we tatives, which flank the "Fuoco di gioia" chorus
and thus cause a rapid, intercutting effect of
9SeeVerdi'sletter to Florimoof 4 January1871 in I copialet-
tere di Giuseppe Verdi,ed. Gaetano Cesari and Alessandro
Luzio (Milan, 1913),p. 232. '0BuddenIII,344.

53
 19TH a. "E'salvo!"
CENTURY 17 18
MUSIC i ------- I

b. "Esultate!"
19 20 21 22

#IV7 V

c. "Vittoria!'
22 25 26 27 28

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#IV7 V

d. "Vengala morte"
103 104

e. "Ah!la gioiam'innonda"
105 106

I-:

#Iv45 v

Example2

action and contemplation. The recurring pat- however, the duet has continued to present
tern consists of an ascending vocal line F-G6- problems to commentators. Budden quotes
Ab-B6-C-DM,which appearswithin the overall Spike Hughes as an example of one who takes
context of motion from F to F# (33/3/3-34/4/3; those sensuous solo cellos as an opportunity to
58/1/1-59/1/1). In each case the line is harmo- switch from the critical to the exclamatory
nized slightly differently;the basic similarity is mode. ForHughes the duet is "a string of exqui-
of vocal sonority. It is not surprising that the site tunes which meander through one unlikely
idea occurs a further time, in yet another har- key afteranother."" But even Buddendescribes
monic context, in lago's "Credo," and so be- the duet with little reference to traditional
comes attached to his musical personality forms. As Harold Powers has recently demon-
ratherthan to a particulardramatic event (117/ strated, this is unnecessary.'2 Powers's ex-
3/1-117/4/2). tended analysis shows how the duet can indeed
be seen in terms of operatictradition, as a tempo
III
There is no doubt that the initial effect of the
love duet is of a coming to rest. The extended or- "Cited in BuddenIII,349.
chestral introduction, the careful and lengthy 12SeeHarold S. Powers, "Multivalent Analysis: the Dy-
dominant preparation, the gradual clearing of namics of Otello, Act 1/2-3," given at the 1984 Cornell
the stage: all this suggests an end to the some- Verdi-WagnerConference.We are most gratefulto Profes-
sor Powersfor allowing us to see a typescriptversion of this
what hectic progressof the act so far. Formally, paper.

54
d'attacco ("Giii nella notte densa"), Adagio notte," F major returns to take up much of the PARKER/
central portion of the piece. We might then be BROWN
("Quandonarravi l'esule tua vita"), and tempo Verdi's
di mezzo ("Vengala morte"); as so often in late tempted to label G6 as some kind of Neapolitan Otello
Verdi,the cabaletta is absent. This view is sup- interruption, perhaps offering one particularly
portedboth on textual and musical grounds.For unusual progressionin the scena as a precis be-
example, each section is marked by a change in fore the fact (see ex. 3). But the aural effect of
tempo (preceding scena, J = 100/132; "Giii this section is quite different.
nella notte," J = 72; "Quando narravi," J = 66; The pedalFis soon heardas the dominantof B6
"Vengala morte," J = 80) and a change in tonal (94/2/1ff.), and the melodic arrival of G6 is un-
and thematic character(the scena centers on F; derstood in this context, as a move to the sub-
"Giii nella notte" shifts to G6; "Quando nar- mediant area. On the other hand, the "return"
ravi" is a closed form in F; and "Venga la of F majoris circuitous to say the least, and the
morte" moves quickly away from F, eventually G6 tonality is dispelled sometime before the
settling on E major for the "bacio" theme). dominant of F is reachedwith Desdemona's "Te

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These divisions are likewise matched in the ne rammenti!" (96/4/1-3).
text: as we might expect, the scena is in versi As with the "storm" scene, it is only when
sciolti while the other sections are in versi we examine the small details of the duet that we
lirici, the Adagio being furtherdelineated by its begin to see the intricate arrayof harmonic and
subtly different rhyme scheme and its constant motivic cross reference that binds it together.
allusions to the past. For example, the opening two statements by
But while this outline holds a certain attrac- Otello and Desdemona (shown in ex. 4) reveal a
tion in preserving the "hindmost shards" of wealth of common material, some of which car-
Rossinian structure, it can hardlybe regardedas ries broadimplications. The first and most obvi-
an adequateaccount of the overall coherence of ous (4A)lies in the initial harmonic juxtaposi-
the duet. Nor is there any immediately convinc- tion of each section: in both cases the tonic
ing sense of large-scale tonal motion. The open- chordof G6 is prolongedby a move to 6VI(D ma-
ing and closing tonalities (G6and D6) areclosely jor/Ebl major). Other cross references include:
related-a point emphasized by Verdi through the prominent use of the dominant minor, D6
recall of theme and orchestral sonority (com- minor (4B);the shared chromatic descent from
pare95/1 with 108/4); but to arguethat the final G6 to Ebin the bass, in both cases underlinedby
key is the "goal"of the entire section would be a similar vocal descent, E6-Db-(C~)-B6 (4c); the
difficult. Even seemingly obvious connections pause on a deceptive cadence beforethe final vo-
must be treated with caution. For example, the cal phrase(4D).Add to this the generalirregular-
scena that precedes the duet spends some time ity of phrase lengths as measured against the
in F major;and after the G6 majorof "Gii nella prevailingregularmeter, and the conformity in

OTELLO:

par- to se pria non ve- do de- ser- ti gli spal- Idi]

93/4/1- 5.

Example3
55
 19TH a. A
CENTURY OTELLO:"Gia nella notte"
MUSIC 95 D

- L

VofVV2 16 V I V I 16 V - Vii

of V

b.

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DESDEMONA: "Mio superbo guerrier!" -
97
96 A

1 V7 116/16 V 1/16 6 V VI Vii

D~min. Emin. C v

Example4

orchestral sound and chord spacing, and one jor chords acts as a culmination of the increas-
might well call Desdemona's answer an imagi- ing harmonic activity (4b,E);in Otello's "pingea
native recomposition of Otello's opening state- dell'armi" (98/1/1), 6VIinitiates a modulation;
ment. It is significant, though, that this "recom- and at Desdemona's "Poi mi guidavi" (99/3/2),
position" takes place in a very different tonal it constitutes the arrivalof a new key. Moves to
context. Otello's music is tonally closed in G61 1VIin the latter part of the duet cut deeperinto
while Desdemona's reply moves obliquely from the fabricof the piece: afterreestablishing F ma-
G6via Db, Eb,and C6, to arriveeventually at the jor/minor as a tonic, Verdi modulates to D1 for
dominant of F. Desdemona's "Ed io vedea" (101/3/1). How-
The extent to which any of these features ever, remarkable as the cumulative effect of
makes its presence felt elsewhere in the duet is these examples may be, they are undoubtedly
obviously variable;but two points in particular cappedby the appearanceof 6VI near the end of
are worth further investigation. First the move the act: in the closing barsof the "bacio"theme,
to 6VI,which is so common as to be an unmis- the bass arpeggiationthrough G gives rise to a
takablepart of the tinta. As so often with Verdi, much-discussed 6 chord on 6VI, whose proxim-
6VIis used at a number of levels, each time serv- ity to the moment of tonal closure produces a
ing a different linear-harmonic function. The far more radical effect than any heard previ-
momentary inflection (4A)of Otello's opening ously.'3
phrase becomes more emphatic in Desde- The second feature we should like to isolate
mona's, though in both cases there is an imme- is the recurrenceof Db minor. As with bVI, its
diate return to the tonic; at the end of Desde-
mona's first statement, as she opens "the
'3Wemight also recall that the juxtapositionof E-majorand
gateway to memory" (Budden's evocative C-majorchordsis prefiguredearlierin the love duet, at Des-
phrase),the juxtaposition of E-majorand C-ma- demona's "Tene rammenti!" (96/4/1-2).
56
function varies. In ex. 4a, Db minor is little of Otello's first "pass" at E major in the love PARKER/
duet (2d), and of the emergence of the "bacio" BROWN
more than a mixture within an overall domi- Verdi's
nant prolongation, while in 4b it acts as a pivot theme itself (2e). This link, once accepted, cer- Otello
chord in the move to C6. This "kinetic" func- tainly strengthens the tonal bonds between the
tion is taken still further at a later stage, when beginning and the end of the act, making the
D6 is implicated in the three most important "bacio" theme a culmination not only of the
tonal events of the act's closing pages. First, Db duet, but, in this tonal sense, of the act as a
minor and "its" diminished seventh (D1-E-G- whole. However, the extent to which one feels
Bb)act as pivot chordsin Otello's initial attempt justified in using these patterns as further evi-
to impose E major (103/4/2-104/1/2); then, the dence that the act is "in" E major remains de-
"definitive" arrival of E (with the "bacio" batable. For the present authors, the possibility
theme) is precededby that same diminished of hearing all keys in reference to this tonic
chord(105/4/2);andfinally,the Db-majorchord seems remote. At risk of sounding finicky, we
that closes the entire act is approachedvia its would rather say that a large part of the act is

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minor tonic (enharmonically spelled as COmi- concerned with attempts to arrive at this key,
nor), with a tierce de Picardie effect that and that one way in which Verdiconnects these
strongly recalls the emergence of the "bacio" attempts is with a recurringharmonic pattern.
theme itself (107/2/1-3). Whatever one's final conclusions, it is un-
Identification of these recurring features, mistakable that the arrivalof the "bacio"theme
though clearly inadequate as an explanation of in the closing moments of act I initiates a pas-
large-scalestructure, whether of the first act or, sage of extraordinaryimportance: one which, in
still less, of the entire opera, may nevertheless terms of both motivic and tonal workings, car-
serve to shape our overall analytical response. ries a great weight of articulation. Before mov-
Forexample, the ubiquity of the move to 6VI, as ing to our final scene, it will be useful to discuss
well as its protean ability to exist at various briefly the role this theme plays in the network
structural levels, is evident throughout the op- of motivic and tonal references that cut across
era:there is hardlya set piece in which it fails to the remainderof the opera.When this topic has
make several prominent appearances. It is, in been tackled in the past, emphasis has been al-
short, an important element of Verdi's har- most exclusively directed to what is alreadyob-
monic syntax, used in this opera with special vious-that the "bacio"theme recurs at the be-
persistence, as part of the basic harmonic char- ginning and end of the final scene, where the
acter. At certain structural levels (in particular relationship between music and stage action
where secondary keys are generated within a (the three-fold kiss) is clearly presented. On
closed tonal structure), it is, for example, far closer analysis, however, it seems as though
more common than the dominant. Given this these literal repetitions are merely the most ob-
saturation, we should attach dramatic labels vious manifestations of a more thoroughgoing
only with the greatest of circumspection. How- process of motivic development. A few exam-
ever, as occurs throughout Verdi'scareer,levels ples must suffice.
of saturation may be all-important, and it does The next exchange between the lovers occurs
seem as though the potent effect of the "bacio" in act II,sc. 4 ("D'un uom che geme," pp. 154ff.).
cadence owes something to the fact that •bVIhas As Desdemona pleads for Cassio's reinstate-
been explored in a consistent manner through ment, the music takes up many of the harmonic
the previous portions of the love duet. fingerprintsof the "bacio" theme, in particular
The use of Dbminor and, in particular,of the the progression of half-diminished chord to di-
Db-based diminished chord to introduce E ma- molished chord by way of a falling appoggiatura
jor is perhaps less of a cautionary tale. Readers (155/1/2, 155/1/3). The "erotic recall" is, of
will doubtless already have noticed the parallel course, in Otello's mind, and so the chromatic
in this respect between the love duet and the worm in the bud exists mostly in the accompa-
opening of the act: indeed, as we can see by re- niment. Nevertheless, her worried response
turning to ex. 2, the tonal model associated with ("PerchB torbida suona?") is again referential:
E major in the storm scene and victory chorus the repeated oscillation of E6 (with C# appoggia-
(2a-c) may be regarded as the direct progenitor tura!) and the C#-based diminished chord (156/
57
19TH 1-3) recalls the preparatoryand initial bars of simplicity."'4 For the present authors, identi-
CENTURY the "bacio" theme. But in this changed dra- fication of this reminiscence is a preliminaryto
MUSIC
matic context the progression cannot take analysis. When we examine in detail the novel
wing, and returns obsessively to the dimin- harmonic and thematic design of the scene, it
ished-seventh sonority. becomes clear that recall of the "bacio" theme
In act III,sc. 2, their next confrontation, rec- is far better seen as a highpoint emerging from a
ollections become even less tranquil.In spite of complex web of interrelationships.
the E-majortonality, reference to the "bacio" It will first be useful to identify the broad dra-
theme becomes further distorted both musi- matic structure of the scene. The text is, almost
cally and dramatically. Even so, one might hear throughout, in unrhymed endecasillabi, and
the brief orchestral introduction (206/1), with this freest and most flexible of verse types offers
its overall melodic descent from CO, and its no indication of traditional fixed forms. How-
pause on the third degree of the scale, as a kind ever, after the orchestral introduction which ac-
of digest of the "bacio" music; similarly, the companies Otello's entrance, the action falls

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chromaticism in Otello's opening phrase again into four main sections:
assumes a level of "erotic recall" which hints at
the suspicions behind his apparentlycalm exte- 1 (344/2/1-351/2/3): Desdemona wakes up, Otello
rior. Perhapsmost striking of all is the cadence accuses her (up to the mo-
to this first paragraphof the duet. In Desde- ment when he stifles her);
2 (351/3/1-355/3/1): Emilia's entrance, Desde-
mona's "del duolo e dell'etiz," the anomalous
mona's death (up to the en-
voice leading of the vocal C (no resolution to B) tranceof Lodovicoet al.);
is poignantly redolent of times past (ex. 5): 3 (355/3/2-362/2/3): Otello discovers the truth (up
to the moment when he stabs
DESDEMONA: himself);
4 (362/2/4-end): Otello's final perorationand
the "bacio"reprise.
del duo- lo e del- l'e- ti. There is plainly a further subgrouping. Sections
207/2/1-3
1 and 3 are concerned with "action," both in the
dramatic and the musical sense, and both cul-
Example 5
minate in violent death. Sections 2 and 4, on the
other hand, are at first static and rootless-a
stunned reaction to the violence-but then
IV flower into lyrical final perorations for the her-
Fitting, needless to say, as a dramaticconclu- oine ("Nessuno ... io stessa") and hero ("Un
sion to Otello, the final scene is also a fitting
end to our analytical inquiry. Thematic recall is bacio").
The music of this final scene is continuous
unequivocal, but is engaged with a structure of
formidablecomplexity. It is here, as the threads and, like the verse, unfolds with tight logic but
maximum freedom from tradition. The only
of the drama are drawn inexorably together,
hint of a fixed form (and it is the merest gesture)
that the music becomes most dependent on
is Otello's "Fredda come la casta tua vita"
reminiscence and cross-reference,least tied to
tradition. As mentioned earlier, the surface co- (361/3-4). The rest develops in an atmospherein
which the very lack of formal expectation al-
herence of the finale hinges on a central condi-
lows reminiscence its most extensive and une-
tioning reminiscence: the two-fold reprise of
the "bacio" theme, first as Otello kisses the quivocal employment. The complexity and
richness of association is nowhere more evident
sleeping Desdemona, and finally, in the closing than at the opening of the scene. The double
bars of the opera, as he kisses her dead body.
bass solo that marks Otello's entrance (ex. 6a)
However, though obviously of great impor-
is, in the immediate harmonic context, some-
tance, we might still question Joseph Kerman's
assertion that this mere two minutes of music what anomalous: it serves as a pivot between
"unifies the opera musically and psychologi-
cally by a single stroke, penetrating in its grand Kerman,Operaas Drama (New York, 1956),p. 158.
14Joseph

58
a. network of thematic and harmonic recall will, PARKER/
of course, vary from listener to listener. The BROWN
Verdi's
present authors have (perhaps not entirely to Otello
their discredit) found themselves differing on a
341/4/1-3
number of issues: whether there are motivic/
tonal links between Desdemona's and Otello's
dying speeches; whether, more radically, some
b. of the most important moments of the scene
DESDEMONA:
(della) mor- te no- stra, prega per noi
can be heard as intense, fragmentaryreferences
. *
-
* to the "bacio" theme. But what seems clear is
-
that these moments are understood fully only
with referenceto their structuralposition in the
scene, and cannot be considered merely in the
light of any semantic associations they might

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have accrued. There is, we would insist, a need
340/3/1-3
to address the purely musical organization of
the scene beforewords like "theme" and "struc-
ture" become intertwined.
C. This organization is outlined briefly in ex. 7.
The structural use of diminished chords is im-
mediately obvious: each new section is marked
by a prolonged emphasis on this sonority, al-
343/2/2-4
though in each case the collection is a different
one. Equally clear is the emphasis on certain
Example6 key areas (the main tonalities of section 1-F
minor, F#major/minor,E minor, and B minor-
all reappearin section 3), and the importance of
the A1 majorof Desdemona's Ave Maria and the linear chromatic descents in sections 2 and 4.
Ab minor that becomes asserted in the ensuing Often thematic recall and tonal change coincide
bars (342/2/1ff.). But any sense of "functional- in a manner that it seems pallid to describe as
ity" is well-nigh submergedunder a flood of re- merely "felicitous." In section 1, for example,
call and cross-reference.In the short term, its E- the relentless forward movement of the music
major triad brings to the surface, in an overtly from 3 to C to tempo doppio is linked to a series
sinister context, the unsettling moves to bVIin of modulations, themselves ever more closely
the previous Ave Maria, in which the music spaced.In the first of these, the decisive move is
twice makes reference to Fb-majortriads when made from F minor (the opening tonality of the
death is mentioned in the text (ex. 6b). At the section) to F# major (the dominant of the final
same time, its melodic contour preparesus for key, B minor). The modulation underpins Des-
the minor-mode theme (ex. 6c) that will usher demona's words: "Pietahdi me, mio Dio. E abbi-
in both repetitions of the "bacio"theme. And in ate pietihvoi pure" ("Havepity on me, my Lord.
a broadercontext, the motive is itself a further And you also have pity"). The striking compari-
"digest"of the "bacio" theme: a synopsis of its son with a phrasefrom her precedingAve Maria
tonality (Emajor)and its principal melodic ele- hardly needs emphasis, as the sentiments, to-
ment (C#falling to B). Even the unusual register nality, vocal sonority, and line are all virtually
and instrumental timbre are significant: the un- identical (see ex. 8).
canny sustained low E in the double basses has A further example, which cuts across sec-
been heardonce beforein the opera,at the end of tions, involves what we might term (at least for
the storm in act I, when Iago begins his machi- the moment) the "handkerchief" theme (see ex.
nations (31/1/1-3). The beginning of the action 9). We can trace this idea, albeit in a slightly dif-
and the beginning of its tragic conclusion are ferent form, to the beginning of act II, where it
linked by a distinctive orchestral sonority. was associated with Otello's first signs of jeal-
The extent to which one continues to find a ousy and his need for physical proof (ex. 9a).
59
 19TH
CENTURY
MUSIC Orchestral Introduction Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4

dim. 7th dim. 7th dim. 7th

C-Eb-F#-A C#-E-G-Bb B-D-F-A?

341 343 344 347 350

I
352 353
1
355 356 357 358 360 362 1 363

E min.: V VIB min.: V I A min.: V I E min. : VI B min.: VI E min.: I VI

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Bacio

j.

Example 7

DESDEMONA:

mi- se- ro an- ch'es- so, tua pie- ta di- mo- - stra.

339/3/1-4

[E ab]-bia- te pie- ta voi pu- - - re.

346/3/1 - 347/1/1

Example8

Here in act IV the association becomes more ex- theme. The two statements of the "handker-
plicit. Always in E minor, the motive connects chief" motive are embedded in the two-fold re-
Otello's presentation of the handkerchief as prise of the "bacio" music and, as with the lat-
"proof"to Desdemona of her guilt (ex. 9b) with ter, the first of these statements is tonally
his later attempts, after her death, to "prove" open-endedwhile the second is closed. It is as if
her guilt by reference to it (ex. 9c). the (false) "proof"of guilt, the handkerchief, is
Whatever the purpose, the theme acts as a ultimately transcended by the final "proof"of
kind of minor-mode antithesis of the "bacio" love, the dying kiss. But the fact that ex. 9 ac-
60
 a. PARKER/
OTELLO: BROWN
13 Verdi's
Otello
nel chio- stro del- I'a- ni- ma ri- cet- ti qual- che ter- ri- bil mos- tro.
128/1/2- 128/4/1

b.

V
8
r r r I
Quel faz- zo- let- to ch'io ti do- nai gli de- sti
348/1/1 - 348/2/1

C.

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Quel faz- zo- let- to cheun di le die- di, a as- sio es- sa do- na- va.
357/1/3 - 357/2/3

Example9

crues semantic weight only in the final scene is octave and then continues its chromatic de-
perhaps even necessitated by its structural scent, reaching FO# before it fuses with the flat-
function in helping to bind the scene together ted third degreeand completes its characteristic
musically. cadence.
The first appearance of the "handkerchief" It should be clear by now that the poignancy
theme, in section 1 (ex. 9b), is significant in an- of these final barsis not simply a matter of effec-
other way. Its descending chromatic bass line tive thematic recall. It is, rather,a culmination:
and ascending chromatic vocal continuation the distance travelled by the theme since its ap-
initiate a series of precipitate chromatic de- pearance in act I, and in particular its magni-
scents and ascents that culminate in the sus- ficently controlled preparation in the final
tained diminished chord accompanying Desde- scene, imbues it with layer upon layer of associ-
mona's murder.As we see from ex. 7, the force ation and structural weight. It allows us to
generated by these gestures carries through to grasp, with that supreme ambiguity available
the first half of section 2. After the dividing di- only to greatmusic, both the force that impelled
minished chord has spent its force, its top note, the two lovers and the reality of their tragic de-
A, initiates a slow chromatic descent to B, this struction.
final note acting as the fifth degree of an E-mi-
nor triad. At this point, Desdemona begins her V
dying speech, and the second portion of section We should stress in conclusion that our at-
2 commences (353/2/1). tempt to trace various recurringelements from
The extent to which section 2 prefiguressec- within these three scenes is not intended to be
tion 4 now becomes obvious. The latter-- definitive, nor does it pretend to offera "key" to
though events are now moving more quickly- the opera. Although, quite naturally, recall (of
also begins with a sustained diminished chord, various kinds) becomes increasingly important
whose highest note then descends chromati- as the operaprogresses, each scene sets its own
cally to B, which is again 5 of E minor. Otello structuralproblems and requiresits own partic-
begins his dying speech. But, of course, this ular approach. "Patterns" have not emerged
time there is one further, definitive, chromatic with the readiness they might in a less hybrid
movement to come. In the first bar of the "ba- genre, and the interaction of drama,motive, to-
cio" theme, the B is transferreddown a further nality, and form is consistently challenging.
61
 19TH Our inquiry could be complemented by others, ibility? Is the work "Wagnerian"in its manipu-
CENTURY and could certainly benefit from other view- lation of tonality and motive? Furthermore,we
MUSIC
points. are in no position to impose on Otello a univa-
Nor are we yet in a position to consider basic lent structure, whether on the basis of its text
questions: how far does Otello break with Ver- forms and allusions to traditionalpractice, or its
di's earlier operas with respect to musico-dra- patternsof motivic recall, or even its tonal plan.
matic organization? Are the extended "tonal But such a situation need not deter the open-
models" of his middle period, in works such as minded analyst. At a time when too many stud-
II Trovatore and Un Ballo in maschera,'5 ies of opera are one-dimensional, Otello may
droppedbecause of the increased formal flex- prove a fruitful meeting ground for those who
enjoy measuring their theoretical preconcep-
tions against a work whose formidable individ-
'5Fora discussion of one such "model,"see the present au-
thors'"MotivicandTonal Interactionin Verdi'sUn ballo in uality and compelling dramatic power are
matched only by its challenges to

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maschera,"Journalof the American Musicological Society t.
36 (1983),243-65. conventional analytical method.

The Young Lovers in Falstaff

THOMAS BAUMAN

From the earliest conception Boito formed of The image of playful, innocent young souls
Falstaff to the scholarship, analysis, and criti- taking refuge from reality in their own world
cism of today, the young lovers Fenton and squares with Boito's "pih)fresca" in the letter
Nannetta have occupied an important place. cited above, but not with his "pih)solida." Nor
"Quel loro amore mi piace," Boito wrote to is there much that is solid in Fritz Noske's ex-
Verdiin 1889, "servea far pih fresca epiidsolida planation of the lovers as emblems of the coex-
tutta la commedia." ("Theirlove pleases me; it istence of fantasy and reality in the human con-
makes the whole comedy fresher and more dition:
solid.")'EdwardT. Cone, in an influential study
publishedin 1954, describedthem as one pole in FentonandNannettaarein fact the truefairies,not
"a basic contrast. On the one hand is the world only in the final act but in the entire drama.While
of fighting and clowning, of appetites and revul- lightly expressingthe eternalpoetry of love, they mix
with the other charactersin the everydayworld.
sions, of plots and counter-plots. .... But there is They make it clear that the operais neither a domes-
another world: that of Fenton and Nannetta, tic comedy nor a dramatizedfairytale, but a mirrorof
which they create for themselves. Its symbol is the human universe with its interchangeabledreams
Nannetta's fairyland, and into its unreality the andrealities. In this sense Falstaff is Verdi'smost re-
lovers are able, for a little while, to escape."2 alistic drama.3

What seems troubling both here and even in

'MarioMedici, MarcelloConati, and MarisaCasati, Carteg- Cone's conception is that the lovers are not per-
gio Verdi-Boito(Parma,1978),I, 150 (letterof 12 July1889).
Boito adds:"Theirlove ought to enliven everythingand al- ceived as changing or growing in the course of
ways in such a way that I would almost wish to drop the the drama-that the last portrait of love Verdi
duet of the two lovers." limned is a cheerful but static one idealizing ju-
2"TheOld Man's Toys: Verdi's Last Operas,"Perspectives
USA 6 (1954), 132-33. venile romance.
19th-CenturyMusic IX/1 (Summer1985).@by the Regents
of the University of California. 3TheSignifierand the Signified(The Hague, 1977),p. 270.

62