Government Engineering College

Thrissur

2004

Seminar Paper on

CODE DIVISION DUPLEXING

Presented by

Iyer Prasanna Subramaniam

Roll No: 01-623
S7 ECE

Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Prof. K.P.Indira Devi, Head of the Electronics

and Communication Engineering Department at this juncture for her suggestions in
the selection of this topic and the presentation of this seminar.

I also take this opportunity to express my wholehearted gratitude towards

Asst.Prof. MUNEERA C R and Mr. C.D. Anilkumar for their valuable advice and
guidance in completion of this seminar in its pristine form.

I am also thankful to all my friends and classmates who helped me to make

this seminar a grand success.
 Abstract

Reducing interference in a cellular system is the most effective approach to

increasing radio capacity and transmission data rate in the wireless environment.

Therefore, reducing interference is a difficult and important challenge in wireless

communications.

In every two-way communication system it is necessary to use separate

channels to transmit information in each direction. This is called duplexing.

Currently there exist only two duplexing technologies in wireless communications,

Frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing (TDD). FDD has

been the primary technology used in the first three generations of mobile wireless

because of its ability to isolate interference. TDD is seemingly a more spectral

efficient technology but has found limited use because of interference and coverage

problems.

Code-division duplexing (CDD) is an innovative solution that can eliminate

all kinds of interference. CDMA is the best multiple access scheme when compared

to all others for combating interference. However, the codes in CDMA can be more

than one type of code. A set of smart codes can make a high-capacity CDMA system

very effective without adding other technologies. The smart code plus TDD is called

CDD.

This paper will elaborate on a set of smart codes that will make an efficient CDD

system a reality. The CDMA system based on this is known as the LAS-CDMA,

where LAS is a set of smart codes. LAS-CDMA is a new coding technology that will
increase the capacity and spectral efficiency of mobile networks. The advanced

technology uses a set of smart codes to restrict interference, a property that adversely

affects the efficiency of CDMA networks.

Contents

Page No.

1. Introduction 1

2. CDMA Overview 3
 Interference and capacity 3
 Why reduce interference in a cellular system 4

3. A Set of Smart Codes 6

 Using smart codes to reduce interference 7

4. Additional Advantages of using CDD 8

5. LAS-CDMA 10

6. Access Codes in traditional CDMA and LAS-CDMA 12

7. Generation of LAS Codes 14

 LA Codes 14
 LS Codes 15
 Seeding LS codes in LA codes to generate LAS codes 16

8. Perspectives of LAS-CDMA for the 4G wireless systems 18

9. A Wireless IP Network Solution 21

10. CDD - A New Milestone 22

 From FDD to CDD systems 22
 Reduce interference-limited environment to
noise-limited environment 22
11. Conclusion 23

12. References 24

Introduction

To utilize spectrum efficiently, two transmission techniques need to be

considered: one is a multiple access scheme and the other a duplexing system. There

are three multiple access schemes namely TDMA, FDMA and CDMA. The industry

has already established the best multiple access scheme, code-division multiple access

(CDMA), for 3G systems. The next step is to select the best duplexing system.

Duplexing systems are used for two-way communications. Presently, there are only

two duplexing systems used: frequency-division duplexing (FDD), and time-division

duplexing (TDD). The former uses different frequencies to handle incoming and

outgoing signals. The latter uses a single frequency but different time slots to handle

incoming and outgoing signals.

 In the current cellular duplexing systems, FDD has been the

appropriate choice, not TDD. Currently, all cellular systems use frequency-division

duplexing in an attempt to eliminate interference from adjacent cells. The use of

many technologies has limited the effects of interference but still certain types of

interference remain. Time-division duplexing has not been used for mobile cellular

systems because it is even more susceptible to different forms of interference. TDD

can only be used for small confined area systems.

Code-division duplexing is an innovative solution that can eliminate

all kinds of interference. Eliminating all types of interference makes CDD the most

spectrum efficient duplexing system.

CDMA overview

 Interference and Capacity

One of the key criteria in evaluating a communication system is its spectral

efficiency, or the system capacity, for a given system bandwidth, or sometimes, the

total data rate supported by the system. For a given bandwidth, the system capacity

for narrow band radio systems is dimension limited, while the system capacity of a

traditional CDMA system is interference limited. Traditional CDMA systems are all

self-interference system.

Three types of interference are usually considered. By ISI we mean

InterSymbol Interference, which is created by the multi-path replica of the useful

signal itself; MAI, or Mutual Access Interference, which is the interference created by

the signals and their multi-path replica from the other users onto the useful signal; and

ACI, or Adjacent Cell Interference, which is all the interfering signals from the

adjacent cells onto the useful signal.

Traditional synchronous CDMA systems employ almost exclusively Walsh-

Hadamard orthogonal codes, jointly with PN sequence, and Gold codes, Kasami

codes, etc. In these systems, due to the difficulty in timing synchronization and the

large cross-correlation values around the origin, there exists a “near far” effect, such

that in some typical system, fast power control has to be employed in order to keep an

uniform received signal level at the base station. On the other hand, in forward
channel all the signals’ power must be kept at an uniform level. Since the transmitting

power of a user would interfere others and even may interfere itself, if one of the

users in the system increases its power unilaterally, all other users power should be

simultaneously increased; otherwise the controlled system power regime will be

destroyed, and the capacity would be drastically decreased. This is because any radio

channel, especially mobile channel, is a random time-varying time dispersion channel

due to the multi-path effect, so that the received signal can not be reached at the

receiver simultaneously.

In traditional CDMA, the auto-correlation functions as well as the cross-

correlation functions are all not ideal, so that the signals at different arrival time can

not be separated properly at the receiver. It is just such effect that makes the

traditional CDMA a self-interference system. It would be practically impossible to

enhance the traditional CDMA’s robustness in terms of interference resistance by

increasing the user’s power when the network traffic load is high.

 Why Reduce Interference In A Cellular System

Reducing interference in a cellular system is the most effective approach to

increasing radio capacity and/or transmission data rate in the wireless

environment. Therefore, reducing interference is a difficult and important

challenge in wireless communications. The interference in an FDD system using a

CDMA scheme is shown in Fig. 2. Looking at Fig. 3, we realize that a TDD

system is very undesirable to use in a large-area cellular system.

 Although FDD is the right choice for cellular systems, the interference is still

very high. Today many enhanced technologies have been added together to reduce

interference in FDD systems, but none of these technologies can be used solely and

effectively. The Large Area Synchronous (LAS) Codes are a set of smart codes that

can reduce interference very effectively. The effectiveness of smart codes applied to

TDD makes it the right choice in cellular systems. The application of LAS Codes in a

TDD system (called TD-LAS system) creates a CDD system.

LAS-CDMA (Large Area Code Division Multiple Access) employs a novel multiple

access scheme, which is different from all the known traditional CDMA. The auto-
correlation functions of all LAS-CDMA codes are ideal, and there exists an IFW

(Interference Free Window), or a “zero correlation zone” (ZCZ) in their cross-

correlation functions of its access codes around the origin. Due to the existence of

IFW or ZCZ, a LAS-CDMA system can have a much higher system capacity and

spectral efficiency than that of a traditional CDMA.

A Set of Smart Codes

The code used in today’s CDMA scheme is the Walsh code, which is not too smart.

Walsh codes have the orthogonality property among codes while the time shift t = 0

(i.e., no time shift t or time delay spread). However, in the mobile radio environment

the signal arrival can have a long time shift. The property of Walsh codes cannot

properly be applied to this environment. Now there is a set of smart codes that have

orthogonality among the codes for time shift t ≠ 0. The codes arrive at the terminals at

different time shifts; because of the orthogonal nature, all undesired codes are

blocked. Thus, smart codes are the proper codes to handle this situation. Therefore, in

the future we can use different kinds of codes for CDMA schemes, which we will

name a type of CDMA with a specified code (e.g., CDMA/Code A and CDMA/Code

B). The properties of smart codes have to meet the following requirements:

• Auto-correlation

Rxx (τ) = 0 for τ = 0

δ for τ ≠ 0, within window τ0

• Cross-correlation

Rxy (τ) = δ for all τ, within window τ0

Where τ0 is a correlation window, δ can be zero or low correlation value. Outside the

correlation window is beyond the time delay spread range of the received signal.

Although the correlation value outside the range is high, there is no impact on our

desired signal, as shown in Fig. 5.

With this property, we can illustrate the merit of using this smart code. Assume that

eight smart codes are transmitted, as shown in Fig. 6. They arrive at the receiver of

Code C1 at different times due to the multipaths caused by different reflectors.

Because of the cross-correlation property, the desired code to be received is C1.

However, many C1 codes can be received due to the effects of the multipaths. This

does not occur though; due to the auto-correlation property, only Code C1 at time t1

is received, as shown in Fig. 6. We do not need the strength of more than one path

signal to be added for increasing carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) since we are only

receiving carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N), not C/I. The rest of the signals from different

paths do not cause any interference, and there is no need to use any means to collect

them for the purpose of reducing interference. Hence, with this smart code property

we can effectively eliminate interference, and we do not need other technologies.

Using Smart Code Sequences To Reduce Interference

Smart code sequences have two properties:

• Auto-correlation equals zero, which causes no multipath interference.

• Cross-correlation equals zero, which causes no multi-user interference.

Smart code sequences will effectively work in TDD scenarios and become a

CDD system, as shown in Fig. 7. The two different smart codes can isolate

interference at the same frequency and in the same time frame. The capabilities of

smart codes eliminate the known near-far effect in mobile communication systems.

The inherent properties of smart codes eliminate the need for the following

technologies: rake receiver, power control, joint detection, smart antenna, and soft

handoff.

Additional Advantages of Using CDD

Any single (unpaired) spectrum band with a bandwidth equal to 1.6 MHz can

be used for the CDD application. The system is simple. The handset is also simple.

Since no duplexer is needed, the handset cost can be lower and the size of the handset

smaller. Power consumption is lower due to only one single spectrum band being

operable. CDD is like TDD, the ideal system for asymmetrical traffic. CDD has the
highest spectrum efficiency and can be used in the new third-generation (3G)

systems. The differences in TDD and CDD for cellular systems can be shown in Fig.

8. In other TDD systems the codes are not smart, so the receiver not only receives its

desired code, but also receives interference (I) from other cells. Sometimes, the

interference is so high it can mask the desired signal. In the LAS CDD system,

because of the smart codes, the receiver only receives the desired code, no

interference.
LAS-CDMA

The LAS- CDMA utilizes the LAS codes which are a set of smart codes. The

spreading sequences exhibit zero correlation values, when the relative delay-induced

code offset is in the so-called Zero Correlation Zone (ZCZ) or Interference Free

Window (IFW) of the spreading code. The attractive family of Large Area

Synchronized (LAS) CDMA spreading sequences is constituted by the combination

of the so-called Large Area (LA) codes and Loosely Synchronous (LS) codes. The

resultant LAS codes exhibit an IFW, where the off-peak aperiodic autocorrelation

values as well as the aperiodic cross-correlation values become zero, resulting in zero

ISI and zero MAI, provided that the time-offset of the codes is within the IFW. In

order to ensure that the relative time-offsets between the codes are within the IFW,

the mobiles are expected to operate in a quasi-synchronous manner. More

specifically, interference-free CDMA communications become possible, when the

total time-offset expressed in terms of the number of chip intervals, which is the sum

of the time-offset of the mobiles plus the maximum channel-induced delay spread is

within the designed IFW. In case of high transmission-delay differences accurate

timing-advance control has to be used, as it was also advocated in the GSM system.

Provided that these conditions are satisfied, a major benefit of the LAS codes is that

they are capable of achieving a near-single-user performance without multi-user

detectors.
 The disadvantage of LAS codes is that the number of codes having an IFW is

limited. For example, when we consider a spreading factor of 151, we only have 32

LAS codes exhibiting an IFW of width 3Tc, where Tc is the chip duration.

Furthermore, the auto-correlation and cross-correlation function of LAS codes

typically exhibits a higher value outside the IFW than traditional random codes. More

explicitly, when the LASCDMA system operates in an asynchronous manner, such as

for example the third-generation W-CDMA system, it will encounter more serious

MAI and Multipath Interference (MPI) than traditional DS-CDMA.

Access codes in traditional CDMA and LAS-CDMA

Fig.9 shows a typical example of the auto-correlation function and cross-

correlation function employed in traditional CDMA systems. According to Welch

bound, firstly, it is well known that the side-lobes of the correlation functions,

including both the auto-correlation and the cross-correlation functions, cannot be zero

everywhere. Secondly, to keep low side-lobes of auto-correlations functions and those

of the cross-correlation functions are contradicted with each other. In practical system

designs for traditional CDMA systems, trade-off has to be made; people usually

accept that the side-lobes of auto-correlation functions and the cross-correlation

functions are set around G-1/2, with G the processing gain of the system, following

Welch bound. This implies that the interference created mutually by users can not be

totally eliminated, and that the traditional CDMA systems are interference-limited.

LAS-CDMA introduces a novel multiple access scheme, based on two

families of CDMA codes, LA codes and LS codes. LA codes are a family of pulse

train with carefully designed pulse intervals. LA codes are mainly used to reduce the

ACI (Adjacent Cell Interference). The pulses of LA code are formed by passing

through a LS code to its matched filter at the required pulse positions. LS codes are

used for spreading. The family of LS codes has interesting correlation properties. An

example is shown in Fig.10a, where the auto-correlation is perfect, while some of the

cross-correlation functions are also perfect, most of its cross-correlations only have a
few pairs of side-lobe (Fig.10b). There are some regions where no cross-correlation

side-lobes exist. We define the one around the origin the “Zero Correlation Zone”

(ZCZ) or “Interference Free Window” (IFW). For a synchronized LAS-CDMA

system, if the time dispersion (multi-path spread) of the channel is within such IFW,

there is practically neither inter-symbol interferences nor multiple access

interferences.

Auto-
G – Processing Gain
Correlatio
n

0 τ
G-1/2
G- Relative delay
1/2
Cross-
Correlation
G-1/2
τ
0
-20 -10 10 20

Fig.9 Multiple Access Codes Correlations of Traditional CDMA

• Auto-correlation:
0 τ a
• Cross-correlations: 0 (Relative delay)

τ
0
0
0 τ
0
τ b
0
IFW
IFW: Interference
Free W indow

Fig.10 Multiple Access Codes Correlations of LAS-CDMA

Generation of LAS-Codes

 LA Codes

LA codes belong to a family of ternary codes having elements of ±1 or 0.

Their maximum correlation magnitude is unity and they also exhibit an IFW. Let us

denote the family of the K number of orthogonal ternary codes employing K number

of binary ±1 pulses by LA(LA;M;K), which exhibit a minimum spacing of M chip

durations between non-zero pulses, while having a total code length of LA chips, as

shown in Figure 11.

Fig 11: Stylized pulse-positions in the LA(LA;M;K) code having K number of

binary ±1 pulses, and exhibiting a minimum spacing of M chip durations between
non-zero pulses, while having a total code length of LA chips.

All the codes corresponding to an LA code family share the same legitimate

pulse positions. However, a specific drawback of this family of sequences is their

relatively low duty ratio, quantifying the density of the non-zero pulses, since this

limits the number of codes available and hence the number of users supported. In the

LAS-CDMA 2000 system, the LA codes used constitute a modified version of the
LA(LA;M;K)=LA(2552, 136, 17) code, where the K = 17 non-zero pulse positions,

pk, k = 0,…,16, are given by:

{pk}= {0; 136; 274; 414; 556; 700; 846; 994; 1144;1296; 1450; 1606; 1764;

1924; 2086; 2250; 2416}

Again, observe in this code construction that the pulse positions are not

exactly equidistant. For example, the distance between the second, third and fourth

pulses is 274-138=138 and 414-174=140, respectively, which is larger than M = 136,

since M is the minimum spacing.

 Loosely Synchronized (LS) Codes

Apart from the LA codes , there exists another specific family of spreading codes,

which also exhibits an IFW. Specifically, Loosely Synchronized (LS) codes exploit

the properties of the so-called orthogonal complementary sets . To expound further,

let us introduce the notation of LS(N; P;W0) for denoting the family of LS codes

generated by applying a (P * P)-dimensional Walsh-Hadamard (WH) matrix to an

orthogonal complementary code set of length N, as it is exemplified in the context of

Figure 12. More specifically, we generate a complementary code pair inserting W0

number of zeros both in the center and at the beginning of the complementary pair, as

shown in Figure 12(a). As mentioned above, the polarity of the codes c 0 and s0 seen in

Figure12(b) during the constitution of the LS codes is determined by the polarity of

the components of a Walsh-Hadamard matrix, namely by (1; 1; 1; 1) and (1;-1; 1;-1).

 Fig 12: Generating the LS(N; P;W0) code using the (P * P) = (4* 4)
Walsh-Hadamard matrix components (1; 1; 1; 1) and (1;-1; 1;-1).

The first set of four LS codes can be generated using the first two rows of a (P * P) =

(4 * 4)-dimensional Walsh-Hadamard matrix, namely using w0 = (+1; +1; +1; +1) and

w1 = (+1;_1; +1;_1), as shown in Figure 12(b). Another set of four LS codes can be

obtained by exchanging the subscripts 0 and 1. Finally, eight additional LS codes can

be generated by applying the same principle, but with the aid of the last two rows of

the (4 * 4)- dimensional Walsh-Hadamard matrix, namely using w2 =(+1; +1;-1;-1)

and w3 = (+1;-1;-1; +1). Hence, the total number of available codes in the family of

LS(N, P, W0) is given by 4P.

Thus the family of LS(N; P;W0) codes can be constructed for almost any

arbitrary code-length related parameter N by employing binary sequences. Having

discussed the construction of LA and LS codes, let us now consider how LS codes are

implanted at the non-zero pulse-positions of the LA codes for the sake of generating

LAS codes.

 Seeding LS Codes in LA Codes to Generate LAS codes

 The main problems associated with applying LA codes in practical CDMA

systems are related to their low duty ratio and to the resultant small number of

available codes. A specific family of LAS codes mitigates this problem by combining

the LA codes and the LS codes. More specifically, LS codes are inserted between the

non-zero pulses of the LA code sequence, in an effort to generate an increased

number of spreading codes having an increased duty ratio, while maintaining

attractive correlation properties. For example, in the LAS-2000 system, the LS

spreading codes are inserted into the LA code's zero space, as shown in Figure 13.

Fig 13: LAS(LA;M;K;N;P;W0)=LAS(2552,136,17;4,32,4) spreading, inserting the

LS codes of Figure 12 into the zero-space of the LA codes of Figure 11. The gap seen
in the figure indicates that the M = 136-chip LS code does not always fill the spacing
between the consecutive pulse of the constituent LA code.

Let us denote the combined code generated from the LA(LA;M;K) and

LS(N;P;W0) codes as LAS(LA;M;K;N; P;W0), which is generated by employing the

so-called absolute encoding method. For the sake of preserving the original IFW size

of the constituent LS(N;P;W0) code when combined with an LA(LA;M;K) code

employing the absolute encoding scheme, the length of the LS code, including W0

number of trailing zeros, should not exceed the minimum pulse spacing M of the LA

code.
Perspectives of LAS-CDMA for the 4G wireless systems

Due to the existence of IFW, LAS-CDMA may have a much smaller

interference level than traditional CDMA. Consequently, LAS-CDMA system may

have a much higher capacity as well as a higher spectral efficiency than a traditional

CDMA.

According to the basic multi-user information theory, the optimum way to

share (not to distribute) a channel capacity is the “Waveform Division” Multiple

Access or CDMA technology. However, since traditional CDMA is a self-

interference limited, that would drastically limit its capacity, in studying 4G systems,

many people focus their attention on OFDM/OFDMA technology, space-time coding

for MIMO channels, smart antennas, etc., rather than the “Waveform Division”

Multiple Access technologies. In this paper, we address this topic in a preliminary

way, just providing some views on the potentiality of LAS-CDMA to be applied to a

high spectral efficiency system for a 4G system.

 The criteria of the assessments cover mainly radio transmission performance

over multi-path fading channel with time variant scenarios, which represents the most

frequently encountered situations in mobile systems. The emphasis is put on LAS-

CDMA capability of resisting multi-path fading thanks to the special properties of the

LAS CDMA codes, i.e., LA codes and LS codes for radio transmission and access

schemes over mobile transmission channels. It is interesting, although preliminarily,

to do a simple comparative study on the main access schemes of OFDM/OFDMA and

LAS-CDMA.

In principle, OFDM overcomes multi-path by using cyclic-prefix, added to

each OFDM symbol, which insures the orthogonality between the main path

component and the multi-path components, provided that the length of the cyclic-

prefix is larger than the maximum multi-path delay. In a LAS-CDMA system, the

same multi-path interference immunity is achieved by introducing some time gaps

between the spread symbols using LS codes. If the maximum delay of the multi-path

is within the length of the time gap, the multi-path components will all fall in the IFW

or ZCZ, either vanishing totally, if only the main path component is processed by the

receiver, or more advantageously all the multi-path components are combined with

the main one by an orthogonal multi-path combination receiver. Similarly but

differently to a Rake receiver, the second approach will drastically improve the

performance by exploiting the multi-path diversity. As far as the interference

suppression capability is concerned in a general way, it is well known that CDMA

presents some obvious advantages. In fact, narrow band interference will be

suppressed by a factor equal to the processing gain. This means that the more the

available bandwidth that the signal can occupy, the better the capability of the

resistance of interference for the system. This property is not shared by the systems
based on OFDM waveforms. If in 4G systems, bandwidth will be larger, LAS-CDMA

alternatives for access schemes would remain a very promising candidate for the

future. Finally, OFDM scheme was not proposed for multiple accesses by its nature.

Recently OFDMA has been developed for the systems to have the multiple access

capability. However, OFDMA is essentially a special case of FDMA system, so it

will share all the properties with FDMA, both the advantages and the shortcomings.

The key to a proper system operation is how to keep the orthogonality between sub-

carriers of OFDM/OFDMA signals. With a mobile and fading background, much

would remain to be studied for OFDM/OFDMA to be a robust solution of radio

transmission.

Although it is not the right time at present to do an in-depth comparative study

on LAS-CDMA and OFDM/OFDMA, the motivation of proposing LAS-CDMA to

4G-system study is strong.

A WIRELESS IP NETWORK SOLUTION

A CDD system is ideal for Internet communications, which makes a total

wireless IP network solution highly desirable. The iBTS connects to the IP core

network, as shown in Fig. 14. The function of the switch is broken down into two:

mobility management and call processing. The handoff function is carried by the

selective distribution unit (SDU). The separated functions are placed on the gateways

to the core network. The demo of carrying voice over IP from mobile to mobile and

mobile to landline was successful. This event was a historical milestone. The CDD

system’s future IP core network will follow this approach. The cost will be lower, and

add-on features can be very flexible and easy.

 Fig 14 - The top level architecture of a wireless IP core network.

CDD-A New Milestone

 Cdd Technology Is A New Milestone From Fdd Systems To Cdd Systems

Cellular technology before 1989 utilized frequency reuse in FDMA and

TDMA networks. After 1989, CDMA was a breakthrough technology for maintaining

the same frequency being used in all the cells. Until today, all three multiple access

schemes (FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA) use FDD systems.

The LAS smart codes are the next breakthrough technology. Applying LAS

technology to a TDD system becomes a CDD system. The benefit of using a TDD

system for communications is that the sending and receiving are alternating in time at

a single frequency. Without the sending and receiving occurring at the same time we
can use the same smart code for both sending and receiving; thus, LAS + TDD =

CDD. CDD is no more like TDD and is a better system for cellular.

 Reduce Interference-Limited Environment To Noise-Limited

Environment

Before 1989, cellular systems were using multiple cells with multiple

frequencies assigned in each cell. These systems generate an interference- limited

environment. After 1989, multiple cells used the same frequency. Although the

capacity increased using CDMA, the system is still in an interference-limited

environment. Now, the CDD system is developed. This system changes the

environment from an interference-limited one to a noise-limited one.

CONCLUSION

We are convinced that CDMA is the best multiple access scheme when

compared to all others for combating interference. However, the codes in CDMA can

be more than one type of code. A set of smart codes can make a high-capacity CDMA

system very effective without adding other technologies. The smart code plus TDD is

called CDD, which is a new 3G technology. A CDD system is simpler in design and

lower cost. CDD is an ideal system for a total IP network solution: new 3G

technology + IP core network. Hopefully, a CDD system will be the system of choice

for future 3G networks.

REFERENCES

1. William C. Y. Lee,“ The Most Spectrum Efficient Duplexing System –

CDD”, IEEE Communications Magazine March 2002

2. Daoben Li, “The Perspectives of LAS-CDMA Technology for the 4th

Generation of Wireless Mobile Radio”, IEEE Communications Magazine

March 2003

3. Daoben Li, “LAS-CDMA Technology Overview”

4. Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications

http://www.bee.net/mhendry/vrml/library/cdma/cdma.htm

5. CDMA Overview - http://www.umtsworld.com/technology/cdmabasics.htm

 6. TD-LAS Standard Alliance Formed to Promote New Wireless Technology
from LinkAir.” - http://www.linkair.com;

7. LAS-CDMA: Looking to 4G - http://www.telecommagazine.com

8. LAS-CDMA http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~wh01r/thesis.pdf

9. Wireless and Mobile Networking

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ee/e6951/2002spring/LectureNotes/lecture13.pdf

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4-CDMA.pdf