UNIT 2 ELEATICANDATOMISTIC

PHILOSOPHERS
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2. 1 Introduction
2.2 Parmenides
2.3 Zeno of Elea
2.4 Empedocles
2.5 Anaxagoras
2.6 Democritus & Leucippus (Atomist)
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Further Readings and References
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

2. 0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we try to identify the Eleatic and the Atomist philosophical thoughts
which made the ancient Greek philosophy so attractive and rich before the world.
Both the Eleatic as well as the Atomist are trying to find out the Ultimate Cause
which rules over the universe. Atomists say that the universe is formed out of small
invisible and physically indivisible particles called ‘Atoms’ which are eternal and
immutable. This mode of thinking slowlydevelops into a materialist and quantitative
theory; because theydenythe immortalityof souls. Bythe end of this unit you will be
able to identify:
 whether the ultimate principle of the universe is ‘Being’ or ‘Becoming’.
 the fantastic argument of Zeno to prove the permanence.
 the difference between the Pluralist and theAtomist philosophers; and likewise
the differences between the qualitative and quantitative philosophy.
 the ethical insights which govern the universe
 an attempt at reconciliation of the monists who simultaneously uphold two
contradicting principles such as ‘Being’ and ‘Becoming’.
 The atom theory.

2. 1 INTRODUCTION
When Parmenides was sixty five years old, he might have exchanged his own ideas
with young Socrates at Athens. Parmenides is the one who prepared laws for his
native city of Elea. In the beginning of his philosophic career, Parmenides was a 17
Greek Philosophy : Early follower of Pythagoras, but afterwards he left those thoughts in favour of his own.
Philosophers
His main teaching was that the realityis “Permanence” and “change” is an illusion.
Proclus said that Zeno made fortyarguments to demonstrate that beingis one, thinking
that he had to help his master. Empedocles wrote his philosophical thoughts in the
form of poetry. He agrees with Parmenides that the reality is permanent. But the
concept of change is an undeniable fact and the change cannot be looked upon as
an illusion. In this statement he is agreeing with Heraclitus.
Leucippus of Miletus was the founder of the Atomist School. According to the
Atomists, there are an infinite number of indivisible units. Theyare called atoms. So
the fundamental elements of the universe are atoms forAtomists School.They cannot
be perceived by senses.

2.2 PARMENIDES: (540-480 B.C)

He is the head of the Eleatic School of Greek Philosophy. He is the one who
developed the concept of “being” in opposition to the concept “becoming”.
Concept of ‘Being’
Parmenides developed the conception of ‘Being’ in opposition to the ‘Becoming’ of
Heraclitus. First of all we have to study the truth – the philosophy of ‘Being’. This
being is indestructible, perfect and intelligible. He regarded being as material. He
thinks that this being is finite, since he thinks that this is one. Being is for the time
being infinite, as having neither beginning nor end, but it is spatiallyfinite. He has also
difference of opinion compared to Pythagoras’ concept of abstract essences. For
Pythagoras’ reality consisted of geometric points, then everything is reduced to
abstract essences, just as the point, the line, the triangle, the circle, the cube etc., are
abstract. Pythagoras says that the existence must be protected; the existent can not
be reduced intological elements. The existent exists before thought. Before arithmetic
and geometry, a philosophy of being is or metaphysics exists on which thought
depends, and not vice versa.
Interpretation of ‘Being’
What is this ‘Being’, which is expressed as ‘to be’ as infinitive, and with the singular
participle ‘being’, and the third person present indicative ‘is’? There are six
interpretations on this ‘Being’.
1) Mystical interpretation: Plotinus interpreted the being of Parmenides as to be
Xenophanes’ Unum, god.
2) Idealistic interpretation: This is done by Hegel and Stenzel. The existent of
Parmenides is a production of thought; to think means to be.
3) Materialistic interpretation: it is the sum of material bodies.
4) Logical interpretation: Being is the copula of a proposition. No being exists
before the predication and hence before grammar and Logic.
5) Platonic-Aristotelian or categorical interpretation: It is a transcendent concept
with various meanings: substance, quality, quantity, place etc., they are modes
of being. Being is a concept which is spoken in many ways.
6) Existential or metaphysical interpretation: Being is the original and primaryform
18 of existence in the world.
Due to many reasons, according to Dario Composta, the first four and the sixth Eleatic and Atomistic
Philosophers
interpretations cannot be accepted. This being cannot be god because it is never
called a god in the texts; and this would make Parmenides a pure monist. The
idealistic interpretation does not show the attitude of the Greeks, because those
philosophers weremainlyobjectivistic. Thematerialistic theoryis alsonot acceptable,
since being is not the “arche” of the Ionian philosophers. Logical interpretation can
not be taken, because he is not working from a judgement to arrive at reality.
Principle of Non-Change
How is this possible, he asks, how can a thing both be and not be? How can one
thing change into another? How can one quality become another quality? If the
answer is positive, then we must admit that something is and something is not. At the
sametimethiswouldagainimplythatsomethingcancomefromnothingandsomething
can become nothing. Parmenides says, “For never will this be proved that things,
that are not, are”. This is what is known as the principle of non-change. Things
which have no existence are nothing. Nothing means non-being. If they are non-
being, how can we prove that theyare? The answer is no and this is an impossibility.
The impossibility remains always an impossibility and never becomes a possibility.
Principle of Indestructibility
“Being cannot not be”, or as the text puts it: “it is not possible for it not to be”
(Fragment 11). The Aristotelian principle of non-contradiction states that while
the being is (but could not be), it necessarily is. Here with this principle of
indestructibility, according to Parmenides, the being necessarily is. Therefore,
Parmenides asserted the un-changeability of being; in so far as he conceived of
being as material, he asserted the indestructibility of matter. Thus Parmenides said
that being can neither arise nor pass away, that is the indestructibility of the matter.
Being is complete one in itself and is Reality which cannot be added to? If it is not
one but divided, then it must be divided by something else. This something else
does not exist besides the existent. That means besides being there is nothing. Nothing
could be added to, because anything that is added to being would also be a being.
Therefore, forms of becoming are negated.
Being and Non-being
Another way of expression: if being has become, it must either have come from
non-being or from being. If from non-being, it has come from nothing, which is
impossible, because, “besides the existent, nothing non existent exists”. In Metaph,
986b 28, Aristotle commends on this that Parmenides believes that the existent is of
necessity one so that nothing else exists. On this verypointAristotle has spoken more
clearly in his work on Physics, 184b 16; 185a 9; 185b 18; 186a 7; 186a 22. If it is
from being, then it has come from itself. It is the same as saying that it is identical
with itself, and thus has always been. Parmenides concludes: “that all things that are,
are one and this is being”. This is the principle of identity. Hence there can be only
one eternal, non-derived, unchangeable being. It must be continuous, indivisible
and immovable.
Being and Thought
Moreover, being and thought are one, for what cannot be thought, cannot be; and
what cannot be, i.e., non-being, cannot be thought. That is, thought and being are
19
identical. Whatever is thought has being. Parmenides may also have believed that
Greek Philosophy : Early being and thought exist in the sense that reality is endowed with mind. An important
Philosophers
text shows: “Thought and the function of thought are the same thing, because you
will not find thought without being in which it is expressed. In fact, thought is, or it is
nothing when outside of being” (Fragment B 8).
Being and Illusion
All change is inconceivable, and, therefore, the world of sense is an illusion. To
regard as true what we perceive by the senses is to confuse being with non-being.
Parmenides shows a firm belief in reason: reality is obeying to reason and what is
contradictory to thought cannot be real. “He did not claim that reality was thought,
but that it could be truly apprehended only by thought”. If this reality is knowledge
for Parmenides, his concept of good is formed by reason. It is sure that some sort
of reason certainly qualifies his concept of agathos (good) and seems to be very
near to the control of intellectual virtue over moral virtue ofAristotle.

2.3 ZENO OF ELEA (490-430)

He was a student of Parmenides and he came from the town of Elea. There is
difference of opinion about his discipleship of Parmenides. Zeno was a mathematical
and logical genius. He showed the stupidity of plurality. He was very famous for his
dialectic. Being is one and immutable. Plurality and motion are contradictions in
themselves. He denies the reality of both. His argument clearly brings out the
discrepancy between logic and experience.
Arguments against Plurality
He argued: If the whole of being is a plurality, it is formed of many points, and this
whole can be proved to be both infinitely small and infinitely great. One thing is
formed of small parts and the same thing is formed of large parts, it is absurd to say
that the one and the same whole is both infinitely small and the infinitely big. For
example, let us take a line which is made up of many points each of which is having
a certain size. Then the line must be infinitely big; because it is made up of infinite
number of units. Therefore, everything in the world must be big in size or the world
itself must be infinitely great. Just imagine, on the other side, if the units are without
magnitude, the whole universe also will be without magnitude. Since the single unit
has no magnitude, the whole sum also will not have magnitude. Then, in conclusion,
the universe will be infinitelysmall. Hence we reject completelythe initial supposition
of plurality.
If we believe that many beings exist, then Zeno says that this belief is an absurdity.
These beings, which are existing, are numericallydefined. If theyare not numerically
counted, how can they exist? If it is not possible to count them, then theyare infinite.
They are not counted because between two beings (two parts) there is another
being. And between the third and the original two there rests yet another; and so on
adinfinitum.
There is an argument against the Pythagorean Doctrine of space. Parmenides said
that there was no empty space. Zeno supported this view and reduced the opposite
view to absurdity. Suppose, there is a space in which things are. If that space is
nothing, then things cannot be in it. If this space is something, then this space needs
another space and so on ad infinitum. If there is no such space, then things cannot be
in space. Things therefore are not in space or in an emptyvoid. In that case multiplicity
20 also does not exist.
Similarly, we shall think that a body is moving through space. In order to pass to Eleatic and Atomistic
Philosophers
some other space it has to pass at least half of that space, in order to reach the half
it has to pass half of the half, therefore, ad infinitum. How can you cross infinite
number of points and thereby an infinite distance? Therefore no body will cross
anywhere and motion is impossible. In this style movement becomes impossible.
Even in movement it does not move, because a bodyin motion must occupyits own
dimensions. Now in every event of its motion, an arrow occupies a space equal to
its dimensions, while these dimensions do not have movement. Occupying space
means that object is at rest. Therefore the moving arrow is still. Nothing is moving
at the moment in which it occupies its own dimensions. As a disciple of Parmenides,
Zeno was refuting all the pluralityin the universe.
The ultimate principle of the universe, according to Parmenides, is permanence. A
thing that exists cannot change into another. If someone believes that they change,
that will be a mere illusion. For him change is impossible. Hebelieved that everything,
that we experience, that exists, had always existed. Nothing can become anything
other than what it is. He was sure that human sense felt the change; on the other side
he was sure that his reason felt the permanence even within this change. He has
given more importance to the feeling of reason and other is simply denied as an
illusion. He was a man of rationalism. He believed that human reason is the primary
source of our knowledge of the world.

2.4 EMPEDOCLES (490-430 B.C)

He is from Sicily an Island near Italy. He was a leader of the Democratic Party in his
native city. He is also known as magician and wonder worker. He helped us to
come out of these complex concepts of his predecessors like Heraclitus and
Parmenides. He is of the opinion that these philosophers have concentrated on the
monistic way of explaining the substance of the world.
Cosmogony
He says that one thing cannot turn into another matter. In fact, fire can not change.
Real fire will remain as real fire and it will continue to be fire. At this point Parmenides
is right by telling that ‘nothing changes’. On the contrary, Empedocles accepted the
teaching of Heraclitus that the sense perception is also true. Here, what we see is
the change of the nature. He concludes that this problem arises because of the belief
in one single principle. As a solution to this above riddle he suggests that the cosmos
is made up of four principles: earth, water, air, and fire. All movements in the cosmos
consisted of these four elements. They come together and are separated. The
cosmos is a mixture of these elements, but the proportion of these elements would
be different. In one comparison Empedocles refers it to the work of a painter. He
can make different paintings with four colors: white, black, red, and yellow. The
intelligent painter creates various pictures. He harmoniously mixes these colors,
some in greater measure and some in lesser, and he creates beautiful figures similar
to. The death or destruction of one thing is due to the separation of the unity of these
principles. These elements remain always without change, even if we notice the
changes with our eyes. Therefore it is not right that everything changes. In reality
nothing changes, but what really happens is the combination and separation of these
things. All through these combinations and separations these principles keep their
character without change. 21
Greek Philosophy : Early Principle of Unity and Separation
Philosophers
One doubt remains unclarified. What makes the thing to combine and to disintegrate?
Empedocles added two different forces at work in the process of nature. They are
love and strife. Love brings unity and life, but strife causes destruction and death.
These are the two structural forces in the cosmogony. Nothing becomes, nothing is
destroyed and everything is eternal. “There is no means through which something
would arise from what earlier did not exist and through which what exist would
perish. This would be a vain thing without anyterminus. In fact, (being) will always
be, wherever we may look” (Fragment B 6). Therefore life and death is not the
goal, but mixing and separating is the goal of love and hate through a universal
eternal cycle. He also found out the separation of ‘substance’ and ‘force’.
Check your progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Give the second argument to confirm that there is no change but only
permanence according to Parmenides?
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2) Give the first argument against Plurality according to Zeno?
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2.5 ANAXAGORAS (500-428 B.C)

Anaxagoras born in Clazomenae, in Asia Minor, took up his abode at Athens, and
becamethefriendofthegreatstatesmanPericles,whoaimedtomakehiscitytheintellectual
as well as political center of Hellas. His life span was between 500-428.
Anaxagoras like Empedocles, adopted the teachings of Parmenides that the being is
permanent. That means, being neither comes into being nor disintegrates, but it
remains unchangeable.Anaxagoras does not agree with the teaching of Empedocles
the ultimate units are many like earth, air, fire and water. He teaches that everything
which has parts which are qualitatively the same as the whole is ultimate and un-
derived. For example a piece of silver is cut into two, the second piece also will
have the quality of the first. Here the part is also the same as whole. Those things,
which have the same quality even in parts and are same as the whole, are ultimate
and un-derived. Theyare mixtures composed of manyqualitativelydifferent particles.
According toAnaxagoras there was no individual particle, but all kinds of particles
22 stayed together and theywere indivisible.But in realitysome particle was dominating,
that is why something becomes gold and other thing becomes silver. He continues, Eleatic and Atomistic
Philosophers
“In everything there is a portion of everything”. In this way he was trying to explain
the concept change and permanence. If it is so, it is easy to explain that flesh can
come from grass or grass can come from flesh. From one nature, something of a
different nature can emerge.
Teleology
In Anaxagoras we encounter for the first time the linking of teleology with the
uniqueness and perfection of the world order. He sees the entire complex world-
process, as it now appears, as the result of a long series of movements, which
followed necessarily from the original rotation. To account for the initial motion he
puts this nous, an intelligent principle, as the cause. Nous is a spontaneous active
being, the free source of all movement and life in the world. It rules over all that has
life. This nous or mind is a special contribution of Anaxagoras. Nous has power
over all things that have life, both great and small. It is controlling thewhole revolution
and it started to revolve in the beginning. The nous is a teleological or purposive
principle.
Ethical Principle
He had no formal ethical teachings but at the same time he introduced the concept of
mind or intelligence (nous) into Greek philosophical studies. He stressed that “Mind
is infinite and self-ruling, and is mixed with nothing, but is alone byitself”. Aristotle
gaveAnaxagoras credit for the soberness of his thought but criticised him for failing
to use nous consistently in explaining cosmic events. It is possible that the concept
of mind inAnaxagoras would have helpedAristotle to discuss the mental aspects of
human conduct. Sometimes,Anaxagoras is calling the mind the most rarefied of all
things. Thereby he is suggesting that it is a kind of matter. Nous is not to be
considered as creating matter.At the same time it is both immanent and transcendent.
Nous is present in all living things.Among living beings it has essential differences in
bodies, but not in their souls. Anaxagoras, however, does not explain the human
consciousness as having independent selfhood. There is confusion in his doctrine of
mind, whether itis theism orpantheism. Aristotle criticises himsayingthatAnaxagoras
brings the mind only when mechanical explanation fails to answer the reality.

2.6 DEMOCRITUS & LEUCIPPUS (ATOMISTS)

The founders of Atomists’ School are Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of
Abdera. But,Aristotle and Theophrastus made Leucippus to be the sole founder of
this School. Democritus ofAbdera was born about 460 B.C. in the commercial cityof
Abdera, situated on the coast ofThrace,and died in 370B.C. He said that the universe
is built upon certain small invisible particles. The characteristics of these particles
are eternity and immutability. He named these small units ‘atoms’. The meaning of
the term ‘a-tom’ is ‘not-divisible’.
Atom Theory
For him the most important thing was that the substantial element of the nature, out
of which thenature was built up,could not be indefinitelydividedinto smaller particles.
If this were possible the permanent character of the nature would be in danger.
There would not be then any permanency to the nature. He also agreed in the
teaching ofParmenides that ‘nothingcomes from nothing’. So, the substantial particle 23
Greek Philosophy : Early of nature should be eternal, and then only the nature can come out of it. These
Philosophers
eternal particles which are atoms, are firm and solid, but they are not identical.
Otherwise, the multiplicityand the unityof the nature would be impossible. Because,
we see mountains, oceans, sky, ameba, birds, fish, flowers, animals and human
beings. He confirmed that the universe is composed with unlimited number and
variety of atoms. Out of them, some are round and smooth, some are irregular and
jagged. And precisely due to their multiplicity in eternity, they could combine each
other to unlimited bodies. When a bodydissolved or disintegrated, the atoms become
free and ready for other new combinations of bodies. Atoms moved around in
space, but they are hooked and are free to join together for a new creation.
According to him, the only things that existed were atoms and the void. Soul’ and
‘force’ have no much role in his teaching on the universe. ‘Soul’ is connected with
brain. Once brain disintegrated, we lose consciousness, and then the special round
smooth shaped ‘soul atoms’ spread in all directions. He believed that nothing could
influence the universe except atom. It could be possessed by some other new
bodies. That means, human beings have no immortal soul. Therefore, he is known
as a materialist, since he believed in material things. In nature, everything happens
quite mechanically, it does not mean that it happens randomly. Because, he said,
there were the inevitable laws of necessity. A natural cause, which is inherent in
everything, guides the happenings in the nature. All the processes in the universe are
quite natural, though, it is mechanical.
Theory of Knowledge
The theory of knowledge according to this school is developed from the sense
perception. Sense perception is formed by the action of emanations resembling the
perceived body. All bodies transmit their image through air. The image, which is
transmitted by the body, modifies the object near to it and so on; finally it reaches
the sense organs of a person or a living being. If the images proceeding from other
objects interfere with other images in the process of transmission, then illusion takes
place. If they proceed without interference true knowledge takes place. It means a
direct hit on the organs of sense and finally on the soul.
The sensible qualities (colour, sound, taste, smell and touch) are not in the things
themselves. It is merely the effects of combinations of atoms on our sense organs.
Atoms as such have no qualities other than shape or size. Hence sense perception
does not provide true knowledge of things. It shows how things affect the human
beings. The Greek atomists have alreadydistinguished between the primary qualities
(shape, impenetrability, etc.) and the secondary qualities (colour, sound, smell, etc).
This distinction is a main discussion in modern philosophy.
We can only think of atoms, we can not see them as they are. Sense perception is
not a clear knowledge. Thought, which penetrates our sense perception and
appearances, and reaches atom, is the only right knowledge. Democritus is a
rationalist. Rational thought begins where sense perception ends. It is the genuine
way of knowing. Reason is the highest function of soul. For Democritus soul and
reason are the same.
Ethical Principle
Democritus stressed the soul as the locus of human well-being. His concept of
24 eudaimonia includes both the notion of ‘good existence’ (eu-esto) and of ‘good
feeling’(eu-thumie). Pace Gosling and Taylor think that Democritus was the first Eleatic and Atomistic
Philosophers
Greek philosopher to produce a systematic ethical theory. The most important step
towards systematisation was, the transition from the vague ethical thinking that
everybody wants to be happy or cheerful, or free from troubles.
On the list of Democritus’ writings on ethics there appears a treatise Peri euthymias
(DL IX 46) of which only a sentence or two has remained. Later doxographers,
assuming the framework of eudaimonistic theories, tell us that Democritus declared
euthymia to be the goal of life (telos).
The superiority of reason is taken into consideration in the ethical life. The end of all
conduct of men is well-being of societyand ultimatelyof man.Well-being means not
only the intellectual satisfaction but also the pleasure of senses. We can trace a line
of hedonism in the teaching of Democritus. True happiness is the end of man’s life. It
is an inner state of satisfaction or pleasure, depending on the tranquillity, harmony
and fearlessness of the soul. This happiness is not coming from wealth or material
good, nor from the pleasure of the body. It needs a little pain, and requires repetition
and moderation of pleasure. The less you desire, the less you are disappointed
All virtues are valuable only if they help to cultivate happiness. Envy, jealousy and
bitterness of mind bring friction and theywill destroy everybody. The sense of duty
must be the basis of doing the right thing; it should not be from the fear of punishment.
We have to serve the state too, because if the state is in peace, all realm of state will
grow; if the governance of the state is corrupted, then there will not be any order or
law but only chaos.
Theology of Democritus
According to Democritus God exists. God is composed of atoms. The Gods are
mortal like men, but theylive longer. Theyare more powerful than human being and
they possess reason of high order. Gods are known to men in dreams. They do not
interfere in the affairs of men and therefore men need not fear them. Like all other
things, God is subjected to the motion of atoms. One must achieve mental power to
reach the goal reflecting and contemplating on beautiful acts.
Check your progress II
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) How does Empedocles explain the theory of Cosmogony?
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2) Sketch out theAtom theory of theAtomists?
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25
Greek Philosophy : Early
Philosophers 2.7 LET US SUM UP
We have been looking into the cosmological point of speculation basing mainly on
the reflection of the Eleatic and the Atomist philosophers. Though they were
convinced of the cosmic unity, they had to answer the problem of the multiplicity in
the world. They, therefore, faced the dilemma of the one and the many.
TheAtomist and the Pluralist Schools were slowlypreparing the base of reconciliation
of these contraries of ‘Change’ and ‘Permanence’ proposed by their predecessors.
It was really a tough task for them to fulfil, though they were not fully successful in
their attempt. The Pluralist and the Atomist School gave the same answer to the
problem put forward by Heraclitus and Parmenides. That is how, they admitted the
change, but it is accepted as relative change not as an absolute change. In this
explaining they were admitting the permanent reality i.e., Being. In other words,
they agree absolute change is impossible but relative change is possible. Nothing in
the universe arises or perishes, everything is keeping the same nature, but through
combination we feel that something arises, and through separation we fell that they
disintegrate. Aristotle and Plato will explain it more clearly as we are to see in the
coming units. Now it is time to switch over to the problem of man as such by the
time of Sophists and Socrates.

2.8 KEY WORDS

Illusion : Illusion is the state of mind in which one mistakes
one thing for the other due to passion, prejudice,
or conditioning. It is distinct from hallucination in
which one perceives an absent thing as present.
Cause : Cause is a real principle whichexercises a positive
influence in the production of an effect.
Universe : Universe is the totality of space which includes
all the galaxies.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Aristotle. The Complete Works of Aristotle. Ed. Jonathan Barnes. New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1984.
Burnet, J. Early Greek Philosophy. London: Methuen, Fourth Edition, 1930.
Copleston, F. A History of Philosophy. Vol.1. New York: Doubleday Image Book,
1985.
Freeman, K. Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers. London: Blackwell, 1948.
Gaarder, J. Sophie’s World. Tr. Paulette Moeller. New York: Berkley Book, 1994.
Kirk, G., Raven, J. & Schofiel, M. The Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, Second Edition, 1983.
Kuttikatt, L. Greek Philosophy. Kottayam:Apostolic Seminary, 2004.
Macintyre, A. A Short History of Ethics. London: Routledge, 1967.
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Nahm, M. Selections From Early Greek Philosophy. New York: Appleton- Eleatic and Atomistic
Philosophers
Century-Crofts, Third Edition, 1947.
Oakeley, H. Greek Ethical Thought From Homer to the Stoics. New York: Dutton,
1925.
Owens, J. A History of Ancient Western Philosophy. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1960.
Thilly, F. A History of Philosophy. Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1978.
Winespear, A. & Silverberg, T. Who Was Socrates? New York. Russel & Russel,
1960.
Zeller, E. Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy. Tr. L. R. Palmer, New
York: Humanities Press, 1931.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress I
1) “Being cannot not be”, or as the text puts it: “it is not possible for it not to be”
(Fragment 11). The Aristotelian principle of non-contradiction states that
while the being is (but could not be), it necessarily is. Here with this principle
of indestructibility, according to Parmenides, the being necessarily is.
Therefore, Parmenides asserted the un-changeability of being; in so far as he
conceived of being as material, he asserted the indestructibility of matter. Thus
Parmenides said that being can neither arise nor pass away, that is the
indestructibilityof the matter. Beingis complete one in itself andis Realitywhich
cannot be added to.
2) If we believe that many beings exist, then Zeno says that this belief is an
absurdity. These beings, which are existing, are numerically defined. If theyare
not numericallycounted, how can theyexist? If it is not possible to count them,
then they are infinite. They are not counted because between two beings (two
parts) there is another being. And between the third and the original two there
rests yet another; and so on ad infinitum.
Answers to Check Your Progress II
1) The cosmos is made up offour elements: earth, water,air,andfire. All movements
in the cosmos consist of these four elements. They come together and are
separated. The cosmos is a mixture of these elements, but the proportion of
these elements would be different. In one comparison Empedocles refers it to
the work of a painter. He can make different paintings with four colors: white,
black, red, and yellow. The intelligent painter creates various pictures. He
harmoniously mixes these colors, some in greater measure and some in lesser,
and he creates beautiful figures similar to. The death or destruction of one thing
is due to the separation of the unity of these principles. These elements remain
always without change, even if we notice the changes with our eyes. Therefore
it is not right that everything changes. In realitynothing changes, but what really
happens is the combination and separation of these things. All through these
combinations and separations these principles keep their character without
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Greek Philosophy : Early 2) For him the most important thing was that the substantial element of the nature,
Philosophers
out of which the nature was built up, could not be indefinitely divided into
smaller particles. If this were possible the permanent character of the nature
would be in danger. There would not be then any permanency to the nature.
He also agreed in the teachingof Parmenides that ‘nothingcomes from nothing’.
So, the substantial particle of nature should be eternal, and then only the nature
can come out of it. These eternal particles which are atoms, are firm and solid,
but they are not identical. Otherwise, the multiplicityand the unityof the nature
would be impossible. Because, we see mountains, oceans, sky, ameba, birds,
fish, flowers, animals and human beings. He confirmed that the universe is
composed of unlimited number of atoms. Out of them, some are round and
smooth, some are irregular and jagged. And precisely due to their multiplicity
in eternity, they could combine each other to unlimited bodies. When a body
dissolved or disintegrated, the atoms become free and ready for other new
combinations of bodies. Atoms moved around in space, but they are hooked
and are free to join together for a new creation.

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