SYLLABUS

POWER STATION PRACTICE

Economics of Generation
Capacity factor, Diversity factor
UNIT-I
duration curve, Types of Loads, Load factor, Load
Load curve, load Operating and spinning reserves.
Capacity power plants,
& Peak load station[,
etc. Base of plants.
selection of different types
forecasting, aite

UNIT-II Tariff and

Power Factor Improvement indicators
demand
forms and different types oftariffs,
max

Electric utility services,

General tariff improvements
power factor,
Necessity of power factor
recorders. Causes and effect of low
and devices.
and use of power factor improvement
Power Plants
UNIT-III Coordinated Operation of

operation ofdifferent types of power plants,hydo-thcrmalscheduling.

Advantages of coordinated dam storage, pumped
long term eteam plant coordination with run offriver,
short term and
turbine plants.
storage and gae
UNIT-IV Diesel Gas Turbine and MHD Generators and main components,
plants. Principle of working
diesel and gas turbine
Field of applicntion of closed combined cycle operation. Types
of MHD generatore,
cooling of MHD generators, open and
Future trends.
Advantages and problenms,
Auxiliaries
UNIT-V Power Station
excitation system, Auto voltage regulators (AVR),
Governors forhydro and thermal generators, and waste handling.
Nuclear fuel processing
Bus bar arrangements, Battery charger,
 (CONTENTS
POWER STATION PRACTICE UNIT-
ECONOMIcs OF GENERATION
5-25
UNIT Economics of Generation. ***rr* **st**a*******e*********************

UNIT-I Tariff and Power Factor Improvement. ***°***********°**********°**********************

2645

Q.1. What is the meaning of economics of power generation? (UTU 2010-11)

UNIT-III Co-drdinated Operation of Power Plants.. av*****************************"********** 46-63
Ans. The generation of electrical energy economically is not an ordinary matter, rather it requires
and
UNIT-V Diesel Gas Turbine and MHD Generators ************ *******************************
6479
a
long experience decide about
to location
type, rating of generating stations. The other
considerations for the design ofthe power etation are reliability, minimum capital and operating
costs. For this, it is necessary that the layout should be such that the maintenance and repairs
Power Station Auxiliaries. ****** .... 80-100
*************************************************************
UNIT-V can be-carried out easily.
For deciding the and rating
type of generating plant, it is necessary that the engineer may
be familiar with the folowing important terms:
Fixed and Running Cost
The expenditure associated with working of a power plant can be divided into two major
acceah li oVonlabl groups:
1. Fixed cost and
2, Running cost.
Nwlable Fixed cost: In order to set up a power generating plant and the transmission and distribution
system, land, building and equipment for generation, transmission and distribution are required.
Money is therefore the first consideration to make ali this availablk With modern large power

aheust teturelhy stations the capital involved is so large that a loan has to be raised, througha bank. For this,
intereat will have to be paid regularly. Further a power plant has a limited life after which a
ack of knouled new plant has to be installed for which capital will again be rèquired. that
This means power
supply authority should save money regularky, enough to pay back the capital and interest
thereon and to create a fund ultimately to be used for replacing the existing plant after its
This amount has to be recovered from the comsumer and is independent of the
Avdfo
useful life is over.
actual consumption of power. This part of the cost is therefore called fixed cost. The fixed cost
also includes the salaries of the permanent etaff.
the cost
Running cost: Money is required to keep the plant running. This amount includes
of fuel, lubricating oil and water, repair and maintenance and wages of temporary staff. These
imtho oftaay costs constitute what is called running cost and depend on the energy generated.

Q.2. Define the load curve? Explain its importance in generation of power.
(UTU 2011-12)
Ans. 1. Load curve: The consumer load on a power station varies
from time to time. Load
load on the pewer station from time to time.
curve is graph which shows the variations in
x-axis and load the system along y-axis.
Usually time, hourly or half hourly, is plotted on on

The load curves supply the following important informations:

value of load on the station. It
) The peak point "P" on load curve will give the maximum
will be termed as daily maximum demand.
 B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE [71-UNIT-1-(UTuj- B.TECH,- POWER STATiON PRACTICE
[6]-UNIT-I- [UTU]-
the It is alwnys greater than unity.
curve we can
obtain the value of total number of units generated by
in Erom load the under the load curve If the diversity factor ia high, the demand will be low and the
under the curve, i.e., area
capacity of plant will be
System by computing the area smaller resulting in reduction in capital cost. Hence the generation per KWh of
total number of units generated in a day. energy will also
represents the be less.
Demand factor: It is defined as the ratio between maximum demand to
connected load of
a power station.
It may be noted that load factor and demand : t o r are
always less than whereas the
unity,
diversity factor is always greater than unity.

Demand factor = Maximum demand

Connected load
If the demand factor is low, the maximum demand will be less. Thus
cost of generation will
be less at low value of the demand factor and vice versa.
Time(Hours)
Plant factor
o r capacity factor: As the demand of electrical
Fig.1. Load curve power is increasing day by
day, every plant should keep a reserve capacity so as to take care of future
so

(i) The average value of load can also be calculated from the
load curve by dividing theo
meet the demand ofincreasing load. Keeping this
expansions to
area under the curve by number of hours. thing in view, the capacity of plants
is usually
greater than the required capacity,
bc d) in
) The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area the rectangle (a
of
Plant or capacity factor is defined as the ratio of average load to the rated capacity of the
which it is contained, gives the value of load factor.
power plant.
() The variation of load during different hours of the day.
2. Connected load:It is the sum continuous ratings
of the the appliances connected
of all Plant F'actor = Average load
to the sytem.
Rated capacity
of power plant
3. Maximum demand: The greatest of all demands which have occurred during a given Utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of naximum demand to the rated capacity of
the power station. It is always less than
period on the power station is known as maximum demand. It
determines the size and cost of unity.
the installation.
Utilization Factor Maximum demand
Q.3. Define load factor. Explain the significance of load factor. (UTU 2011-12) Rated capacity of power plant
1 m* of water
factor: 1t is defined as the ratio of average load to maximum demand. weighs =
1000 kgm
Ans. Load 1 KWh 860 kcals
Average load Average Load
Load factor
Maximum demand
Average Load = No.of units generated/annum
KWhsupplied in a day No. of hours in a year
Daily load factor Maximum demand 24 x Q.4. The following is the load cycle of a house per day
() Load A; 1 kW (amp load) 6.00 A.M to 8 P.M.
Yearly load factor
KWh supplied in whole ofyear
Maximum demand.x 365 * 24 (ii) Load B; 500 Watt (lamp load) 7.00 P.M. to 10 P.M.
(iii) Load C; Fan load 500 watt, 12.00 Noon to 8 P.M.
The load factor will be always less than one. (iv) Load D; Heater load 2 kW 6.00 A.M. to 7.00 A.M. 5.00 P.M. to 7.00 P.M.
If the load factor is high, the maximum demand will be low. Thus, at high load factor, the Determine the diversity factor, maximum demand and load
factor; also draw the
generation cost will be less and vice versa. load curve.
at the same moment,
Diversity factor:The maximum demands of allconsumers don't pccur Tino 0-6 6-7 7-12 12-17
thus maximum demand on power plant will be always less than the sum of individual maximumn 17-19 19-20 20 to 22
in hours to 24
demands of ali consumers connected to the power plant.
the ratio of sum of the individual maximum demands of all the Load A 1kW 1 kW
Diversity factor is defined as IkW
consumers connected to the power plant to the maxim um demand of the power station. Lond B
500 watt 500 watt
Lond C
Sum of individual maximum demands 500 watt 500 watt 500 watt
Diversity factor = M a x i m u m demand of power station Loud D 2 kW 2 kW
Total load
Zero3kW 1 kW
.5 kW |3.5 kW 2 kW 0.5k
 1o uNIl-1UIUJ .IECH.POWER STATION PRACTICE (91- UNIT-I- [UTU] - B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE
is shown in Fig. 2.
Ans. (a) Load
curve

(b) Maximum demand on power station =

3.5 K¥. 600
Percentage saving 1000
x
100 60% Ans.
Diversity factor
Sum of individual max. demands
Maximum demand Q.6. The cost of generation at a station is 500 per kW plus 5
on
power station the over all cost per unit if the yearly load factor is paise per unit. Calculate
(i) 50%, (ii) 100%, (iii) 20%.
1.0+0.5+0.5 +240 8 Ans. Let us assume that the maximun demand of station is
1000 kW.
3.5 35 7 1.14. () When yearly load factor is 50%.
Number of energy units generated in a year
3.5 Maximum Demand x 8760 x Load factor
3.0
1000x 8760 x50
2.5 100
2.0 =
438 x 10'kWh

Total cost 5
of generation = 500 x 1000 438 x 104 x
100
0.5 Rs. (50x 10+ 21.9 x 10)
Rs. 71.9 x 104

Time in Hours-
12
24
Cost per kWh =
71.9 x10x100 = 16.4 paisa.
Fig. 2. 438 10. x
(i) When load factor is 100%6
(c) Units generated per day ="Total area of load curve
=3 x 1+ 1 x5+ 1.5 x 5+ 3.5 x 2+2 x1+0.5 x 2 Number of units generated in a year = 1000 x 8760 x 100
=3+5+7.5 +7+2 +1 25.5 kWh 100
=
876 x 10 kWh
Average load = 25.5 1.0625 kW
Total cost of generation = 500 x 1000+876 x 101x
Load factor Average Load 101 +43.8
100
Maximum demand
=
Rs.(50 x x 10) =Rs. 93.8 x 104
1.0625 x 100
30.4% Ans. Cost per kWh =100 x 938 x104 876x10*10.7paisa.
3.5
Q.5. There are four loads each of 100, 200, 300 and 400 kVA. The (ii) When load factor is 20%
among loads. Calculate the percentage
diversity factor is 2.5
the total load.
saving in the single transformer supplying
Number of units generated in a year = 1000 x 8760 x 20
Ans. Sum of individual maximum demands 100
100 +200 +300 =175.2 x
10* kWh
=
+ 400 1000 kVA
Diversity factor = 2.5
Maximum demand or the capacity of transformer which is capable of
Total cost of generation =
500x 1000 + 175.2 x 10*x
load. suppling the total 100
= Rs. (50 x 104+8.76 x 10)

Sumof IndividualM.LD. 1000 Rs. 58.76 x 104

Diversity factor 2.5 400 kVA
58.76x 10
Saving = 1000- 400.= 600 kVA Cost per kWh =
175 9 104 33.5 paisa Ans.
 [10] UNITH- [UTU]- B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE
[11] UNIT-I- [UTU] - B.TECH.- POWER STATIiON PRACTICE
Q.7. Doscribe the significance of load factor and
Diversity factor.
Ans. Significance of Load Factor and (Expected) efficient equipment hascome into the market. To enable this to be
diversity factor Diversity
play a very important part on the cost of
factor: The values of load factor and
money is put aside annually which is known as "Depreciation Fund".
done, when necessary, some

house. If the diversity factor and electrical energy produced by a

load factor are more, the cost power The' depreciation fund can be accumulated by two methods.
cost of the power station per kWh will be less. The
depends upon the capacity of the power capital 1. The straight line method: It is based on
demand of the power station, the
lower is the capacity
station. Lower the maximum the assumption that depreciation occurs
capital cost of the required and therefore, lower is the uniformly every year according to a straight line law. The annual saving to be affected depends
plant. It can be explained as below. upon the amount required at the end of the usual life of the plant divided by number of
If the value of years of
diversity factor is high, then for the same r:aximum useful life of the plant. The money saved by this method neglects
any interest which it can earn
consumers, maximum demand on the demands of different during the period of depreciation. If Q is the cost of replacement (value of plant less
power house will be less salvage
generating set which means Iuitial cost will be less; and necessitating small size of value) and its useful ife is n years then annual depreciation cost is Q/n.
Hence, higher the diversity factor, smaller will be thereby cost per kWh will be reduced. 2. Sinking fund method: In sinking fund method,
the capacity of the provision is made for setting aside each
capital cost is reduced. plants required;
hence year such a sum as, invested at certain interest rate compounded annually will
If the load factor is give the amount
increased then the same power house will equal to replacement cost of installation at the end ofits useful life. As compared to straight line
energy; but the cost of generation remains the generate more electrical method, it requires smaller annual amounts.
same. Thus more number of
share the total cost of energy units will
generation, resulting in reduced cost per kWh. Higher load
better utilization of the factor means
Let capital cost of the installation be P
plants. Salvage rate of interest "n" year be Q
Q.8. What do you mean by fixed cost and Annual rate of interest be r
running cost of a
power station. Cost of replacement after annually so that it will be worth X+ rXx
Ans. Cost of Generation: The total (Very Important) = X(1 +r) at the end of one year.
Fixed Capital (6) Running capital required in a project can be subdivided into (a)
Capital. The amount of first instalment after "n-l"' years will become
Fixed capital: The fixed capital comprises that part of the capital which is to be = X(1 + r)"
the purchase of assets such land, plant and equipment etc. It
as spent for The amount of second instalment after "n-2"years will become
may be grouped under the
following heads X l + r)
i) Capital cost of generating equipment Similarly the amount ofthird instalment after "a -3" years will become
(i) Capital cost of transmission
system. X (1+ r)3
(ii) Capital cost of distribution system, both H.T. and L.T. The fixed Last but one instalment will become = X(1 +r)
freight, cartage, octroi and labour charges. capital also includes
Last instalment aftern years will be =X
Running capital: The capital required for the purchase of fuel (if any), Thus total sinking fund will be
wages etc. for continuous and smooth operation of the payment of salaries,
project makes up the running capital. =X[(1 + 1)+(1+ r2 +(1 + r-3+ 1 +r)+1]
Cost of generation will include
So annual cost
charges towards both, the fixed capital and running capital. The above terms are in geometrical progression.
of generationcan be subdivided into
the following two heads:
() Fixed charges:It includes annual charge on assets covered under fixed
salaries of management and clerical staff and interest on the total capital, taxes,
capital. Totalsum C= (P-= X
- .x
(ii) Running charges: It includes fuel cost, maintenance and repair cost, cost
oil and wages of operation cost. of lubricating r+1

Interest and depreciation: Usually for big projects money is borrowed from banks or
other financial institutions and at the end of the year, the
or X; the annual deposit will be equal = Cr
a+-1
undertaking of the project is required
to pay the interest on capital cost.
Q.9. What is the difference between base load and peak load? (UTU 2012)
Ifa capital outlay required for a project is Rs. Pand the rate
of interest per year is r% then Ans. Base Load andP Load Stations:The consumer load on a power station variea from

rP time to time. Therefore a power station has to cope with the varying demand of the coneumers.
an amount of cPper year must be provided as interest payment.
100 The generators are pressed into service if increasea end
load demand shut down when load
demand decreases. But there is always some minimum load on the power station which remains
Depreciation
life.
of plant:Theofpower plant and equipment in the station will have certain a constant throughout the day. This unvarying load is known as base load and the maximum load
period of usual After years use,
and needs replacement. Sometimes even
the equipment loses its effciency to itbebecomes obsolete
or
occurring in load curve, excluding the base load, is known
as peak the minimum
load. In short
fairly new equipment may have changed, if more load which remains almost the whole day on a station is known as base load.
 12]-UNIT-I-[UTU]-B.TECH. POWER sTATION PRACTICE uNI 1UIUJ .IEUH: -PUWEH SIAION PRACTICE
(ii) In an interconnected aystem it is possible to have larger generator rating which means
reduced capital cost per kW.
(iii) Itis possible to arrange the sharing
of load between two or more interconnected stations
in such a manner that
the more efficient station can work at high load factor and the
less efficient stations are used only during load hours.peak
(iu) Usually load curves of two different stations are not identical on account of
maximum
demands of stations not occurring simultaneously; it is
possible to work with lesser
Peak Loads
installed capacity and thua saving is affected.
() Reliability of supply is increased.
Base Load (ui) Interconnection of hydropower station and thermal power station makes the
operation
Time in Hours very economical. When water is available in suficient
quantity, the hydro-electric power
station is employed as base load station and thermal
Fig. 3 load station, and vice versa when water is not
power station is employed as peak
It is not economical and available in suficient quantity.
advisable to design the power station on the
because if the power station is basis of peak load Q9. The cost of a n alternator installed in a generating plant is Rs. 7.5
designed
many generators will remain idle, thus
on the basis of
peak load then for most of the time, normal life span is 30 years. At the end of this time it is lac and its
generation. reducing the load factor and increasing the cost of will have a scrap value of Rs. 50,000. (a) Calculate expected that the alternator
the annual charge to be set aside in order to
by sinking fund depreciation method,
Base Load replace the present plan with a new one
The power stations which are at the end of life
span. (6) Compare this with that calculated by
designed for base loads and are depreciation method. Assume the rate of compound interest as 10%. straight line
are known as base load
stations. In short the maximum load on a required throughout the day
time is known as its base load. power station at a particular Ans. (a) Cost of replacement after 30
years
Peak Load C =750000 x 50000 = Rs. 700000
The power stations which are installed to n = 30 years
share the load of base 1load stations
hours are called peak load stations. during peak 10
'100 0.1
Thermal and hydroelectric power stations are used as base load
low running cost and diesel stations because of their
power stations, are best suited for Cr
starting and high running cost. peak load stations due to quick 700000
Annual deposit X +r" -1i 17.46 1
Q.8. Explain the concept of
power stations and what are, the
Interconnection of stations. advantages of X =700000 70000
Ans. Interconnection of Power (UTU 2010-11) (1.1)30 -1 17.46 1
Stations: In north India, Himachal Pradesh has great
potential for the development of hydroelectric power; but its own power
small and may not be much in near
future; whereas in Haryana, total power requirement is too 70000
16.46 Ks. 4252.7
much more than the available
sources of power requirement is
generation. In these circumstances it will be the
best course to transfer
surplus of Himachal Pradesh to
(6) Straight line depreciation method
connecting the power systems ofpower Haryana. This is possible by
Haryana and Himachal Pradesh by means of transmission The total amount to be collected after
30 years
lines called "Tie Line". The two
systems thus connected are known as Rs. (7.5 x 105-50000) Rs. 7 x 105
more than two
systems are thus connected then it is known as GBD Interconnected System. If Amount to be set aside each year
Whenever steam power statiorn and FORMATION.
hydro electric stations are interconnected, then
hydro electric power plant acts as a capacity plant, i.e.,power
it is used to
700000 = Rs. 23333 Ans.
load hours and steam station
may be used as base load supply power during peak 30
Advantages of Interconnection of Stations
station. Q.10. An electric supply undertaking with a firm capacity of 5 MW has a maximum
demand of 4 MW. It supplies the
() Every generating station should have a
reserve plant to
following categories of load.
repairs and to meet any emergency. If every station facilitate maintenance and
is worked in
() Domestic load: 3000 kW is the maximum demand at a load
factor of 15%.
reserve plant which is isolation, the total1
normally lying idle would amouDt to a considerable (ii) Street light: 200 kW is the maximum demand at a load factor
With the interconnected, magnitude. (ii) Power load: 1800 kW is the maximum demand at a load of 30%.
system total reserve capacity is
greatly reduced. of factor 40%.
 .
* *

The cost data is

Capital cost of equipment = Rs. 13140000 1800x 40
Units consumed per year x 8760
Annual cost of fuel, wages,
salary, repairs and maintenance 100
= Rs. 538740 876000x 72 kWh
Rate of interest and depreciation is 12% Total cost payable for power
Calculate the cost per kWh for each category of load. What =
1800 x 423.108
do you conclude from
the result?
761594.4
Ans. Capital cost = Rs. 13140000
Interest and depreciation = 12% Cost per kWh 761594.4x
876000x 72
12.1 paise Ans.
Annual fixed charges payable 13140000 x12 Rs. 1576800 Conclusion: The cost per kWh decreases when the load factor increases.
100 For power, load
Annual cost of fuel, wages etc. = Rs. 538740 factor is maximum and its cost per kWh is minimum.
Total amount Q.11. An industrial consumer is offered electricity from (a) Private oil
payable per year =1576800+538740= Rs. 2115540 engine station
Total M.D. of all (6) Public _upply undertaking. Caleulate which scheme will be better
categories for a consumer having a maximum demand of 900 kW at a load economically
3000+200+ 1800 =5000 kW case. It is given that:
factor of 30% in each

Cost per kW = : 2115540 = Rs. 423.108 Private Plant:

5000 Capital cost : Rs. 5 x 105
Domestic Load: Cost of fuel : Rs. 80 per tonne
Maximum demand =3000 kW Fuel consumption:0.3 kg per kWh generated
Load factor = 15% Cost of lubricating oil etc.:0.25 paisa per kWh
generated
Cost of repair and maintenance:0.25
Units consumed per year = 3000x15x 8760 3942000 paisa/kWh generated
Cost of lubricating oil etc. : 0.30 paisa per kWh
100
=
generated
Annual wages : Rs. 18 x 105
Total cost payable for domestic load in a year
3000 x 423.108
Annual Interest and depreciation: 10%
Public Supply:
Rs. 1269324
Rs. 80 per kW of maximum demand per year plus 3
paise per kWh.
Cost per kWh 1269324 Ans. Load factor = 0.3
=
100 =
32.2 paise
3942000 Maximum Demand = 900 kW
Street Load: Units required per year = Maximum demand x Load factor x 8760
Maximum demand =200 kW = 900 x 0.3 x 8760 = 2365200 kWh
Load factor = 30%
(a) Private Plant:
Capital Cost = Rs. 5 x 105
Units consumed per year 200
100
x3x 8760 =525600 kWh Annual interest and depreciation charges
Total cost payable for street load Rs. 5x10 x10
200x 423.108 100
84621.6 Rs. 50000
Annual wages = Rs. 18000
Cost per kWh = 84621.x
525600
100 16.1 paise.
Power Load: Annual fuel consumption = - 2365200 X0.3 -
709.5 tonne
Maximum demand = 1800 kW 1000
Load factor = 40% Annual cost of fuel 709.5 x 80 = Rs. 56765
 16)-UNITH-[UTU]- B.TECH.-POWER STATION PRACTICE

Annual cost of lubricating oil and repairs etc. Total number of unita generated per annum
390 x 105
(0.25+0.3)
100
x 2366200 =
Rs. 13008 Cost per unit at the generating station

Total annual cost = 50000 + 18000 +56766 +13008

= Re
339 10 339x10
390 x 10 390 x 10* 100 paise
= Rs. 137773 Ans
(6) Public Supply Undertaking:
Annual Fixed Charges = Rs. 80 x 900 = Rs. 72000 2 9 8 . 7 paise Ans.
Annual Running Charges = 0.03 x 2365200 = Rs. 70956
Total annual cost = 72000 + 70956 = Rs. 142956 Ans. Q.15. Estimate the generating cost per unit delivered from a generating station with
the following data:
So Private Plant is cheaper than Publie Supply undertaking. Plant capacity - 100 MW, current load factor 36%, capital cost Rs. 500 lakh, annua
Q.12. A generating station has a maximum demand of36,500 kW and has a connected cost of fuel oil, taxation
wages and salaries etc. Rs. 6 lakh, interest 10% per annun
load of 65,000 kW. The number of units generated annually is 25.6 x 10'. Calculate and depreciation 6% per annum of initial cost.
() Load factor, and Ans. Given,
(ii) Demand factor. Plant capacity = 100 MW = 100 x 10 kW
Ans. Load factor = 35% = 0.35
Maximum demand = 35,500 kw Capital cost = Rs. 500 lakh
Connected load = 65,000 kW Annual cost of fuel oil, taxation wages, salaries etc.
No. of units generated = 25.6 x 10" per annum Variable cost = Rs. 6 lakhs/annum
Interest = 10% per annum of initial or capital cost

Average load No. ofunits generated per annum Depreciation = 6% per annum of initial or capital cost
No. of hours in a year
Assuming that the maximum demand on the plant is equal to plant capacity.
25.6x1011 No. of units generated per annum,
= Maximum demand x Load factor x 8760
8760
= 100 x 103x 0.35 x 8760 kWh
Load factor = Average load
Maximum demand
306.6 x
105 kWh.
Annual cost due to interest and depreciation or fixed cost
25.6 x10 35,5000.822
= (10% + 6%) x Capital cost
8760

35,500
x500 lakh.
Demand factor Maximum demand. 65,000 0.546 Ans. 8 0 lakh
(i) =

Connected load
Annual cost of fuel, oil, taxation, wages, salaries ete.
units per a n n u m and installed
Q14. The output of the generating station is 390 x 10 = 6 lakh
Rs. 18 per kW of installed plant
capacity is 80,000 kW. Ifthe annual fixed charges are
. Total annual expenditure
and running charges are 5 paise per kWh, what is the cost per unit at generating
= Rs. (80 +6) lakh
station? Rs. 86 lakh = Rs. 86 x 10
Ans. Cost per unit generated
Rs. 18 x 80,000 = Rs. 144 x 10*
Total annual fixed charges =

Total annual expenditure

5 No. ofunits generated per annum
Annual running charges = 390 x 105 x Rs. 195 x 104
0
Fixed charges + Running charges = Rs.
86x 10
Total annual charges =
306.6 x 10
Rs. (144 x 10') + Rs. (195 x 10)
= Rs. 339 x 10
 86 x 10 Q.17. (a) What are the factors considered while selecting the units of generatin
etto = Rs
306.6x 106
x 100 paise stution?

2.8 paisa/ unit Ans.

(b) Find the
cost per kWH for a
of generation
annual load factor of 40% and having a maximum demand of 60 MW.
generating
station running at a
n h Q.16. Estimatethe generating
on the following data :
cost per kWh delivered from a generating station based The total capital cost of the plant is Rs. 1 c r o r e and coal and lubricants expenditur
is Rs. 9 lakh per year. The annual charges towards wages and salaries are 1/20th o
Plant capacity 50000 kW capital cost. Assume rate of interest and depreciation as 10%.
Annual load factoor 60% Ans. (a) Pactors to be considered for selection
of units:
Capital cost Rs. 1260/ per kW installed The following factors influence the selection of units in a power station:
Maximum demand 4000 kW 1. The units selected should be such that the load factor is high.
Annual cost of fuel, taxation, 2. The number of units should at least be two, but should not be too many. If only tw
wages and salaries Rs. 3000000
units are selected,
size of each should be such that they can supply the maximum deman
Interest per annum 6% initial value or capital cost individually.
Depreciation per annum 6% of initial value or capital cost Provisions for reserve capacity should be made.
Ans. Given: 4. Provisions for future expansion in load demand should bé made.
Plant capacity = 50000 kW 5.
Unitsof size
equal preferably be selected,
should so that the number of supports
Annual load factor 6% or 0.6 minimum, maintenance becomes easy.
Ans. (b) Given:
cost = Rs. 120/- per kW installed
Capital Annual load factor = 40% or 0.4
Maximum demand = 40000 kW
Maximum demand = 60 MW
Anual cost of fuel, wages, taxes and salaries.
Total capital cost = Rs. 1 crore
=Rs. 3 x 10
Coal and lubricants cost = Rs 9 lakh/year
Interest per year 6% of capital cost
Depreciation per year = 6% of capital cost
Capital cost = 1250 x 50000 Rs. 62.5 x 10
Annual charges of wages x
20
capital cost
Interest and depreciation =
(6% *+ 6%) = 12% of capital oost Interest and depreciation = 10%
We have,
= Rs. x 62.5 x 10® per annum
100
Rs. 7.5 x 105 per annum. Annual expenditure =
20 107+0.1 107 +9x 105
x

T o t a l Annual = Annual
expenditure cost of fuel etc. + Interest and depreciation = (0.5 +1+0.9) x 10
= Rs. (3 x 109 + 7.5 x 10) =2x 105 Rupees
Rs. 10.5 x 105 Units generated/ annum = LF x M.D. x 8760
Units generated per year = Maximum demand x Load factor x 8760 0.4 x 60 x 103 x 8760 kWh
40000x 0.6 x 8760 = 210 x 1o® kWh
210x 10® kWh
Cost per unit generated 2x10
Cost/unit generated =
Rs.
210 x 10
Total annual expenditure
No. of units generated per year = 0.95 paisa Ans.

10.5 x 10 Q.18. (a) How does the increase in diversity factor reduce the cost of installation?
s 210 x10 (b) There are four loads each of 100, 200, 300 and 400 kVA The diversity factor
2.5 among the loads. Calculate the percentage saving in the single transform
10.5 x10 * 100 paise =
5 Paise Ans.
supplying the total load.
210 x 10
Ans. (a) Greater diversity factor means that the overall maximum demand is much less than (21] UNIT- [UTU]- B.TECH. POWER STATION PRACTICE
arithmetic sum of the individual maximum demands. That means a plant of lesser installed the future increase in the load. For a power
capacity can supply these loads. Thus the installation cost is reduced due to reduced plant plant in an integrated syatem, a high utilisation
factor shows that the plant is probably the most efficient in the Since loada in excess of
rated capacity are also carried, sometimes, utilisation factor syatem.
capacity.
(6) Given, may be more than unity. It is
evident that:
Diversity factor = 2.5
Sum Capacity Factor (Load Factor) x (Utilisation Factor)
=

of individual M.Ds = 100 +200+ 300+400

Q.20. Explain the concept of Load forecasting.
1000 kVA Ans. Load Forecating: Load forecasting can ie divided into two
Sum of individual maximum demands categories:
Overall M.D = ) Long term load forecasting, and
Diversity factor ii) Short term load forecasting
1000
400 kVA Long term load forecasting
2.5 It takes a pretty long time to plan, install and
That is, one single transformer of 400 kVA commission additional generating capacity.
capacity can supply all the loade as against a Generation system expansion planning starts with a forecast of
transformer of 1000 kVA capacity if all the loads were to occur at the same time. anticipated future load
Saving in capacity = 1000 400 = 600 kVA requirements. Proper long term load forecasting is necessary for optimal generation capacity
expansion.
In preparing a forecast, the system
% Saving in capacity = 60x
1000
100 =
60% Ans.
planner is confronted with the following questions
1. Should the maximum demand be forecast
using forecasted energy and load factors or
should it be forecast separately.
Q.19. Define the following terms 2. Should the total forecast be obtained
(a) Capacity factor by combining the forecast of appropriate load
components or should the total forecast be directly obtained from the historical load
(b) Utilisation factor (Very Important) data.
Ans. (a) Capacity Factor: The plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) is the ratio of 3. Should simple forecasting method be used or should more foormal mathematical
thè average annual load to the power plant procedures be employed.
capacity,
Each of the above methodologies has its own advantages and limitations. No one
Average Annual L0ad approach
Capacity Factor =
Rated Plant Capacity is used by all the utilities consistently. Choosing the best method for a
given system requires
good judgement of the planner.
I t can also be defined as the ratio of the energy produced by the plant in a year to the
One method, used by many utilities, for long range load
forecasting is extrapolation.
maximum energy that the plant could have produced. If the plant is always
capacity, the capacity factor is 100%.
run at its rated
xtrapolation technique involves fitting trendiscurves to
basic historical data adjusted to reflect
the growth trend itself. Once the trend curveknown, the forecast is found by evaluating the
The capacity factor depicts the extent of the of the generating station. It is different
use
from load factor because of the reason that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater trend curve function at the desired future point. Some of the functions used in trend curve
fitting are:
than the maximum
expected load. The
power
into account the future expansion, increase in load and
plants have always some reserve capacity to take Straight line y A+ Bx
maintenance Parabola y =A+ Bx+ C?

Capacity Factor Maximum Load

Plant Capacity X Load Factor
s curve y =A+ Bx+ C + D
y = CeDx
Exponential
Gompertz y = lnl (A + CeD)
It is evident that if the rated plant capacity equals the maximum load, the capacity factor
and load factor become identical. Combination y =A+ Bx + CeDx
is x (with base year zero) and A, B, C, D are constants computed,
(b) Utilisation Factor: It is defined as the ratio ofthe maximum demand to the rated capacity where y the load in year
generally., by the method of least squares.
of plant.
If the uncertainty of extrapolated results is to be quantified using statistical entities like
Maximum Load mean and variance, the basic technique becomes probabilistic extrapolation. The use of stochastic
Utilisation factor =
Rated Plant Capacity models to generate a forecast from random inputs derived from bistorical data has also been
The utilisation factor for a plant depends on the use to which the plantis put.A low utilisation suggested but is not used in actual practice.
factor means that the plant is either a standby plant or has been installed to take into account Another technique for load forecasting is correlation. This technique relates system loade t
various demographic and economic factors. Typically factors like population, employmen
 2 2 ] - U N I T H - [UTUJ - B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE
23]- UNIT-I- [UTU]- B.TECH.POWER STATION PRACTICE

jndustrial licenses, appliance saturation, weather data etc. are ued in correlation.techniques. The diversity factor of the loads on the three transformers
may be taken as 2.3,
However the forecasting of the demographic and economic factors ia rather difficult. 2.5 and 2.0. The diversity factor between transformers is 1.4. Find
(a) peak load on
Shori term load forecasting each transformer (b) peak load in feeder.
A precise short term load forecast is essentially for monitoring and controlling power system Ans.
operation. The hourly load forecast with lead time upto one week in advance is neceseary for on
line soution of scheduling problems. A 24 hour load forecast is needed for successful operation (a)Peak load on transformer 1 300x 0.6+
2.3
100 x 0.5 100 kW
=

ofthe power system. One hour forecast is important for on line real time control and security
evaluation of a large power system. Peak load on transformer 2 = 500 U 80 kW
Short term load forecasting techniques generally involve physical decomposition of 2.5
load
into components. The load is decomposed into a daily pattern reflecting the difference activity
in
level during the day, a weekly pattern representing the day of the week effect on load, a trend Peak load on transformer 3= 400x0.5 = 100 kW
2
component concerning the seasonal growth in load and a weather sensitive component reflecting
the deviations in load due to weather luctuations. The random error can be statistically analysed
to obtain a stochastic model for error estimation. (b) Peak load on feeder . 100+80+100 200
1.4
Thus, the expected hourly load forecast is divided into five components and written as Q.22. Describe the concept of load factor.
YC, )
Y.)=ADP()+AWP(6,j)+WSC
= load forecast for jth hour of ith day
G,) + TR() +SEC (6) (UTU 2012
Ans. Load factor for a eyetem or a plant is the ratio of the average load to the peak load, for a
Where
ADP () = average daily load pattern at jth hour certain period of time.
AWP (k.) = average weekly load increment pattern atj th hour and kth day of the
Average load
Load factor
Load factor =

week (k= 1, 2... 7) Peak load

wSC , = weather sensitive component at jth hour of ith day
TR (i) = trend component of loud on ith day
100 100
SEC ( ) = stochastic error component which is assumed to be normally
distributed. 75 75

The average daily pattern represents the hour of the day effect. It is an average of the load 50 50

pattern over a n optimal number of past days. 25 25

calculated as the
The average weekly pattern reflects the day of the week effect.It is average

of the weekly cycles over a certain number of pást weeks.

in custómer requirements HOurs Hours
The weather sensitive component represents the changes 100
is considered as the only weather 100
temperature
variations in weather conditiorns. Generally variables like wind, humidity etc. are, usually, not
variable since data banks for other weather 75 5
available.
The trend component includes three components:a long
term growth trend, a short term so
trend dependent on the economic cycle
and a time of the year pattern. 25
deviation
the error in the estimate. The standard
The statistical e r r o r component represents
Hours
e r r o r parameters. Hours 24
and variance a r e usually taken as have been developed
for load decomposition and forecasting
Many digital computer programs
by many utilities. Fig. 4. Load duration curves having equal maximum demands (100 MW) and
transformers which feed the following loads: the same load factor (75%) but diferent shapes
Q.21. Afceder supplies 3 distribution time (say 24
Motor loads 300 kW, demand
factor 0.6 Load factor canalso be defined as the ratio of the energy consumed in a certain
Transformer 1 consumed ifthe load is maintained at the maximum-
demand factor 0.5 hours or a year) to the energy which would be
commercial loads 100 kW,
demand factor 0.4 value throughout that time.
Transformer 2 Residential loads 500 kW,
factor 0.5 Energy consumed during a time oft hours
Transformer 3 Residential loads 400 kW, demand Load factor =
Peak load xt
 (24-UNIT-[UTU]-8.TECH, POWER STATION PRACTICE [251 UNIT-I- (UTUj -

B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE

The peak load is generally taken as that prevailing for a half hour period and the average Effect of voltage
load may be that pertaining to a day, a month or a year, thus giving daily, monthly or yoarly
(a)Lighting load: Lighting loads do not consume any reactive power. Since the resistance
load
factor. Load factorhas
an effect on power plant design, operation and cost of genoration. of lighting devices is not constant, the active power does not
vary as (voltage)2 but
The load factor depicts the variation of load during a certain period but it does not give any approximately as (voltage)10,
indication of the shape of the load duration curve. Figure 4, depicte different systeme having (6) Heating: The resistance is almost constant and active power varies as (voltage)?.
thesame maximum demand, differentload
shapes of load duration curves but the same load factor
(c) Induction motors: The performance of an induction motor can be analysed from
100% load factor means a rectangular duration curve with constant load during the whole
equivalent circuit. The active and reactive power vary with voltage in a rather complexits
period of the time considered.
manner. The effect also depends on whether the ehaft
torque is conetant or varies with
9.23. Explain the concept of Base Load and Peak Load Plants. epeed and also whether the motor is running at full load or lesa than full load. The
Ans. Base Load and Peak Load Plants:The system load varies from time to time. A typical decrease of voltage causes an increase in current so that the effect on
power is small. If
the shaft torque is constant, a 10% drop in voltage at full load condition
chronological curve is as shown in Fig. 5. The maximum demand is M. If the total demand is
supphed from one power plant having an installed capacity M (or somewhat higher to keep about 0.5% decrease in power. However if the voltage decreases
may cause
appreciably (to about
.0.8 pu) the power increases with further reduction in voltage.
some
reserve capacity), the plant will be running under load most of the time, thus making the
operation uneconomical. A better method is to divide the load into two portions, one below the (d) Synchronous motors: The active power does not depend on voltage and remains, more
or less, oonstant. A reduction in
line
AB and the other above the line AB. These
loade are referred to as base load and peak load direction.
voltage causes the vars to increase in the leading
respectively. These two loads are supplied from separate plants called the base load plant and In most of the analysis the. composite sub-station loads are
the peak load plant. A base load plant operates at a high load factor and should be one which.
has low operating costs. The peak load plant operates at a low load factor. Sometimes the load
represented by constant
impedances so that both P and Q are assumed to vary as (voltage). However, it is only an
curve can be divided into three portions, i.e. base load, intermediate load and peak load. approximate representation.
Effect of frequency
The power consumed by a resistive load does not depend on frequency. However most of the
loads are induetive in nature. The impedanoe of an inductive load depends on the frequency
the power the
and therefore
effect of
drawn byisan inductiveload depends on frequency. The
analyais of
frequency on
motor load rather
complex. Since only very small changes in frequency
arepermissible, the effect of frequency on active and reactive power is neglected in caleulations.
Peak Load in load frequency it
However control studies is
in frequency causes a one per cent decrease in active
generally assumed that a one per cent decrease
power.
Base Load

000

2 12 2

AMTIME PM
Fig.5. Base load and peak load

Q.24. Describe the effect of Voltage and Frequency

on loads." Very Important)
Ans. Effect of Voltage and Frèquency o n Loads
and frequency is an
The variation of active and reactive components of power with voltage
of system analysis and operation. The composite load at a sub-station
important aspect power
20-25%, Synchronous motors
usually consists of: Induction motors 50-70%, Lighting and heating
10%, Transmission losses etc. 10-20%.
 [271- UNIT-II [UTUJ- B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE

power load. The rate for each type of consumer is arrived at by taking into account its load
factor and diversity factor. This type of tariff has an advantage that it can be understood by all
UNIT-I types of consumers since calculationa involved are quite simple.
If the consumer has both types of loads say
Light and fan load
TARIFF &POWER FACTORIMPROVEMENT (i) Power load
then two separate meters are required to be installed at the premises of the consumer and the
consumer shall have to pay monthly rent for both the meters and this may be considered as a
disadvantage of this type of tariff. In order to understand this tarifi, let it be supposed that the
two meters ie., domestic load meter and power load meter show consumption of 40 units and
term tariffs and what
Q1. Explain the
The which
are the characteristics of tarif? (Important) 100 units of energy respectively, If the rate of light and fan load (domestic load) is 20 paise per
Ans. Tariffs: rate at electrical energy is supplied to a consuner ia known as tariff unit and that for power load is 10 paise per unit then the consumer shall have to pay a monthly
The supplier invests lot of amount of money on building, equipment and salaries of staf ete. in
order to supply electrical energy to various consumers. In view of this the supplier expects some 40X20 100 x 10
bill of Rs, Rs. 18 plus the metera rental charge of Rs. 1.50 if monthly rental
return and thus he does by chargingthe consumer for the energy consumed by him. For charging 100 100
the consumer, some basis is to be fixed and this basis is called Tariff. This basis of charging charge of each meter is 75 paise.
differs from consumer to consumer.
Tariffdepends upon 3. Block Rate Tariffthat
In this type of tarif, as the number of units generated increases the
1. Fixed and running charges the result the consumer who consumes more ofenergy has to pay less, This
2. Purpose for which electricit consumed uch as heating or lighting.
tariff falls with
is obvious also as the increased generation results in spreading of fixed charges over greater
3. Simplicity number of units thus reducing the total over all cost. Thus if a consumer consumes 120 unitss of
energy in one month and if the rate for first 20 units is 30 paise per unit and the rate for next 40
Characteristics of Tariff
unitsis 20 paise per unit and the rate for all other additional units is 10 paise per unit, then his
1 . The tariff must be simple enough to be understood by all the consumers. monthly bill shall be
2. Consumers should be in a position to pay the tariff.
x30+ 40x 20+60 x10
3. The annual cost of production of electricity, i.e., total of fixed and running charges. If Rs. =
Rs. 20.00
this cost is high, tariff fixed should also be high and vice versa. 100

4. Type ofservice rendered, i.e., whether the power is to be supplied to domestic consumers 4. Two Part Tariff: In this type of tariff system as the name suggests, charges are made
or to industrial consumers. Industrial consumers are in a position to pay more but they in two parts.
consume more energy and if tariff fixed is high, cost of production in the factory shall go () Fixed charge
up and hence Industrial consumers are charged at lesser rate. Domestic consumers on (i) Running charge.
the other hand consume less of energy and so even if they are charged at higher rate, it Fixed charge depends upon the maximum demand of the consumer when as running charge
may not pinch them and hence domestic consumers are charged at higher rates. depends upon the energy consumed. Maximum demand for calculating the fixed charges is
ascertained either by calculating the total connected load at the premises of the consumer or by
Q.2. Describe the different types of tariffs. (UTU 2010-11) any other method. Thus each consumer has to pay a fixed sum proportional to the maximun
Ans. Types of Tariffs: There are several types of tariffs. However, the following are the demand which is proportional to the energy consumed by him. It is expressed as
commonly used types of tariffs. E Rs. Ax kW+ B +kWh
1. Simple Tariffs:. When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a where A is the charge per kW of maximum demand expressed in rupees and Bis the charge per
simple tarif. In this tarif, the price per unit is constant and does not vary with increae or kWh of energy consumed. Thus amount A per kW recovers the fixed charges and amount B per
decrease in number of units. The units are recorded by energy meter. kWh recovers the running charges from the consumer.
Disadvantages The only disadvantage of this particular tariff is that even if a premises is closed fora
() No distinction is made between bulk consumer of electricity and smaller one. month, full fixed charges are to be paid by the consumer although running charges shal be zero
c) Cost of electricity calculated per kWh comes out to be on the higher side than the one with the result that the consumer shall have to pay a disproportionately high over all price per
unit of energy consumption.
calculated by other methods.
5. Power Factor Tarif: The efficiency of power plant and equipment is dependent upon
2. Flat Rate Tarif: This type of tariff differe from the simple one in a senee that different
types of consumers such as domestic consumers and industrial consumera are charged at different power factor; so to increase the utility of plant and equipment to maximum, the plant must be
rates. The rate for domestic load such as light load and fan load ete. is elightly higher than the operated at most economical power factor.
 (28] UNITHI- [UTU]-B.TECH.-POwER STATION PRACTICE
Q.5. An industrial load (with maximum demand 1000 kW) be
93.What do you understand by maximum demand of Tariff. (UTU 2012) following alternate tariff.
can
supplied on the
Ans. () Maximum Demand of'Taritf This type of tariff is similar to two part tariff with the 1. HV supply at Rs. 60 per kW per annum
only difference that the maximum demand instead of being caleulated by rateable value is plus 3 paise per kWh.
2. LV supply at Rs. 55 per kW per annum
measured by putting actual "Maximum denmand indicator" in the circuit. Thus the disadvantage plus 3.3 paise per kWh.
Transformers and switch gear suitable for the HV supply cost Rs. 50
noticed in the two part tariff no longer
exists in this as the maximum demand indicator
tariff full load transmission losses being 2%. The fixed charges a r e 20%
per kVA. The
per a n n u m on the
shall no longer show any reading if premises remain locked through the month. Thus fixed
shall and capital cost of the HP plant and installation works at full load. Ifthere a r e 50
charges get reduoed to zero running charges already the has
weeks in a year, find the number of working hours per week above which HVworking
are zero as conaumer no

longer coneumed any electrical enerey throughout the month. This tariff is advantagcous from
the point of view of the consumer. This tariff is written as : is cheaper.
supply
Ans. Let Xbe the number of workinghours per week above wbich H.V.
Rs. (A x kVA +Bx kWh) is supply cheaper.
Load = 1000 kW
G) kWh and kVArh
by
Tarift: In such
type
and
of
tariff both kWh and kVArh ofconeumer are
Transmission losses = 2%
metered separately two separate meters charged accordingly.
are will The kVArh reduce
with the increased povwer factor so that the consumer is tempted to use energy at better power Transmission efficiency = 98%
factor. Rating of transformers and switchgears at the sending end
(ii) Average Power Factor Tarift Inthis tariff 0.8 lagging power factor is consideredas 1000
1020
reference. Asurcharge is levied if the p.f. falls below 0.8 and however discount
by which the average power factor rises above 0.8.
can be allowed 0.98
Cost of
transformer and switchgear = Rs. 50 x 1020= Rs. 51000
94. A factory has a maximum load of 300 kW at 0.72 power factor with an annual Fixed charges on the HV plant per annum

consumption of 40000 units, the tariff is Rs. 4.50 per kVA of maximum demand plus
2 paise per unit. Find out the average price per unit. What will be the annual saving 20
Rs. 00 * 51000 = Rs. 10200
if the power factor be improved to unity.
Total units consumed by the load per annum = 1000 (50 )
Ans. Maxim um demand in kVA = 9 300 416.67 (a) Annual cost on high voltage side
= Fixed cost+ Running cost + Fixed cost on high voltage piant
Annual consumption =
40000 units 3
2 Rs. 60x 1020 + Rs. 0 1020 (50 )+ Rs. 10200
Total annual charges =Rs.x 416.67 + R s . x40000
100 Rs. (61200 +1530 X+ 10200)
= Rs. 1875+ Rs. 800 = Rs. 2675 Rs. (71400+1530 X)
=

Total annual cost (6) On low voltage side annual cost

Average price per un Units consumed per annum =
Fixed cost+Running cost
2675 Rs. 65 x 1000+ x 50000 x
=
40000K8.
0.0668 =
6.68 paise 100
If the power factor is improved to unity, Rs.
=
(65000+1650 X
Two tariffis should give equal annual costs at "X" hours per week, therefore, equating th
Maximum demand in kVA = 300 = 300 kVA two annual costs

Annual consumption in kWh remaining the same, maximum demand in kVA has reduced (71400+1530) =(65000+1650 X)
from 417 to 300 on the improvement of power factor or 6400 120 X
or X = 53.3
Annual saving = Rs. x (416.67- 300) Of the number of hours
working than 53.3 per week, the HV supply shall be cheape
more

9 Q.6. Calculate the

amount of annual bill in the of consumer, whose load i
case a
Rs.x 116.67 =Rs, 525 Ans. 120 kW. Average p.£. 0.8 lagging, load factor 80%, the tariff used is Rs. 6 per kVA «
maximum demand (MD) per month and 3 paise per unit.
 [30)- UNIT-I|-[UTU]- B.TECH.-PUWEK sIAIUN rnauivE

Ans. (o) Given: Load 120 kW Q.8. The cost of generation at a station is Rs. 500/kW plus 5 paise/unit. Calculate the
Average p.f. = 0.8 lagging overall cost/unit if the load factor is
Load facto = 80% () 100%
Tariff Rs. 6/kVA of maximum demand/month + P3/kWh (ii) 60%
We have. (iti) 20%
Ans. Given, cost of generation = Rs. 500/kW +5 P/unit
maximum demand = Load, k kVA Let maximum demand = 1 kW
p.f Load factor = 1.0
- 120 =
150 kVA Energy consumed = 8760 kWh/year
0.8
Annual energy consumption =p.f. x M.D, x 8760
0 . 8 x 120 x 8760 Annual charge =Rs. | 500 x 1+x8760
100
= 8,40,960 units
Rs. (500 + 438.0)

Annual charges =
Rs. 6x 150x 12 +840960 100
x

Overall cost/unit =Rs. 938 = Hs. 938 10.7 P Ans

8760
= Rs. (10800 +25228.80) (ii) Load factor = 0.5
= Rs. 36,028.80 P . Ans. Energy conaumed = p.f. x MD x 8760
= 4380 kWh/year
Q.7. The maximum demand of the consumer is 20 A at 220 V and his total energy
consumption is 8760 kWh. The energy is charged at the rate of 20 paise per unit for
500 hours used of the maximumdemand per annumplus 3 paise per unit for additional Annual charge =Rs.500 x1+x
100 4380
units. Calculate his annual bill and equivalent fiat rate.
R s . (500+219:0) = Rs. 719
Ans. Given, Maximum demand (MD) = 20 A at 220 V
Energy consumed =8760 kWVh 719
Rate of charge = 20 P/unit for 500 houra used of M.D, per annum Overall cost/unit 43800 = 16.4 P
Ans
+3 P/unit of additional units. (u) Load factor =
0.2
2 0x 220 Energy consumed = 1752 kWh/year
M.D. in kW = 4.4 kW
we have, 1000
Energy consumed in 500 hours of MD per annum 335
500 x 4.4 2200 units O
Additional unit = 8760- 2200 = 6560 units

Annual bill =Rs. 100

x 2200+ 100 x6560
Rs. (440+ 196.8)
= Rs. 636.80 P Ans.
0.0 0.2 O4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Annual Bill
Flat rate Load factor
Units consumed/annum Fig.1. Effect of load factor on cos/unit
Rs. 636.80P
8760 Annual charge =Rs. 500x1+ x1752 1 0 0 7 5 2

= 7.26 P/unit Ans.

Rs. (500+87.6) Rs.587.4
 [32]- UNIT-I- [UTUI- B.Ittn.- ruwcn oinIUiv
n
Ans. Given. Maximum demand 5 kW
Overall cost/unit = Rs.5876. 33.6 P Ans. Two part tariff = Rs. 100/kW/annum + Re. 0. 1/unit
1752
Flat rate tariff = Rs. 0.15 per unit.
Figure 1 shows the effect of load factor on overall cost per unit generated.
Let number of units consumed by N
q.9. A customer is offered power at the rate of Rs. 60 per annum por kVA of maximum then annual charges/as per two part tariff = Rs. (5 x 100+0.1x N)
demand plus6 paise
per unit.
He proposes to install a motor of 300 BHP. The motor Rs. 0.15 xN
available has a power factor of 0.83 lagging at full load. How many units will bo Both should be same.
consumed at 30% load factor and what will be his annual bill ? The motor efficiency
is 90%.
5x 100+0.1x N =0.15 N
or 0.05 W = 500
Ans. Given, Tariff Res. 50/annum/kVA ofMD +5 P/unit
Power 300 BHP 500
N: = 1000 units
An
pf. = 0.83 lagging
0.05
Load factor = 30% = 0.3
The annual charges by both the tariffs will be same if 1000 units are consumed in
We have, Max. demand = 300x 0.7467(0.83 x 0.9) (1 HP = 0.746 kW]
ayea
223.87(0.83 x 0.9) kVA Q12. A generating station has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum loa
20 MW, the units generated being 60 x 105 per annum Caleulate the load factor a
300.0 kVA demand factor. If the tariff is Rs. 50 per kW+ Rs. 0.03 per kWh consumed, calcula
Energy consumed=0.3 x 300.00 x 8760
the annual bill.
790000 kWhrs Ans. Given, connected load = 40 MW
Maximum load = 20 MW

Annual bill =
Rs. |50 x 3000+
100
x 79 x10| Units generated/annum = 60* 10
Tariff = Rs. 50 kW+ Rs. 0.3/kWVh
Rs. (15 +3.95) x 104
Rs. 18.95 x 104 Ans. We have, Demand factor =- Maximum load
Connected load
whose load factor is 70% and has a
Q.10. What will be the annuaB bill ofa c o n s u m e r
maximum load
two
kW at 0.8 power
of 500
part tariff of the
factor
supply
lagging? The following data is available
system to which he is connected.
0.5 An
Tegarding the
()The fixed charges a r e Rs. 80 per kVA ofthe maximum demand consumer.
ofthe Load factor = ntS Benerated/annum
Max. demand x 8760
(ii) Running charges are 5 P/kWh consumed.
Load factor = 70% = 0.7
Ans. Given,
Maximum load = 500 kW
60 x 105
20 x10 x 8760
p.f. = 0.8 lagging
Rs. 80/kVA of MD 3
charges
Fixed =
= 0.343 Ar
5 P/kWh 8.76
Running charges =

Annual bill = Rs. (50 x 20x 103+0.03 x 60 x 106)

500 x 8760
energy consumed =0.7
x
We have, Rs. (1+1.8) x 10
= 3.07 x 106 kWh/annum
Rs. 2.8 x 10 Ar
Annual bill =Rs. x 80+x 3.07 x10
100 Q.13. Dscribe the concept of power factor. [UTU 2011-1
Rs. (5+ 15.35) x 10 Ans. The electric energy is almost generated, transmitted and distributed in the form
= Rs. 20.35 x 104 Ans. alternating current. Therefore, the question of power factor immediately comes into pietu
will justify part the two Most of the loads, i.e., 3-0 induction motors are inductive in nature and hence have low lagzi
to be consumed which
Q.11. Calculate the number of units data:
power factor. The low power is highly objectionable as it causes an increase in current resulti
tariff from the following in more losses.
tariffover flat rate 100 per a n n u m per kW of
maximum
Maximum demand 5 kW, Two part tariff Rs.
tariff Rs. 0.15 units.
unit consumed. Flat rate
demand plus Rs. 0.1 per
 T36)- UNITAI-[UTUJ - B.IECH.- PUWEM SIAIUN
PnALIIU
3. Arc (37]- UNITAI- [UTU]- B.TECH.-
lamps operate at very
poor power factor due to the inherent choracteristics of the POWER STATION PRACTICE
arc.
Let I be the load current at p.f. o drawn
4. cos
by the equipment as shown in Fig. 4.
Industrial heating furnaces, such as arc and induction furnaces operate at very p0or
cos
lagging power factor
6.
Inerease in reeults
supply voltage
in
during light loaddrawn
houra Buch during lunch time and during
as

inductive reactances which further

sin e
nght hme, more lagging current
result in poor power factor.
by
Fig. 4.
Mcthods of Avoiding Low Power Factor This current I can be resolved in two
compcn*nts, i.e.,
1. Synchronous motors may preferably be used as against induction motor. () cos is real component
2. High speed induction motors may be preferred over low epeed ones, aethey have high (i) sin o real reactive component
(lagging behind voltage V by 90)
power factors. Now, if a
capacitor is connected
in parallel with the
3. If possibleno induction motor should be worked at less than full load. Group
equipment, so that it draws additional
driving current, irom supply equal toI
sin o but leading voltage V
by 90°, then the two reactive
may be preferred as against individual driving.if induction motors are used. So thatcomponentsbalance and power factor becomesunity.
the group motor may be worked at near full load. Thus. the value of capacitance Cis to be determined which can draw current "T sin$'.
4. If motors are be used for longer
3-phase induction to periods at lese than half
statorwindings normally in delta may be switched over to star. This improves efficiency
load, Let V =
Phase voltage of the supply
I = Phase current
and also power factor.
Thus 1. =
Current drawn
5. If possibled.c. motors may be used, driven by synchronous motor
generator set in
by capacitance should be equal to I sin ¢
preference to a.c. motors. This provides an added advantage of better speed control.
The Most
= IsinÙ =
Iy1 cos2
-

Economical Power Factor: Due to the low power factor the size of
the
generating station and transmission system has to be bigger. So electrical supply
might change on the basis of kVA demand. For the same kW demand if the undertakings =
Iy1- (cos 4 ...)
improvedkVA demand will reduce and the consumer will pay less as the demand power factor is
he has to pay for power factor improvement charge. But But
apparatus. So, the power factor should be adjusted
to such value so that the total cost is minimum.

Q.16. Explain the different methods of avoiding low power factor. But 1
Ans. Methods of Improving Power Factor: The methods used for
improving the power
2nfe
factor are given as under. I. =Vx2rfe
Comparing () and (i) ..ii)
By the Use of Static Condenser: Power factor can be improved by connecting the
static
condenser/capacitor in parallel with the equipment, whose power factor is to be improved. This
condenser draws current
leading by 90° from the supply voltage, which neutralises to somne =Vx 2f.= I1-(co8
extent the reactive lagging component of load current and thus improves the
power factor.
Capacitors can be connectèd either in star or in delta as shown in 3 and Fig. (a) (6) respectively. C
2aXyl-(cos )*
This is the value ofC if
capacitors are connected in star. If the capacitors are connected in
delta, then the value of capacitance to be connected, which makes the p.f. unity, is given by
Load Load

C
2nfV
Fig. 3. (a) Star connected capacitors (b) Delta connected capacitors By the Method of Synchronous Condensers

Static capacitors have smalllosses and require no maintenance specially in small sizes. The Synchronous motor when used. for improving the power factor of the system is made to run
exact value of capacitors
to be connected across
the 1or equipment improving ne
power factor
at no load and is connected in
parallel to the system whose power factor is to be improved
canbe determined as follows: ae Synchronous motor can be made to run at any power factor. When the synchronous motor is
Over-excited it works at leading power factor and when it is under
excited, it works at lagzing
power factor.
 38)- UNIT-I- [UTU] -

B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICEE

[39 UNIT-I- [UTU]-
B.TECH. POWER STATION PRACTICE
R- =+M
condensera, then these should be installed at the receiving end of
not only the generatora and transformers which transmission line so that it is
carry the reduced current as a
the power factor but the transmission line is also result of improving
relieved of canrying excessive
If current.
synchronous condensers are installed near the generators, then only
carry the reduced current and transmission lines may have to still generators ahall
to its own low power factor. carry excessive current due
| SYN
[Motor] Q.18. What are the
advantages of improved power factor?
Ans. Advantages of Improved Power Factor
1. Since with the
improvement of power factor, current gets reduced, the same
now if carries the rated current at equpment
Thus kW capacity of alternators,
improved p.f. its kW capacity shall get increased
Fig.55. transforme-s and transmission lines is increased with
An over-excited synchronous motor, the improvement of
power factor.
of the system is known as
working at nio load used for improving the power factor 2. For the same power
synchronous condenser. The word condenser is used as it draws output, the current gets reduced with the limprovement
leading curent like a condenser. regulation of the line is improved. of p.f. sc
If number of induction motors are 3. Because current gets reduced, as a result of
working in workshop, the power factor of the system p.f. improvement, of any plant, so
shall be very poor. The power factor is made to losses are reduced and hence the
efficiency of plant is increased coppe
improve by connecting synchronous motor in 4. The overall cost
parallel with the supply. Let1,
be the current drawn by all the
induction motors per unit also decreases.
at p.f,
cos
M be the current drawn by the synchronous motor working at leading power factor cos M Q.19. A single phase
motor takes a current of 10 A at a
as shown in Fig. 5. power factor of 0.707 lagging
from a 280 volts,
60 cs supply. What value must a
Then total current drawn from the the power factor to unity? shunting condenser have to raise
supply is vector sum of I, and Iy and is equal to.l =
L+MThis is shown in phasor diagram of Fig. 6. Thus, the angle of lag ¢ of I from Vis reduced Ans. Let C be the capacitance in Farad's of a
from that of oz between 1 and V. And since angle has reduced, the power factor has improved. motor as shown in Fig. 7.
shunting conductor connected in parallel with the
Thus power factor has improved from cos to cos and if the excitation of synchronous motor
is adjusted properly, the power factor can be made
unity also. Single phase
10 motor

230 Volts
Fig. 6. Phasor diagram n= 1 0 A

By the Use of Phase Advancers Fig.7. Circuit diagram Fig.8. Phasor diagram
The power factor of induction motor is poor because of the exciting current drawn by from
it current drawn by the condenser leading voltage V by 90° shown in Fig. 8.
the mains which lags behind the voltage by 90°. Thispower factor
can be by
improved fitting ICurrent drawn by motor = 10 A
with the set a n a.c. excitor or phase advancer which Bupplies the exciting current to the rotor at Power factor of motor, cos =0.707
an excitor can either be fitted on the same shaft as that
of motor or it can
sip frequency. Such 45
economical for motor size
be suitably driven from it. Use of phase advancers is generally not
a
sin o= 0.707
below 200 HP. Active component of current drawn by motor

Q.17. Explain the location of power factor improvement

apparatus. m co8=10 x0.707 =
7.07 A
The most appropriate location Reactive component of current drawn by motor
Ans. Location of Power Factor Improvement Apparatus:
where the apparatus responsible for low power , sin = 10x0.707 7.07 Alagging voltage Vby 90
=

for the power factor improvement equipment is, reactiv1

In order that power factor of the system may become unity, condenser C must draw
factor is opr i ating. So that leading component drawn by condense
factor is to be improved by installing eynchronous leading voltage
the
component= 7.07 A by 90°.
In case of transmission line, if the power
 UNIT-II- [UTUJ- 8.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE
40]- UNIT-I- [UTu] - B.TECH,- POWER STATION PRACTICE [41]-
103.5 kVAR
drawn from the =214 0.841
and lagging component drawn by motor cancel each other and only component, supplied by bank of capacitoors
kVA of the load by Therefore, reactive power
supply then is Reactive represented 110.5 kVAR
BA = 500 tan = 500 x 0:75 =375 kVAR 214 103.5
R
Motor load including losses represented by BC= 125 kW
Total load including motor load represented by
OC 500 + 125 625 kW B

New pówer factor cos ;=0.9

Sin o, = 0.44
and

tan o 0.44
0.9
0.49
New reactive kVA represented by CID = 625 tan 0
6 2 5 x 0.49 =306 kVAR
motor represented
Fig. 9. Capacitor bank (delta connection)
Reactive kVA neutralised by leading reactive component of synchronous 110.5kVAR
Thus, neglecting losses in the capacitors, the rating of the capacitor bank
=

by
CE =375 306 6 9 kVAR (ii a) If the capacitors are delta connected a s shown in Fig. 9.
Thus, synchronous motor works with leading p.f.
a cos o, having active component
BC 125 kW then
3 VL IL sin Q =110.5
Reactive component = CE = 69 kVAR 1000
and

kVA of synchronous motor =BE= y(BC) + (CE)"

sin = 1 as capacitors have current, leading voltage by 90.
3x3.3 x I, x1 =110.5

142.5 kVA Ans.

ya25) +(69)2 =

110.5 A
Q:20. A 250 HP 3300 V, 50 cls, 3 phas star connected induction
motor has a full load 3x x 3.3*19.3
efficiency of86%
and power factor of 0.707 lagging. It is desired improve the power
to phase current=current in the capacitor
factor to 0.9 connecting capacitors in the motor circuit.
lagging by 3 19.3
Calculate: 1l1.10 A
() The kVA rating of the capacitor bank.
(i) The capacitance of cach unit if capacitors connected (a) in mesh, (b) in
star.
the are
Reactance of each capacitor = X = Voltage across each capacitor
Current in each chapter
Ans.

250 x 735.5 1 3300

= 214 kW
() Input of induction motor =

0.86 1000
Or
X, 11.10 297 2
cOs 0.707

tan 1
45°
27fC =297
COs 0.9
or
2 25° 50 C27t x 50 x 297 Parads
tan d =0.4841
Originally reactive power of the motor 105
l 214 kVAR 100 x Tx 297
After improving the power factor,
P tan d= 214 x =

= 10.7 uF
Reactive power of the motor (ii b) If the capacitors Ans.
=P tan o2 are star connected as shown in Fig. 10 current in each
capacitor
19.3 A 17
 UNIT-I- [UTUJ- B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE
STATION PRACTICE 43]-
42]- UNITHI- [UTU]- B.TECH. POWER
R 1000 x 6.91
Voltage across each capacitor YO C Farads
Or 400 x 400 x 27 x 50
= Phase voltage =
3300y Bo

1000 x 6.91 x 10
X = Reactance of each capacitor F
400 x 400 x 100
Voltage across each capacitor
Current in each capacitor C 137.5uF
Fig. 10. Capacitor bank
3300 98.8 2 (star-connection) Describe the economics of power factor improvement. (UTU 2012
X 3 x 1.93 Q.21.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
Ans. ECONOMICS OF
is required to br
= 98.8
When power factor is to be improved, power factor improvement plant
the
X2 7C installed which involves some expenditure. Improvement of power factor results in reduction o
maximum demand charges annually but extri
maximum demand which in turn reduces the
is to be increased every year in the form of interest and depreciation on account o
Farad expenditure
C2x x 50 x 98.8 investment made over the power factor improvement equipment.
If the yearly interest and depreciation on power factor improvement plant is more than th
10 Micro Farads 32.2 uF Ans. annual saving on account of maximum demand charge, it is
uneconomical to install powe
100 x tx 98.8 but the if the annual saving on account of maximun
factor improvement plant on contrary
result of factor improvement is more than the yearly interest an
0.95 by n e a n s of static condensers demand charge as a power
Q.21.It is desired to correct the power factor to power factor improvement plant, it is
advisable to install the power facto
three phase 400 V, 50 c/s motor installation having depreciation on
connected a c r o s s each phase of a factor of 0.75. What must be the capacity of improvement plant a s it is economical1
maximum load of 50 kVA at a power
a condenser?
The most economical power factor shall be when this net annual saving is maximum.
each delta connected Let Pbe the kW demand of the consumer represented by OC at power
factor cos o, shown i
kVAR to be supplied by the Condenser Bank
Ans. Leading Fig. 11.
=
(tan (1-tan Reactive component of load = CA
cos = 0.75, 41°24 = P tan
tan t a n 41°-24'= 0.8861
= 18° 12'
cOs20.95, 2
tan(18° 2) = 0.32888
tan o2
-

?1

kVAR to be supplied by the condenser

Leading = 50 x 0.75 (0.8816-0.3288)
37.5 x 0.5528 = 20.73

= 20.18 - 6.91 Fig.11. Phasor diagram

kVAR to be supplied by each condenser
Leading 3
P
=Phase current drawn by
each of capacitor kVA demand of the load = OA
cos

400 =400x 27f¢ If the power factor is improved to cos 2

X P
represented by OB
where c is the capacitance in each phase. New kVA of the load cos
400 x 400 x 21nfc
New kVAR =BC = P tan o2
kVAR of each phase.=VeIe=* 1000 to reduction in kVA demand.
of power factor improvement from , ,
cos cos
As a result
400 x 400 x 21fc
6.91 = OA- OB= P P
. 1000 Cos cos P2
 [44]-UNITAI- [UTU] -

B.TECH.- POWER STATION PRACTICE

kVAR neutralised by phase advancing plant AC- BC =
AB = cos y1-a0/60)?
If Rs. Xis the
P tan o- P ¢= P (tan -tan o,) tan =
i-1/36 =
V35/36
annual cost per kVA of the maximum
the phase
demand, and Re. Yis the annual cost ot
advancing plant per kVAR, then = 0.987
An
Annual saving in max. demand
Q.24. A consumer takes a steady kW at 0.707 power
load of 500 an
factor laggiag
cost Re.
pays Rs. 80 per kVA maximum
of per annum
demand static capacitors
Annual expenditure
- )-P per kVA. Determine the rating of the capacitors required for minimum overa
oxpenditure. Take interest and depreciation a s 10% per a n n u m .
on phase advancing plant Ans. For minimum overall expenditure, power factor should be most economical and conditic
Y P (tan 0 - tan ¢ for power factor cos to be most economical is that
For most economical power factor, annual saving "S" should be maximum.
cos 1-(YIx
S Px YP (tan - tan) where X = Rs. 80 per kVA per annum
cOs COs2
=Px (sec o-sec og- YP (tan j -
tan o Y =Rs. 200XI0 -
Rs. 20 per kVAR per annum
100
is
If "S" is to be maximum should be zero. (for capacitors kVA and kVAR are sam
doz
ds - PXsec og tan o2 + YPsec* o2 =0 cos (YIX¥ =V1- (20/80)--0.97
dez
(Assuming o as constant) sin o 1-(0.972 = 0.25 O 2 500W
YP sec 92 = PX sec e2 tan o2
Ysec X
sin =
tan
Y/X
o =
Xsin o, sec
d2 tan o, sin 20.25 =0.2575
cos2 0.94

Annual cost of phase advancing plant per kVAR Thus, for minimum expenditure, power factor = 0.97
Annual cost per kVA of maximum demand The given power factor is 0.707, i.e.,
cos 0.707, tan o,= 1.0 Fig. 12. Phasor diagram
cos
92yi-sin"p2 =h-(7/x? Thus, the power factor ehould be improved from 0.707 lagging to 0.97 lagging by sta
Thus cos 2 represents the most economical power factor. capacitor, therefore, rating of capacitors is givea by BC as shown in phasor
diagram of Fig.
Q.23. A factory takes a peak load of 2000 kW at a p.f. 0.707 1agging and is charged at BC AB-AC
=
500 (tan -tan
Rs. 60 per year per kVA of the maximum demand. phase advancing plant costs If the
Rs. 100 per kVAR, find the limit to which factory's power factor can be economically =
500(1 -

0.2575)
improved. Interest and depreciation totals 10% of capital cost of phase advancing =
500 x 0.7425
plant. 371.25 kVAR Ar
Ans. Most economical power factor at which factory can work is given by

cos OO
where = Annual cost of phase advancing plant per kVAR
X =Annual cost per kVA of max. demand
In the given problem
100 x 10
Y = Rs. 10 per kVAR per
100
X =Rs. 60 per kVA/annum.