Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

Rock Mechanics ( ECE813)

Unit 3
Objectives : The aim of this lesson is to understand the important physical properties &
mechanical properties of rocks and their determination.

3.1 Introduction
Engineering properties of rocks is a collective nomenclature which includes all such properties of
rocks that are relevant to engineering application after their extraction from natural beds or without
extraction i.e. in-situ conditions. The first set include all those properties for which a rock must be
tested for selection as a material for construction such as a building stone, road stone or aggregate
for concrete making. The second set of the properties include the qualities of a natural bed rock as
and where it exists. That would determine its suitability or otherwise as a construction site for a
proposed engineering project. Obviously, in both cases, the economy and safety of an engineering
project are greatly dependent upon the proper understanding and determination of the engineering
properties of rocks. Engineering properties of rock are controlled by the discontinuities within the
rock mass and the inherent properties of the intact rock. Therefore, engineering properties must
account for the properties of the intact rock and for the properties of the rock mass as a whole.

A combination of laboratory testing of small samples, empirical analysis, and field observations
should be employed to determine the requisite engineering properties. Rock properties can be
divided into two categories: intact rock properties and rock mass properties. Intact rock properties
are determined from laboratory tests on small samples typically obtained from coring, outcrops or
exposures along existing cuts. Common engineering properties typically obtained from laboratory
tests include specific gravity, point load strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, shear
strength, modulus, and durability.

3.2 Physical properties of rocks

In most of the engineering applications, rocks are used as building stones. A building stone may
be defined as a rock that can be safely used as a rough unit or as a properly cut and shaped block
or slab or column or sheet in different situation in an engineering construction. The following
physical properties are considered to be important for a rock to be used as a building material.

1. Density
2. Porosity
3. Permeability
4. Water Absorption value
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

3.2.1. Density
It is defined as weight per unit volume of a substance. But in the case of rock it is not only the
solid mineral matter which wholly accounts for the total volume of a given specimen. A part of
the rock may comprise of pores or open spaces, which may be empty, partly filled or wholly filled
with water. Accordingly, three types of density may be distinguished in rocks. They are : a)Dry
density, b) bulk density and c) saturated density.

a) Dry density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock specimen, it includes
the volume of the pore spaces present in the rock.

b) Bulk density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural moisture content
where pores are only partially filled with water.
The most engineering calculations, it is the bulk density which is used frequently. Bulk density
values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones are granite-2.7, basalt-2.9, and
sandstone-2.6.

c) Saturated density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit volume of a rock
in which all the pores are completely filled with water. The fourth type is also recognized as true
density. It is the weight per unit volume of the mineral matter(without pores and water) of which
a rock s made up.

3.2.2. Porosity
Porosity is an important engineering property of rocks. It accounts for the fluid absorption value
of the stones in most cases and also that a higher porosity signifies a lesser density which generally
means a lesser compressive strength.

The shape, size and nature of packing of the grains of a rock give rise to the property of porosity
or development of pore spaces within a rock.

Numerically it is expressed as the ratio between the total volume of pore spaces and the total
volume of the rock sample. Porosity is commonly given in percentage terms. Presence of
interlocking crystals, angular grains of various sizes and abundant cementing materials are
responsible for low porosity of stones.

Conversely the rock will be highly porous it composed of spherical or rounded grains, (sandstone)
or if the cementing material is distributed unevenly or is of poor character.

Porosity values for a few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%, Basalt- 0.1 to 1%,
Sandstone- 5 to 25%, Limestone- 5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to 0.5%.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

3.2.3 Permeability
It is the capacity of a rock to transmit water. Sand stones and limestone may show high values for
absorption or 10% or even more. Selection of such highly porous verities of these stones for use
in building construction, especially in most situations, would be greatly objectionable. Presence of
water within the pores not only decreases the strength of the rock but also makes the stones very
vulnerable to frost action, in cold and humid climatic conditions.

3.2.4. Water Absorption/ Absorption Value

It defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours or till it
gets full saturation. It is generally expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the mass.
. It may be obtained from the relationship

Absorption Value = [ (Ws - W0) / (W0)] x100

Where Ws = weight at saturation; W0 = dry weight of the sample used.

3.3 Mechanical properties of rocks

Mechanical properties of rocks are those properties which shows the mechanical behaviour of the
rocks and are related to its strength. These includes: Compressive Strength, tensile Strength,
Elastic modulus, Abrasive Resistance, Hardness and toughness

Definitions and Determination by Test

3.3.1 Compressive Strength/ Crushing Strength

It may be defined as maximum force expressed per unit area which a stone can withstand. Any
force beyond the compression strength will cause a failure of the stone. Mathematically,
compressive strength is expressed by simpler method as follows:
Co = P / A
Where Compressive strength, P= Load at failure, A = Area of cross section of stone under P

The determination of compressive strength of a building stone involves making standard test
specimens (which are either cubes of 5cm side or cylinders of length: diameter ratio of 2 or 2.5).
These specimens are then loaded gradually one at a time after placing on the base plate of a
universal testing machine, till the first crack appears in the specimen. Any further loading will
crush the specimen. The compressive strength determined in this way using the above relationship
is called “unconfined or universal compressive strength”. Because the test specimen has no
lateral support.
When the compressive strength is tested by a method providing a lateral support , as by keeping
the specimen in a special cell filled with a liquid under pressure. The value obtained, then it is
called as confined or triaxial compressive strength.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

The crushing strength of a rock depends on a number of factors, such as its i. Mode of formation
ii. Composition iii. Texture and structure iv. Moisture content and v .extent of weathering it has
already suffered Igneous rocks are crystalline rocks. They are compact and characterized by
interlocking in texture and uniform in structure.

These rocks possess very high crushing strengths compared to sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks. In the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, the presence of planes of weakness along
bedding planes, foliation and schistosity and cleavage, greatly affects the compressive strength,
both in direction and magnitude. The sand stone may show a very low crushing strength when
loaded parallel to bedding planes than when loaded perpendicular to the same structure. Except
for sandstone, quartzite and most other sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are composed of clays,
calcareous and hydrated silicate minerals which are inherently weak is strength. Crushing strengths
of common types of building stones are generally higher than the loads that they are supposed to
withstand, in ordinary type of building constructions.
The compressive strengths of some rocks and their range are as follows:
Dolerite=1500-3500 Kg/cm2,
Basalt= 1500-3500 Kg/cm2,
Quartzite=1500-300 Kg/cm2,
Granite= 1000-2500 Kg/cm2,
Marbles=700- 2000 Kg/cm2,
Sand Stone= 200-2500 Kg/cm2,
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

During the last few years thousands of tests have been made to classify the rocks on the basis of
uniaxial compressive strength into grades. The following classification proposed by Deere and
Miller has been found useful.
______________________________________________________________________________
Class Description Uniaxial compressive strength (Kg/cm2)
______________________________________________________________________________
A Very high strength More than 2240
B High strength 1120—2240
C Medium strength 560—1120
D Low strength 280—560
E Very low strength less than 280
______________________________________________________________________________

3.3.2 Flexible strength or Elastic Modulus properties of rocks

The elasticity of rocks indicates their deformation under loads. The deformation is recovered when
loads are removed. It is determined in accordance with Hook’s law which states that in elastic
substances stress is directly proportional to strain. It is expressed by the relationship :

E =Q/E

Where Q= stress, E= Strain, E= Modulus of elasticity, It is also termed as young’s modulus.

It is tested for rocks by loading test specimens usually a cylinder of L/D ratio 2, Under uniaxial
compression and sometimes tension. The axial deformation i.e. change in parallel to stress
direction is determined at the application of each increment of load using strain gauges. This
process of loading and determining the strain is continued till the specimen actually breaks. That
is the ultimate limit up to which the specimen could be deformed. The limit up to which it remains
elastic i.e. recovers the original shape when the load is removed is reached slightly earlier. Rocks
are highly anisotropic so far as their elastic constants are concerned. They show all varieties
ranging from perfectly elastic to practically inelastic. This depends on their composition, texture
and structures. It is possible to broadly group the rocks into three categories, based on their
Modulus of elasticity.

3.3.3. Tensile Strength

Tensile strength of a rock is related to its ability to withstand breakage. It happens after some level.
That level is its strength. It may be determined directly or indirectly. The tensile (pulling) strength
that has to be applied to a material to break it. It is measured as a force per unit area. The direct
method would require elaborate means to avoid bending while applying tensile forces by gripping
the specimens at the ends.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

Since tensile stresses are seldom required accurately, an indirect method is commonly applied. The
indirect method is called the Brazilian test.

Brazilian Test consists of loading a test cylinder diametrically in such a way that the applied loads
would develop tensile rupturing along the diametrical plane of the specimen. Loads are gradually
increased till the cylinder fractures. The load P, at rupture being thus known. Transverse strength
Ts is calculated by using the formula :

Ts = (2P /µDL)

D = diameter of the specimen; L = length of the specimen

3.3.4 Los Angeles abrasion test

It is used to measure the toughness and abrasion resistance of aggregate such as crushing,
degradation and disintegration. This test is carried out by AASHTO T 96 or ASTM C 131:
Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los
Angeles Machine.

The aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are subjected to wearing due to
movement of traffic.

When vehicles move on the road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic tyres and road
surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel rimmed wheels of animal driven vehicles
also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

Therefore, the road aggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to abrasion
of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test machine.

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of standard steel
balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number of
revolutions also causes impact on aggregates.

The percentage wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is known
as Los Angeles Abrasion Value.

Apparatus for Los Angeles Test

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:

1. Los Angeles Machine

2. Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and each
weighing between 390 to 445 g; six to twelve balls are required.
3. Sieve: 1.70, 2.36, 4.75, 6.3, 10, 12.5, 20, 25, 40, 50, 63, 80 mm IS Sieves.
4. Balance of capacity 5 kg or 10 kg
5. Drying oven
6. Miscellaneous like tray

Procedure for Los Angeles Test

The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105° – 110°C.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

1. Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the grading to be used in
construction, to the maximum extent possible.
2. Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for gradings E, F & G.
3. Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on grading of aggregates.
4. Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and fix the cover.
5. Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute. The number of
revolutions is 500 for gradings A, B, C & D and 1000 for gradings E, F & G. The
machine should be balanced and driven such that there is uniform peripheral speed.
6. The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions and material is
discharged to a tray.
7. The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.
8. The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one gram.

Observations of Los Angeles Test

Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 – W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 – W2 ) / W1 X 100

3.3.5 Attrition Test by Deval Attrition Test Machine

AIM : This attrition test is conducted to determine the resistance power of stone against the
grinding action. This test is mainly conducted to find out the suitability of a particular action.

Procedure of Attrition Test on Stones

For the attrition test, 5 kg of broken angular pieces of stones is placed in both the cylinders of
Deval’s attrition testing machine. The cylinders are kept in an inclined position such that their
axis makes an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal. Now, the cylinders are rotated at the rate
of 30 r.p.m (Revolution per minute) for 5 Hours.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

Later on, these pieces are removed from the cylinders and passed through a 1.5 mm sieve. The
quantity of stones pieces retained on the sieve is weighed. And by this.

The Loss of weight of the sample can be calculated. The percentage of wear can be calculated as:

Stones which should have a greater percentage of wear are unsuitable for road construction.

DESIRABLE RESULT: Percentage of wear : Equal to or less than 10%

3.3.6 Impact test for Toughness

The mechanical property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement
of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down
into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their
disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test.

The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may
differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:

1. A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a painted lower surface
of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on level and plane concrete floor of minimum
45 cm thickness. The machine should also have provisions for fixing its base.

2. A cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 102 mm, depth 50 mm and minimum thickness 6.3 mm.

3. A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being cylindrical in shape, 50
mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge and case hardened. The
hammer should slide freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup. Free fall of
hammer should be within 380±5 mm.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

4. A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth 50 mm for measuring
aggregates.

5. Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.

6. A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to 0.1 g.

3.3.7. Triaxial Shear test

A triaxial shear test is a common method to measure the mechanical properties of many solids,
especially soil and rock. There are several variations on the test.
In a triaxial shear test, stress is applied to a sample of the material being tested in a way which
results in stresses along one axis being different from the stresses in perpendicular directions. This
is typically achieved by placing the sample between two parallel platens which apply stress in one
(usually vertical) direction, and applying fluid pressure to the specimen to apply stress in the
perpendicular directions.
The application of different compressive stresses in the test apparatus causes shear stress to
develop in the sample; the loads can be increased and deflections monitored until failure of the
sample.
Prof (Dr ) S Rehan Ali

During the test, the surrounding fluid is pressurized, and the stress on the platens is increased until
the material in the cylinder fails and forms sliding regions within itself, known as shear bands. The
geometry of the shearing in a triaxial test typically causes the sample to become shorter while
bulging out along the sides. The stress on the platen is then reduced and the water pressure pushes
the sides back in, causing the sample to grow taller again. This cycle is usually repeated several
times while collecting stress and strain data about the sample.
From the triaxial test data, it is possible to extract fundamental material parameters about the
sample, including its angle of shearing resistance, and apparent cohesion. These parameters are
then used in computer models to predict how the material will behave in a larger-scale engineering
application.
Prof S Sehan Ali