Chemistry 3U Exam

Review
Changes in Matter
Chemical= difficult to reverse, heat or light is produced, gas is formed, new colour,
precipitate
Physical= change in form or state

Definitions
• Heterogeneous mixture- see different components (pizza)
• Homogeneous mixture- everything is mixed so they appear as one substance
(kool-aid)
• Element- pure substance that cannot be broken down; 1 type of atom
• Compound- a pure substance that is composed or 2 or more atoms chemically
combined in a fixed proportion
• Atom- the basic unit of an element
• Molecule- the simplest structural unit of an element or compound

Pure Substances
• Solids-most a crystalline, are regular shapes with flat sides (faces), all faces are
90° to one another
• Gases- don’t have a definite shape or volume; they always fill their containers
• Liquids- don’t have a regular or fixed shape; always take the shape of their
container
• Kinetic Theory- solids are made up of particles that are close together and not
moving about. When a solid is heated the particles vibrate faster. At the melting
point they begin to move around, but remain close to keep a definite volume. As
the liquid is heated, the particles increase their speed and take up more room.
At the boiling point the particles are moving fast enough to escape from one
another and the liquid becomes a gas.

Making a Pure Substance

• Magnetic Separation- magnets separate iron and steel from other non-
magnetic metals.
• Flotation- Metal ores usually have a different density from the soil in which they
are found, and the ore may be floated off using oil, sometimes water.
• Filtration- the substances which dissolve may be separated from those that
don’t.
• Sedimentation- Insoluble solids can usually be separated from liquids by
allowing the solid to settle.
• Evaporation- this method is used to obtain any dissolved solid from a solution.
• Distillation- the whole process of evaporating a liquid and then condensing it
again
• Chromatography- as the substance become spaced out they are separated
from one another.

Line Spectra
• A wave has maximum and minimum values called crests and troughs,
respectively. The distance between successive crests and successive troughs is
known as the wavelength. Wavelengths of visible light is usually measured in
nanometers (nm)
• Electromagnetic energy- is commonly known as light energy.
• Frequency- of a light wave is the number of cycles that pass a point in a second
• Line Spectrum- consists of distinct colored lines rather than a rainbow.

The Bohr Model of the Atom

• The energy of electrons is quantized
• An electron that occupies a higher energy level is said to be in an excited
state
• If the electron is found in the lowest possible energy level it’s in the ground
state

Atoms and their Composition

• Atomic #- # of protons/ electrons in a stable atom
• Mass #- total # of protons and neutrons in a stable atom
• (Mass#-Atomic #)=# of neutrons
• Isotopes- are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
• Radioisotope- unstable isotope which undergoes radioactive decay

Atoms-Inside Story
• Protons- positive, in nucleus, mass of 1

• Neutrons- neutral, in nucleus, mass of 1

• Electrons- negative, move in the space around nucleus, mass of 1/2000

• Standard Atomic Notation- write the chemical symbol of the atom and place
the atomic number to the lower left and the mass number to the upper left

• Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams- circle drawn in the centre to represent the

nucleus of the atoms, the numbers of protons and neutrons are written in it.
Electrons are shown in the circular orbits around the nucleus.

Valence Electrons
• 1st max=2
• 2nd max=8
• 3rd max= 18
• 4th max= 32
• 5th max= 50

Atoms, Elements and the Periodic Table

• Elements are arranged in seven number periods (horizontal rows) and 18
numbered groups (vertical columns)
• Groups are numbered according to 2 different systems. The current system
numbers the groups from 1-18. An older system numbered the groups from I-VIII,
and separates them into two categories labelled A and B.
• Elements in the eight A groups are the main-group elements. Also called the
representative elements. The elements in the ten B groups are known as the
transition elements.
• Within the B group transition elements are two horizontal series of elements
called inner transition elements. They usually appear below the main periodic
table. Notice, however, that they fit between the elements in Group 3 (IIB) and
group 4 (IVB)
• A bold staircase line runs from the top of group 13 (IIA) to the bottom of group
16 (VIA). This line separates the elements into three broad classes: metals,
metalloids (semi-metals) and non-metals.
• Group 1 (IA) elements are known as the alkali metals. They react with water
to form alkaline or basic solutions.
• Group 2 (IIA) elements are known as alkaline earth metals. They react with
oxygen to form alkaline solutions.
• Group 17 (VIIA) elements are known as the halogens. They combine with
other elements to form compounds called salts.
• Group 18 (VIIIA) elements are known as the noble gases. Noble gases don’t
combine naturally with any other element.
• Periodic Trends are patterns that are evident when elements are organized by
their atomic numbers
• Energy Levels are fixed, three dimensional volume in which electrons travel
around the nucleus.
• Lewis Structures a symbolic representation of the arrangement of the valence
electrons of an element.
• Stable Octet an arrangement of 8 electrons in the valence shell of an atom.
• Periodic Law states that the chemical and physical properties of the elements
repeat in a regular, periodic patter when they are arranged occurring to their
atomic numbers.

Arranging Elements in the Periodic Table

• Metals are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile, and
malleable.
• Non-Metals are dull in colour, good insulators and brittle.
• Metalloids are used to make semiconductors
• John Newlands (1884) introduced the concept of octaves since he noticed
that the properties of elements seemed to reoccur after every eighth one.
• Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) organized all the known elements by relative atomic
mass and noticed that the properties of the elements were periodic function of
that mass.

Trends within Groups and Rows

• As one moves down a column or group in the periodic table one notices the
following tendencies.
• Metals get softer the further down one goes 2. The reactivity of metals increases
3. The reactivity of non-metals decreases 4. The boiling point of non-metals
increases
• As one moves across a row or period from the left to right one notices the
following tendencies
• The metallic nature of the elements decreases until they become non-metallic 2.
The reactivity declines until the middle of the row and then increases until the
noble gases are reached where it rabidly declines.

The Atomic Model and the Periodic Table

• An ion is an electrically charged particle formed when an atom gains or losses
electrons.
• Photo-ionization uses light energy to remove electrons from an atom while
electron bombardment uses fast moving electrons to form ions.
• The energy released when a neutral atom attracts an extra electron is called its
electron affinity. All these observations can be summed up as follows:
• Metals react by losing electrons. The lower the first ionization energy, the more
reactive is the metal.
• Non-Metals (except the noble gases) react by gaining electrons. The higher the
first ionization energy and the higher the electron affinity the more these non-
metals attract extra electrons and hence they are more reactive.
• Noble gases are very unreactive because they have stable electron
arrangements and do not easily lose or gain electrons. Helium has two electrons
in its full outer energy level and others have eight electrons.
• As you go down each group in the periodic table, the size of an atom increases.
• As you go across a period, the size of an atom decreases.
• Ionization energy tends to decrease down a group
• Ionization energy tends to increase across a period.

Ionic and Covalent Bonds

• Ionic Bonding- electron transfer between metal atoms and non-metal atoms
• IDE- binary compound (2 element compounds)
• Bonding by sharing “e” does not involve electrostatic charges

Comparing Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Property Ionic Compound Covalent Compound
State at room temp. Crystalline solid Liquid, gas or solid
Melting point High Low
Electrical Conductivity Yes No
in liquid
Solubility in water Most have high solubility Most have low solubility
Conducts electricity Yes Not usually
when dissolved in
water

Electron Sea Bonding

• The force that holds metal atoms together is called metallic bonding
• Electrons are free to move, the metal ions are not rigidly held in a lattice
formations, therefore, when a hammer pounds a metal, the atoms can easily
slide past one another.
• Polar Bonds- the shared electrons are strongly pulled to the more
electronegative atoms
• Delta –δ
• Non-Polar Bonds- both atoms exert a similar pull on the shared electrons

Predicting Bond Type

Number of Valence Electrons Bond Type
One of the bonding atoms has less than half the max IONIC
number of valence electrons (1,2,3) except for hydrogen;
i.e., metals are involved
Both of the bonding atoms have half or more of their max COVALENT
number of valence electrons; i.e., both are non-metals

Why and How Atoms Combine

• Octet Rule- When atoms form ions or combine in compounds they obtain
electron configurations of the nearest noble gas (usually this means that
there will be 8 outer electrons)
• Covalent bonding- 2 non-metals; electrons are shared instead of transferred
• Ionic bonding- non-metal and a metal
• Ionic bonding involves the formation of ions: metals lose electrons to become
positive ions, non-metals gain electrons to become negative ions

Polarizations
• Electronegativity is the tendency for an atom to attract the shared electrons
inn a covalent bond more strongly to itself.
• Polar Covalent Bonds- atoms have significantly different electronegativities
• Electron pairs that are not involved in bonding are called lone pairs
• Electron pairs that are involved in bonding are called bonding pairs

Polar and Non-Polar Bonding

• Dipole-Dipole δ+ is attracted to δ-
• Hydrogen Bonding- H with N, O or F
• Dispersion Force- the natural force between molecules (like methane)
Water- boiling point 100C, melting point 0C, # of electrons 10e-
Methane- boiling point-161C, melting point -183C, # of electrons 10e-

Writing Chemical Formulas and Naming Chemical Compounds

• Chemical Nomenclature is a system of naming chemical species including
elements, ions and compounds

• some elements were named after their appearance or source

• some elements were named after famous people or places (Einsteinium,

Californium)

• some elements were named after their properties (gold (Aurium) means
shining dawn)

• some are named creatively (Mercury, Cobalt)

• Losing an electron forms a cation

• Gaining an electrons forms an anion

• Metatomic ions have only one element; metatomic anions end in IDE
Formulas and Naming Compounds
• Binary Compounds- 2 elements; the name of the first element and the periodic
table name of the second element ending in IDE. (Lithium fluoride)
• Prefix System (covalent bonding)- 1-mono; 2-di; 3-tri; 4-tetra; 5-penta; 6-
hexa; 70hepta; 8-octa; 9- nona; Ex Cl2O = Dichlorine (mono)oxide
• Suffix System (ionic bonding)- When multivalent metal atoms have only 2
valence the high charged is assigned the ending –IC and the lower is assigned
the ending –OUS. Ex FeCl3= Ferric Chloride; Hg2O= Mercurous Oxide
• Stock System (ionic bonding)- this system simple puts the charge that is
being used by the first element in brackets and Roman numerals after the
element name Ex. Iron (III) Chloride
• Acids-consist of one or more hydrogen ions in front of radicals consisting of a
non-metallic element, in some cases, oxygen. These normal oxyacids all end in
-ATE- the word hydrogen followed by the radical name ending in ate. They can
also be referred to by the nonmetallic element in the compound ending in -IC,
followed by the word acid. No oxygen= hydro-IC ;2oxygen atoms less than
normal= hypo-ous ;1 oxygen atom less than normal=-ous; normal=-IC ;1 oxygen
atom more than normal= per-IC
• Radicals- these are a combination of different atoms that have a charge equal
to the number of hydrogen atoms they normally combine with. (look at chart in
notes)
• Bases- most cases made by a metal followed by the hydroxide radical. Bases
are named by taking the name of the metal and having it followed by the word
hydroxide. When the metal is of a valence greater than 1+ the hydroxide must
be put on brackets and have the criss-crossed valence number placed outside
the bracket.
• Salts- are named by naming the metal or ammonium radical first than by
naming the radical that is involved. When an acid and a base react he products
are salt and water.
• Polyprotic Acids- these are acids that can give off more than one hydrogen
atom. When only one or two hydrogens are given off the metal or ammonium ion
that replaces it creates and ACID SALT. The single hydrogen tern can also be
replaced with the prefix bi as in sodium bicarbonate instead of sodium hydrogen
carbonate. The prefix system is used in naming these products.

Acids Reacting with Bases

• Monoprotic Acids- contain only one hydrogen ion that can dissociate.
• Diprotic Acids- contains 2 hydrogen ions that can dissociate. Give rise to two
possible salts
• Triprotic Acids- contain 3 hydrogen ions; give rise to 3 possible salts.

Chemical Equations
• Steps to correctly putting a chemical equation together
• 1. The word equation
• 2. Constructing the skeletal/ skeleton equation - convert words into the correct
chemical formulae
• 3. Balancing the skeletal equation to observe the "law of conservation of matter"
we use coefficients to do this.
Types of Reactions
• 1. Synthesis - X+Y>XY
• 2. Decomposition- PQ> P+Q
• 3. Single Replacement- X + YZ>Y +XZ
• 4. Double Replacement- PQ+RS> PS+RQ

Naming Compounds -A Summary

• Write the name of the element with the lowest electonegativity first. If this
element has more than one valence, indicate the valence in the compound using
roman numerals

Guidelines for Balancing Equations

• 1.Balance the element, other than hydrogen and oxygen, that has the greatest
number of atoms in any reactant or product
• 2. Balance the other elements, other than hydrogen and oxygen
• 3. Balance oxygen and hydrogen, whichever one is present in the combination
state. Leave until last whichever one is present in the uncombination state.
• 4. Check that the equation is balanced by counting the number of atoms of each
element on each side of the equation
• Physical states must be shown ! L, S, Aq, G

Simple Nuclear Reactions

• Rules for Balancing Nuclear Equations
• 1. The sum of the mass numbers (written as subscripts) on each side of the
equation must balance.
• 2. The sum of the atomic numbers (written as subscripts) on each side of the
equation must balance.
• Alpha Decay(α)- involves the loss of one alpha particle, which is a helium
nucleus, 42He, composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
226 222 4
88Ra> 86Rn + 2He

• Beta Decay (β) - occurs when an isotope emits an electron, called a beta
particle. Represented as 0-1e 3 3 0
1H> 2He + -1e
1 1 0
0n> 1H + -1e
• Gamma Radiation (γ)- is high energy electromagnetic radiation. Often
137 137 0
accompanies either alpha or beta particle emission. 35Cs> 56Ba + -
0
1e + 0γ
Mode Change In……………………………………
Mass Numbers Atomic Numbers Number of
Neutrons
(α) -4 -2 -2
(β) 0 +1 -1
(γ) 0 0 0
• Nuclear Fission- occurs when a highly unstable isotope splits into smaller
particles. Usually has to be induced in a particle accelerator. Here, an atom can
absorb a stream of high energy particles like neutrons, 10n. This will cause the
atom to split into smaller fragments. 23592U+10n>8735Br+14657La+310n
• Nuclear Fusion- occurs when a target nucleus absorbs an accelerated particle.
The reaction that takes place in a hydrogen bomb is a fusion reaction, as are the
reactions that take place within the Sun. Fusion reactions require very high
temp. to proceed but produce enormous amounts of energy. The fusion reaction
that takes place in a hydrogen bomb is > 63Li + 10n > 31H +42He

How to Calculate Average Atomic Mass

Average Atomic Mass = Relative mass of Isotope A + Relative mass of Isotope B +
Relative mass of
Isotope C + ...... etc.
Relative Mass of Isotope A= percentage abundance of isotope A X mass of isotope A
Relative Mass of Isotope B= percentage abundance of isotope B X mass of isotope B
ETC………………………………
Percentage abundance should be shown as a fraction… 72% > 72/100
EXAMPLE : B-10; 19.78% abundance , atomic mass of 10.01 u B-11; 80.22%
abundance, atomic mass of 11.01u
Step 1. Determine the relative mass of each isotope
Relative mass of B-10= 19.78/100 X 10.01= 1.9799u
Relative mass of B-11= 80.33/100 X 11.01= 8.8322u
Step 2. Put the answers from step 1 into the following equation
Average atomic mass = relative mass of B-10 + relative mass of B-11
So the average atomic mass of Boron= 1.9799u + 8.8322u
Therefore the average atomic mass of boron is 10.81u

How to Count Atoms

• Symbol of an element represents 1 atom of that element (Na= 1 atom)
• Subscript (lower right, behind symbol) indicates how many atoms there are
(Na3= 3 Na atoms)
• Subscript outside a bracket multiples all the elements inside the bracket
(Mg3(PO4)2= 3 Mgs, 2 PO4s)
• Coefficient in front of a chemical formula indicates the number of molecules of
that compound 2H2O= 4 H and 2 O . 2 lots of H2O

Avagadro’s Number
6.02X1023

Converting Moles to Number of Particles and Converting

Number of Particles to Moles
N N= number of particles n=number of moles NA=
Avagadro’s Number

n NA

Converting from Mass to moles and Converting from Moles of

mass
 m m= actual or given mass of a substance n=number of moles M=molar mass
of the substance

n M

Converting Between Moles, Mass and Number of Particles

N=mNA/M m=NM/NA M=mNA/N

The Law of Definite Proportions

The law of definite proportions states that the elements in a chemical compound are
always present in the same proportions. Another way of stating it is to say that a
specific compound has the same composition anywhere in the universe.

Different Compounds from the Same Elements

The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements combine to form
more than one compound, the masses of one element will combine with a fixed
mass of the other element in small, whole number ratios

Percentage Composition from a Chemical Formula

The law of definite proportions allows for practical calculations when the proportions
of elements in a compound are known. Proportions are often stated in the form of
percentage composition, which is the percent by mass of each element in a
compound. The percent composition can be determined by experiment or
calculated from the formula of a known compound.

Ex. What is the percentage composition of mercury in mercuric oxide (HgO) and
mercuric sulphide (HgS)
HgO: molar mass (M)= 200.59+16.00=216.59g/mol
So in HgO %Hg=200.59/216.59X100=92.6%
HgS: molar mass (M)= 200.59+32.07=232.66g/mol
So in HgS %Hg=200.59/232.66X100=86.2%

From %Composition to Simplest Formula

The simplest formula of a substance has all component elements present in it
reduced to their lowest numerical terms. This formula is referred to as the
EMPERICAL FORMUAL. C2H2>CH; N2O4>NO2

Empirical Formula of a Compound

1. Divide the element’s mass per 100 gram sample (% composition) by its own
molar mass
2. Divide each element’s number of moles by the SMALLEST of all calculated values
3. ONLY IF NECESSARY multiply the mole ratio by the SAME FACTOR to obtain
whole number answers
Element Mass/100g Molar Mass Number of Mole Ratio Revised
(m) (M)g/mol Moles (n) whole
number
ratio
 C 63.10 12.01 63.10/12.01 5.254/1.975 2.66x3= 8
= 5.254 = 2.66
H 5.31 1.01 5.31/1.01= 5.257/1.975 2.66x3= 8
5.257 = 2.66
O 31.60 16.00 31.60/16.00 1.975/1.975 1.00x3= 3
= 1.975 = 1.00

Molecular (Actual) Formula

We sometimes have to determine the molecular formula from the substance’s
empirical formula. To do this we follow all the same rules as before to find the
empirical formula and the providing we know the mass of the formula unit of the
molecule we can easily determine the molecular formula.
Element Mass in 100g # of moles Mole ration (Divide Whole #ratio
Sample (%value) (m/M) all by smallest # (X all by same
moles) factor, if
necessary)
C 39.95g 39.95/12=3.33 3.33/3.33=1
H 6.71g 9.71/1=6.71 6.71/3.33=2.01
O 100- 53.34/16=3.33 3.33/3.33=1
(39.93+6.71)=
53.34g
The empirical formula of this compound in CH2O and its mass is 30g
The molar mass is 180g so the number of empirical units in the real formula is
180/30=6
The molecular formula will be (CH2O)6 or C6H12O6

The Carbon-Hydrogen Combustion Analyzer

Used to determine the composition for organic compounds containing carbon and
hydrogen. Works according to the following principals:
• Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water
CaCl2(S)+2H2O(G)>CaCl2 . 2H2O(S)
• If the mass of the trap is take before the reaction and again following the
combustion of the compound, the amount of water can be determined.
• The carbon dioxide produced by the combustion reaction is collected in a similar
trap, this time containing NaOH
NaOH(S)+CO2(G)>NaHCO3(S)
• If the mass of the rap is determined before and after the combustion reaction,
the amount of carbon dioxide produced can be determined.
• Since all of the hydrogen in the compound must be converted into water, the
mass of hydrogen in the sample can be calculated using the following formula:
mass of water collected X (mass of hydrogen in water/molar mass of water)=
mass of hydrogen
• Similarly, the mass of carbon can be found using the mass of carbon dioxide
produced:
Mass of CO2(G) collected X (mass of carbon in CO2/ molar mass of CO2)= mass
of carbon
• If there is any oxygen in the sample, it can be determined using the law of
conservation of mass
Hydrated Ionic Compounds
• Many ionic compounds crystallize from a water solution with water molecules
incorporated into their crystal structure, forming a HYDRATE
• Hydrates have a specific number of water molecules chemically bonded in each
formula unit.
• Compounds that have no water molecules incorporated into them are called
ANHYDROUS to distinguish them from their hydrated forms.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry describes the chemical equations using mathematical relationships.
EX) how much chalk (CaCo3) can be made when 2.8 g CaO is reacted with excess
(XS) CO2?
Therefore 1g +(44/56g)= 100-59 (divide by 56)
So 2.8g+ (44/56g)X2.8g=100.56X2.8 (X by 2.8) Route 1 Method
Therefore 2.8g>>>>>>>>>>5 g chalk
(EX)Given 2.8 g +XS >>>?
Determine mole ration CaO:CaCO3 its is 1:1 from bal. equation. Find # mole CaO
used ie/ n=m/M = 2.8/56= 0.05 moles. Calc # mole CaCO3 that will result by using
mole ratio in bal equation.
Therefore 0.05 moles of CaO will produce 0.05X1=0.05 moles of CaO3. Convert
moles to mass M=nM. Therefore m CaCO3=0.05X100=5 g MOLE METHOD !

Percentage Yield
• The actual yield is the quantity of product that is actually produced in a
chemical reaction.
• The theoretical yield is the quantity of a product calculated from the balanced
equation.
• The percent yield is the ratio expressed as a percentage, of the actual or
experimental quantity or product obtained (actual yield) to the maximum
possible quantity of product (theoretical yield) derived from a Stoichiometric
calculation
• Percentage yield = actual yield/theoretical yield X100%

Determining the Limiting and Excess Reactant

• Limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up in a chemical
reaction
• Excess reactant is the reactant that remains after a reaction is over.
• CaF2+H2SO4(L)>2HF(G)+CaSO4(S)
10g 15.5g
78g + 66g
1g + 66/78g
So 10 g+ 66/78gX10
8.46g therefore CaF2 is the limiting reactant

Solutions
• If a solute (solid) dissolves in a solvent we say that it is soluble
• If it does not dissolve or dissolves only very slightly, we say that it is insoluble
• If a liquid dissolves in a solvent it is regarded as being miscible
• If one liquid does not dissolve in a solvent we say that it is immiscible
• Whether or not a solute will dissolve in a given solvent depends upon their
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, these are:
o Dispersion
o Dipole-Dipole forces (occur between polarized molecules which attract
each other)
o Hydrogen Bonds (special dipole-dipole attractions between hydrogen and
oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine in molecules)
• Concentration Of Solutions

n c= conc. mol L-1 n=# or moles of solute v= volume of

solution in L

C V

• Dilution of Solutions
If C1=n/V1 and C2=n/V2 > we get n=C1V1 and n=C2V2
Therefore C1V1=C2V2
• Concentration of Ions in Solution
K2SO4(S) > 2 K+(AQ) + SO42-(Aq)

Solutions
• The process of an ion forming intermolecular attractions with solvent particles is
called solution
• 1. The solute breaks apart > in ionic compounds, attractions among ions break
apart > in molecular substances, attractions among individual molecules break
apart
2. Attractions among solvent particles are overcome.
3. Attractions form among solute and solvent particles.
• 3 Factors that affect how quickly a solute dissolves are: temperature (dissolves
faster at higher temperature) stirring (increases speed and moves the solvent
particles towards the solute, creates intermolecular attractions faster) surface
area (provides a larger surface for which the solvent can act)

Expressing the Concentrations of Solutions

g/100mL Is a measure of mass of solute per 100mL of solution

(v/v) % Is a measure of volume of solute per volume of solution

(m/v) % Is a measure of mass of solute per volume of solution

(m/m) % Is a measure of mass of solute per mass of solution

Ppm Is a measure of mass of solute per million times more mass of

solution 1X106
Ppb Is a measure of mass of solute per billion times more mass of
solution 1X109

Ppt Is a measure of mass of solute per trillion times more mass of

solution 1X1012

mol/L Is a measure of amount in moles of solute per litre of solution

UNITS MUST BE THE SAME!!!!!

Solubility Rules
Soluble> more than 10grams per litre/ more than 0.1 moles per liter
Slightly or sparingly soluble> 1 gram to 10 grams per liter/ 0.01 to 0.1 moles per
liter
Insoluble> less than 1 gram per liter/ less than 0.01 moles per liter

Strategies for Solving Stoichiometric Problems

1. Write out the balance chemical equation
2. Set-up a table that contains the information provided in the balanced chemical
equation as well as the data given from the problem (mole ration, molar mass,
and given amount)
3. Convert the given mass to moles
4. Use the mole-to-mole ration to find the required number of moles of the second
substance
5. Convert the number of moles of the second substance into the desired quantity
(i.e., mass, molecules)
6. Write a concluding statement.

Water Treatment
1. Collection- large particles and debris are removed by travelling screens as the
water enters the treatment plant
2. Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation- chemicals known as
coagulants are rapidly mixed with the water to make the small particles in the
water clump together. Flocculation is gentle mixing to form a light, fluffy,
precipitate called a floc. During sedimentation the floc settles very slowly,
sinking and carrying suspended particles with it and thereby clearing the water.
3. Filtration- the reaming floc, other chemical and physical impurities, and most of
the biological impurities (bacteria, etc.) are removed. The water flows by gravity
through efficient filters made up of layers of sand and anthracite (carbon)
4. Disinfection- chlorine is added to kill microorganisms and to react with most
organic molecules present. Alternative disinfectants include ozone or chlorine
dioxide, ammonia, potassium permanganate, and even ultraviolet light.
5. Aeration- air, ozone or oxygen, “activated” charcoal, ammonia, chlorine
dioxide, or potassium permanganate may be mixed with the water to further
reduce taste and color problems.
6. Softening- hard water may be treated with sodium carbonate and calcium
hydroxide or a phosphate to reduce water hardness by precipitating the calcium
and magnesium ions.
7. Fluoridation- a small amount of fluoride is added to drinking water in some
areas, as it makes the enamel layer of teeth more resistant to decay.
8. Post-chlorination- a final chlorine disinfection treatment kills any remaining
microorganisms, and pH is adjusted to be slightly basic (since even slightly
acidic water will corrode metallic pipes)
9. Ammoniation- ammonia is added to the end of the treatment process to
stabilize the chlorine so that it remains dissolved in the treated water for longer
periods of time.

Waste Water Treatment System

1. Primary Treatment- involves screening, flotation, settling, and filtering out
solid particles. It has no effect on dissolved materials or microorganisms. This
treatment removes about 40% of BOD
2. Secondary Treatment- is a two-step process. The first step usually involves
aerating the water to support oxygen-using organisms, which react with
dissolved organic substances to produce a sludge precipitate. The second step is
chlorination, which further purifies the water. The resulting sludge may be used
as landfill or fertilizer, although any heavy metal pollutants present are not
removed. About 90% of BOD is removed from the water by the end of this stage.
After this treatment, the water could be returned to the environment as it is
suitable for most non-drinking purposes.
3. Tertiary Treatment- if used may involve a wide variety of systems and
processes resulting in water clean enough for drinking. These processes may
include reverse osmosis steam distillation, chemical precipitation –anything that
will remove virtually all remaining organic chemicals and any harmful dissolved
ionic compounds. This stage is the most expensive.

Predicting Precipitate Formation

1. Identify type of reaction and possible products
2. Look up solubility of both products
3. Indicate states or reactants and products
4. Write chemical equation for reaction
5. Balance equation

Writing Net Ionic Equation

6. Write total ionic equation
7. Write net ionic equation

Acid-Base Indicators
Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base

Litmus Red Blue

Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue

Methyl Orange Red Orange

Phenophthalein Colourless Magenta

Acids and Bases

• Acids are proton donors
• Bases are proton acceptors
• Acids taste sour, turn blue litmus red, conduct electricity, no characteristic feel,
produces hydrogen gas with active metals, produces carbon dioxide gas with
carbonate compounds.
• Bases taste bitter, turns red litmus blue, conduct electricity, feel slippery, don’t
react with active metals, don’t react with carbonate compounds

Arrhenius Theory
Defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in water to yield hydrogen ions,
H+, and a base as a compound that can dissociate in water to yield hydroxide ions,
OH-.
Problems >the solvent has no role play in the theory. This is wrong and the nature
of the solvent plays a critical role in acid-base properties of substances; >all salts in
the theory should produce solutions that are neither acidic nor basic. This is not the
case; >the need for hydroxide as the base led Arrhenius to propose the formula
NH4OH as the formula for ammonia in water. This led to the misconception that
NH4OH is the actual base, not NH3.

The Brönsted Lowry Theory

Water can be considered an acid or a base since it can lose a proton to form a
hydroxide ion, OH-, or accept a proton to form a hydronium ion, H3O+. When an
acid loses a proton, the remaining species can be a proton acceptor and is called
the conjugate base of the acid. Similarly when a base accepts a proton the resulting
species can be a proton donor, this is called the conjugate acid of that base.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

HX(aq) + H2O(l) <-> X- + H3O+
When the forward reaction occurs, HX donates a proton to water (acts like a base)
to the form hydronium. When the reverse reaction occurs, the hydronium ion acts
as the acid donating a proton to the X-. Conjugate acid-base pairs are compounds
that differ by the presence of one proton, or H+.
HCN(aq) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq) + CN-

Measuring pH
[H3O+] pH
1 0
10-1 1
10-2 2
10-3 3
………………………..
10-14 14

Strong Acids
A strong acid is an acid that ionizes quantitatively (completely) in water to form
hydrogen ions. The percent ionization of strong acids is greater than 99%. We will
assume that it is 100% in calculations. (HCL(aq), HBr(aq), H2SO4(aq),
HNO3(aq),H3PO4(aq))

Strong Bases
Ionic hydroxides have varying solubility in water, but all are strong bases that
dissociate quantitatively (completely) when the dissolve in water. Any base that is
capable of dissolving completely in water is also referred to as an alkali and an
alkaline solutions is produced. Group 2 elements also form quite strong hydroxide
solutions. When theses bases dissolve in water, two moles of hydroxide ions are
formed for every mole of metal hydroxide that dissolves in solutions.

Weak Acids & Bases

Weak acids and bases ionize incompletely when the react with water. We acids are
acids that partially ionize in solution and exist primarily as complete molecules.
They are defined by Bronsted and Lowry as proton donors. Weak bases are defined
by Bronsted and Lowry as proton acceptors. So a weak base is any compound that
dissociates very little to form an equilibrium that includes hydroxide ions, OH-(aq).

Hard and Soft Water

→ HARD WATER is water with high concentrations of CA2+(aq), Mg2+(aq),Fe2+(aq),Fe3+(aq),
and So42-(aq),
→ SOFT WATER is water with relatively low concentrations of these ions.
→ The extent on the hardness depends on the types of rocks through which the
water flows. It also depends on the length of time that the water is in contact
with the rocks.

Treating Water at Home

→ These ions are not always removed at municipal treatment plants. If you wish,
you can remove some of these ions (mainly Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+)yourself. For
small volumes, you can add sodium carbonate decahydrat, Na2CO3·10H2O
(washing soda). The sodium ions in the washing soda behave as spectator ions,
leaving the water soft.
→ For large volumes, people install an ion exchange water softener. The hard water
passes through a column packed with beads. The beads are made from an
insoluble plastic material and are coated with sodium slats, often NaCl. (The salt
coated beads are referred to as an ion exchange resin.) As the hard water
passes through the column, the ions in the water displace the sodium calcium
ions (and other hardness causing ions), the resin is regenerated. This is done by
passing a very concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) through the
column. The calcium ions are flushed out of the system along with excess
sodium chloride solution.
Gases
0°C=273Kelvin
-273K=0°C
P= force/area
earthsP= weight/area

Avogadro’s Law
n α V or n=kV or n1/V1=n2/V2

Gay-Lussac’s Law
P α T or P=kT or P1/T1=P2/T2

Boyle’s Law
V α 1/P or PV=k or P1V1=P2V2

Charles’ Law
V α T or V=kT or V1/T1=V2/T2

Combined Gas Law

P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Ptotal=P1+P2+P3+..............................

S.I. Standard Temperature and (Atmospheric) Pressure> (STP)

Temperature0°C equivalent to 273K (Kelvin used with gas equations)
Pressure 101.3 kPa (kilopascals)
Volume 22.4 Litres

The Ideal Gas Law

V α nT/P V=RnT/P OR PV=Nrt
R (universal gas constant) = 8.31 kPa.L/mol.K

Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP)

Temperature25°C/298K
Pressure 100kPa