EXPERIMENT NO.

Aim:
To ​Measure the diameter of a spherical body. Calculate the volume with appropriate significant
figures. Measure the volume using a graduated cylinder and compare it with calculated value.

❖ Apparatus​: ​(i) A Vernier Calipers, (ii) A small spherical body, (iii) Measuring Cylinder,
(iv) Synthetic thread

❖ Theory​:
Vernier constant​: ​Vernier constant or least count of the Vernier calipers is the difference between
the length of the smallest division on the main scale and the length of one Vernier division.

For Vernier constant

Length of the smallest division on the main scale, S=1mm
10 Vernier scale divisions= 9 main scale divisions
10V=9S
1V= 9/10 S
V.C​ = (1S -1V) = (1S – 9/10 S) = (1-9/10) S= (1/10) S, But S= 1mm,
hence V.C = (1/10) x 1mm=0.1mm=0.01cm.

Zero error​: ​Due to wear and tear of the jaws, the zero mark of the main scale and Vernier scale may
not be in same straight line when the jaws are made to touch each other. This gives rise to an error
called zero error. Zero error may be positive or negative.

The ​volume​ of a spherical body is given by the relation, , where r is the radius of the
sphere.
 ❖ Procedure​:

▪ Determination of volume of metal sphere by Vernier calipers.

The Vernier Constant (V.C.) or the least count of the Vernier Calipers is determined.

Now the movable jaw is brought in close contact with the fixed jaw and the zero error is determined.
To measure the diameter, the sphere is placed between the two jaws so that it is gripped gently
without any excess pressure between the jaws.
The position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale is noted by avoiding parallax
errors.
The number of Vernier division which coincides with some division of the main scale is observed by
avoiding parallax error and recorded.
The product of the numbers of Vernier division coinciding and the Vernier constant is found out and
added to the main scale reading. This gives the diameter of the metal sphere.
The observation is repeated at least three times, for three mutually perpendicular positions of the
sphere and mean observation is recorded in ​cm​ ​up to three significant figures​.
To obtain correct diameter, proper account of zero error is also taken in consideration.

Volume of the sphere is calculated by using the formula: up to three significant figures.

▪ Determination of the volume of the metal sphere by water displacement method:

Range and the measures of one small division of the given measuring cylinder is recorded.

The graduated cylinder is filled with normal tap water more than half of its capacity (nearly 60-80 cc).
The initial level of the concave meniscus is observed by avoiding parallax and recorded as initial

volume .

The spherical body is tied with a thin synthetic thread and gently placed inside the measuring cylinder
till the hook level (the whole spherical body must be inside the water but the hook should be outside
the water level).
The final level of the concave meniscus is observed by avoiding parallax and is recorded as final

volume .

Hence the volume of the spherical body is calculated by calculating the difference of final and initial
water level.
❖ Observations:
 Vernier constant or least count of the Vernier = 0.01cm
Zero error = e= …………... cm
Zero correction = (-e) = ……… cm
● Table for measurement of diameter of the sphere​:
Table: I
No. of obs. Main scale Vernier V.S.D X L.C Observed diameter Mean Diamete Mean
Reading (M.S.R) Division in cm. (d) Corrected
( )
in cm. Coinciding in cm. Diameter
(V.S.D) in cm. (d)
in cm.
Diameter: I
Diameter:II
Diameter:III

❖ Calculations​:

Mean corrected radius of sphere, in cm.

Volume of the given sphere in cm​3​. (​up to three significant figures​).

● Table for determination of the volume of the metal sphere by water displacement
method​.

Range of the measuring cylinder = 0 – 100 cc.

1 small division in the scale attached in measuring cylinder = 1cc

Table: II
Volume of the metal
Initial volume of water Final volume of water
sphere
in cm​3 in cm​3
in cm​3

❖ Result​:

The difference in volume measured by the two different method cm​3

❖ Conclusion​:
The difference in volume obtained in the above two methods is acceptable as different methods
have different accuracy level.
❖ Precautions​:
1.​ ​The Vernier calipers, if not smooth, should be oiled before starting the experiment.
2. The Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully calculated and recorded.
3. The sphere should be gripped firmly between the jaws without putting undue pressure on
the jaws.
4. Lower meniscus of water in graduated cylinder should be read.
 EXPERIMENT NO​: 2
❖ Aim​: Find the diameter of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge and determine percentage error in cross
sectional area
❖ Apparatus:​ Screw gauge, a thin wire, and a meter scale

❖ Theory​:

A screw gauge is used for measuring the diameter of wires.

Least count of the screw gauge =

● Determination of zero error​:

When studs of a Screw Gauge are closed, zero of main scale must coincide with the zero of circular scale.
If they do not coincide then it is said that a zero error is present in the instrument. The zero error may be
positive or negative.

● Positive Zero Error​:

When two studs are in contact, the zero of the circular scale is below the reference line; such ZERO ERROR is
called positive ZERO ERROR.
A positive zero error in the instrument shows a larger measurement than the actual measurement.
In order to find exact measurement, positive zero error is subtracted from the total reading.

● Negative Zero Error​:

When two studs are in contact, the zero of the circular scale is above the reference line; such ZERO ERROR is
called negative ZERO ERROR.
A negative zero error in the instrument shows a lesser measurement than the actual measurement.
In order to get exact measurement, negative zero error is added with the total reading.
 ❖ Procedure​:

• The pitch and least count of the given screw gauge is calculated.
• The zero error with its proper sign should be determined from the apparatus. Even if the zero error is nil,
this fact too should be recorded.
• The wire should now be inserted between the screw and the stud of the screw gauge. The screw should be
moved forward by rotating the ratchet till the wire is gently gripped between the screw and the stud.
• The readings of the main scale and the circular scale are recorded and the two readings are added. This
gives the observed diameter(D​1​ )
• Now the wire is released gently from the gap by loosening the screw and then rotated through 90​⁰​. The
diameter (D​2​) is again recorded in this position.
• The above 2 steps are repeated for four more different positions of the wire.
• The mean of these observed diameters (D​0​) is calculated.
• The zero correction is applied with its proper sign to the mean observed diameter and the correct diameter
is found.

❖ Observations​:

Number of complete rotations of the circular scale, y =……………

Distance moved by the screw, x =…………………mm

Pitch (p) in mm.

Total number of divisions on the circular scale, N= 100

Least count
Zero error (e) = ……………mm
Zero correction (-e) = ……………mm
Table for Measurement of Diameter of the specimen Wire

No. Reading along one (D​1​) direction Reading along the perpendicular Observed
Of direction (D​2​) diameter
obs
Main scale No of Diameter Main scale No of Diameter (D​2​)
reading circular (D​1​) = reading circular =
(M) in scale M+(n x L.C.) in (M’) scale M+(n x L.C.)
(mm) division in (mm) (mm) division in in
line with line with (mm)
the main the main
scale scale
(n) (n’)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Mean diameter, D​o​ = = ……………mm
Mean corrected diameter, D = (D​0 ​- zero Error) = ……… mm

Cross-sectional Area (A) = = ……………… m​2

❖ Result​:

The diameter of the given wire as measured by using a screw gauge is ………… mm.
Cross-sectional Area = …………… m​2
❖ Percentage Error​:

Cross-sectional Area

Taking on both sides: . Now differentiating on both side

Therefore percentage error in calculation of cross-sectional area

Where . D= Observed mean diameter in mm.

❖ Precautions​:

• The working of the screw gauge should be checked to ensure free movement of the screw. Also functioning
of the ratchet should be checked before starting the experiment.

• Zero error should always be taken into account. If the screw gauge is free from zero error, this fact should
be recorded as nil.

• Using the ratchet, the screw should always be rotated in the same direction to avoid back-lash error.

• The readings of the diameter should be taken in two mutually perpendicular directions.

• Error due to parallax should be avoided.

 EXPERIMENT NO​ 3
❖ Aim​: To determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface like watch glass
by a spherometer.

❖ Apparatus:
i) ​a spherometer, ii) a convex spherical surface, iii) a plain glass slab.

Theory:
when a spherometer is placed on a convex spherical surface, the tip of the screw has to be at
level higher than the plane containing three tips P, Q and R of the three legs[fig a]. The height of
the tip of the screw depends on the convexity or the radius of curvature of the surface. Let X, Y,
X’, Y’ be a section in the vertical plane containing one of the legs say P, tip of the screw Y and
the centre O of the sphere of which that convex surface forms a part. In the absence of the
spherical surface the tip of the screw would have touched at A. Let be the height of Y above
A. Section of the sphere cut by the plane containing tips P, Q, and R, of the three legs, is a
circle of radius r as shown in [ fig. b].
From the geometry of the circle shown in [fig. a]

Where is the radius of curvature of the surface.

From fig. b, AP =

……………………………(i)
Again from fig. b

= COS 30​⁰​ [Since PQR is an equilateral triangle of side L]

PB = AP COS 30​⁰

=r

Hence. r=
Substituting for r in equation (і)

R= +
Knowing the value of L and h, R can be calculated.
Standardization of linear scale​: Compare the linear scale on the scale with a standard scale
and note the value of one division in terms of cm.
Pitch: ​Adjust the circular scale so that its zero coincides with the metallic chip. Note the reading
on the linear scale, give four complete rotations to the screw and again note the readings on
linear scale. Difference between these two readings gives the distance moved. Dividing the
distance by the no. of rotation we get the pitch.

Note the no. of divisions on circular scale and calculate ‘least count’ of the spherometer.
❖ Procedure:

Determination of h:

● Place the convex spherical surface on the plane glass sheet with the convexity facing
upwards. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that all the three legs are on
the surface and the tip of the screw is well above the pole of the surface. Move the screw
downwards till it touches the convex surface. The touch will be indicated when the
spherometer just turns freely about the tip of the screw. Note the reading of the circular
scale against the metallic strip. Let this reading be ‘a’.
● Remove the convex surface and move the screw gradually downward further. Count the
complete no. of rotations undergone by the screw .As soon as the tip of the screw

touches the glass plane sheet; note the final reading of circular scale touching it. Let this
reading be ‘b’.
● In between initial and final reading, the screw has made some complete rotations (=n)
along with some additional circular divisions(x). Value of “x” is given by “x”= (a-b) if a>b,
and ‘x’ = 100+ (a-b) if a<b.
● Height ‘h’ is given by ‘h’ = n Pitch + x least count. Where pitch and least count are
taken in same unit.

Determination of L.

● Press the spherometer on a plane sheet of paper. Thus impressions of the tips of the
legs are obtained on the paper.
● Join these three points together to obtain an equilateral triangle.
● Measure the three sides by a meter rod and find their mean value which gives the value
of L.

Determination of R:

Radius of curvature of the surface can be calculated by using the formula,

, and must be taken in same unit.

 ❖ Observations:
Value of one division of linear scale = ………mm
Number of rotations = ………
Distance moved by the screw = ……mm

……mm = …….cm

Distance between the legs:

(і) =…… cm (іі) =…… cm (ііі) =……… cm

Mean distance between the legs

Table: 1
No Reading No. of Reading of Additional Mean
of of rotations circular divisions moved Radius of
Obs circular scale on curvature
or in cm
scale on glass plate in cm.
convex
surface in cm.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

❖ Result​:​ Mean Radius of curvature

❖ Precautions:
1) Screw should be properly lubricated.
2) The screw should always be moved in one direction to avoid backlash error.
3) The reading should be noted as soon as the tip of the screw just touches the surface.
 Experiment No: 4
❖ Aim:
To verify the parallelogram law of forces and to determine weight of a body.

❖ Apparatus:
i) Gravesend’s apparatus, ii) 50 gram weights with two hangers, iii) thread, white
paper sheet, iv) plumb line, v)plane mirror strip, vi) half meter rod et

❖ Theory:

The method is based upon the principle of vector addition. If two forces act simultaneously at
a point, we can determine their resultant by applying parallelogram law of vector addition. If a
third force is applied at the point to bring the point in equilibrium. The third force must be
 equal and opposite to the resultant of the first two force. Hence the magnitude of the
resultant force of the two forces can be obtained by the relation

Where, are two forces and is the angle associate between them.
❖ Procedure:
1. Place the Gravesend apparatus on the table and see that its board is exactly vertical with
the help of a plumb line.
2. See that the pulleys are capable of rotating freely.
3. Fix a sheet of a white paper on the vertical board.
4. Connect two ends of the thread to the two hooks of the hangers P and Q and pass the
thread over the two pulleys so that the two hooks hang freely on either side without
touching the board. Put some weights on the two hangers.
5. With the help of a string attach another hanger with the load R at the center of thread.
The common point of connection of threads will pulled down.

6. Now adjust the position of the eye so that the shadow of string can be seen and plot two
points A​1 and B​1 on the sheet (on the shadow line) just below the line of string OK.
Similarly plot points A​2 B​2 and A​3 B​
​ 3 directly below the arms OL and OM. Now remove the
sheet of paper from the board.
7. Frame a convenient scale so that the weights put on hangers H​1 and H​2 can be
represented along OK and OL. Join A​1​B​1​, A​2​B​2 and A​3​B​3 ​and produce them to intersect
each other at O.
8. Mark points A and B on OK and OL so that OA and OB represents weights put on
hangers H​1​ and H​2 ​respectively.
9. With the help of a set square or a pencil compass draw a line AC parallel to OB and a
line BC parallel to OA. Let the two lines intersect at C. Join OC.
10. Now to determine the resultant measure length OC. Multiply this length ​by the scale
framed (*)​. This gives the resultant of forces along OA and OB. Since the point O is in
equilibrium, magnitude of the resultant should be equal to R. If they are not equal, find
( ). This gives the error in the magnitude of the resultant.
11. Produce the line B​3 A​3 (passing through O) upward up to . The resultant (=OC)

should be along . Due to some experimental error it may not be so. Measure angle

. This gives the error in the direction of resultant.

[* If OA= Y cm and weight along OA is say 40 gf then y cm = 40gf or 1 cm = 40/Y gf.]

❖ Observation:
 then . Therefore
Table:
Forces Sides Resultant Errors in result
P Q R OA OB OC In In
in gf in gf in gf in cm in cm in cm magnitud direction
in gf e
(R~R​’​)

❖ Precaution:

(i) Support from where strings are attached should be rigid.

(ii) Pulleys should be friction less.
(iii) Threads should be inextensble.

EXPERIMENT NO​: 5(A)

❖ Aim:
To find the downward force acting along the inclined plane on a roller due to gravitational pull
of earth and to study its relationship with angle of inclination by plotting graph between force
and .

❖ Theory:

The inclined plane consists of a smooth plane hinged to a base so that it can be set at any
desired angle. Consider a heavy metal roller connected to a scale pan by a light extensible
string passing over a frictionless pulley resting on the plane as shown in the figure given
below.

If a body of mass (say m) is placed over an inclined plane, that is inclined at an angle with
the horizontal, its weight mg acts vertically downward. The component of the
weight acts normally downward on the plane balances the upward normal reaction (say R) of
the inclined plane. The component of the weight acting parallel to the inclined
plane downwards, produces motion in the body.
If total weight moves the body up and total weight makes the body move
down.

Then the downward force acting on the body along the inclined plane,

which must be equal to ,

that is ………………. (i)

For a constant mass , , thus, a graph between sin θ along X-axis and W along
Y-axis must be a straight line.

❖ Apparatus:

▪ An inclined plane with a pulley

▪ A roller
▪ A pan
▪ A weight box
▪ Spring balance
▪ Spirit level
▪ Strong thread
▪ Half meter scale.

❖ Procedure:

1. Place the apparatus on a table. Make sure that the base of the inclined plane is at
horizontal surface.
2. Bring the inclined plane to a horizontal position so that the angle of inclination is now
zero.
3. Find the weight of the roller, m using the digital weighing balance. Then, place it on the
inclined plane in the middle.
4. Tie one end of a thread to the roller placed on the inclined plane and pass it over the
pulley.
 5. Find the mass of the pan using a digital weighing balance and tie it to the free end of the
thread.
6. Now, raise the inclined plane and fix it at an angle of 30​0​. When this is done, the roller
starts rolling down with acceleration.
7. Add weights and increase them till the roller just starts moving upward with uniform
velocity only on tapping. Note the mass added in the pan and calculate the total mass
as sum of mass added in pan and mass of the pan.
8. Remove some weights from the pan till the roller just starts moving downward with
uniform velocity. Note down the mass added in the pan and find the total mass as the
sum of mass added in pan and mass of the pan.
9. The mean value of and multiplied with acceleration due to gravity, g gives the
downward force, W acting on the roller of mass m.
10. It is proved that, in each case, the downward force acting on the body, W is found to be
equal to mg sin θ.
11. A graph is drawn with sin θ along X-axis and W along Y-axis and it is a straight line.
12. Increase the angle of inclination in steps of 50 each, making it 35​0​,40​0​, 45​0​, 50​0​and repeat
steps 6 to 8.
13. Record the observations

❖ Observation:

● Observed weight of the roller ( ) =.................g wt.

● Observed weight of the pan ( )=......................g wt.

● Mass of the roller ( ) = ………… g

Table for angle of inclination and weights in pan:

Table: 1

No of Angle of Force acting on roller

Obs. inclination Upward Downward
in g-wt.
( ) ( ) ( ) in g-wt.

in degree in g-wt. in g-wt.

0
1. 30​ 0.50
2. 35​0 0.57
0
3. 40​ 0.64
4. 45​0 0.71
5. 50​0 0.77
❖ Result:

● Downward force on the body of weight w is equal to mg sin θ.

● Graph between sin θ and W comes to be a straight line.

EXPERIMENT NO​: 5(B)

❖ Aim:
To find the force of kinetic friction for a wooden block placed on horizontal surface and to
study its relationship with normal reaction. To determine the coefficient of friction.

❖ Theory:
When one body makes an attempt to slide over another body, an opposing force called
the force of friction arises as a reaction to the applied force, and acts in the opposite
direction.
Static friction is the type of friction that exists when two objects touch each other at rest. It
has a limiting value called limiting friction, which is equal to the least force required to
move the body from rest. When the external force F is increased, a stage comes when
the body is just at the verge of moving. At this stage, the force of friction is at the
maximum, and is called ​limiting friction.

It is found experimentally that limiting frictional force,

where is called the coefficient of static friction. It is a dimensionless constant, but

depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.

When the applied force, F, is increased further (beyond the limiting frictional force), the
body begins to move, then the force opposing the motion is called the kinetic or sliding
friction​. The kinetic friction is less than the limiting friction. The force of kinetic friction
where is called the coefficient of kinetic friction. .
● The Laws of Static Friction are:
i. The magnitude of limiting friction depends upon the nature and state of polish of the two
surfaces in contact.
ii. The magnitude of limiting friction is independent of area and shape of surfaces in contact
as long as the normal reaction remains the same.

iii. The magnitude of limiting friction 'F' is directly proportional to normal reaction 'R' between
the two surfaces in contact.
or

where is called the coefficient of friction which is a measure of friction based on the
type of material that are in contact.

The coefficient of friction,

A graph can be drawn with normal reaction, R along X axis and limiting friction, F along Y
axis and it is a straight line.

❖ Apparatus:

● Wooden block
● 50 or 20 g slotted weights​
● Horizontal plane (table top) fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end
● Weight box
● Spring balance
● Thread

❖ Procedure

▪ Find the mass of the wooden block by using a weighing balance balance and place it on
the table fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end.
▪ Tie one end of a thread with the hook of the wooden block and pass it over the pulley.
▪ Tie the other free end of the thread to the weight hanger and let it hang vertically.
▪ Increase the mass, till the block just starts sliding when tapping the table.
▪ Note the total mass added to the weight hanger and mass of the hanger. This mass
convert to gf, gives the force of limiting friction, F. As the value of limiting friction and
kinetic friction are very close so thewe calculate the value of limiting friction.
▪ The normal reaction, R is given by the weight of the wooden block or the weight of the
wooden block added with the additional weight. F and R are noted in integer values after
proper rounding off.
 ▪ Repeat the experiment with different masses on the block and in each case is

calculated and it is found to be a constant for the given pair of surfaces. The mean

value of is recorded in ​two decimal places​.

▪ Plot a graph taking normal reaction, R along X axis and limiting friction, F along Y axis.
The graph will be a straight line sloping upwards.
▪ The coefficient of friction is also calculated by measuring the slope of the graph.

❖ Observations:
Weight of the hanger = ……………g-wt
Table for finding coefficient of friction
Table: 1
No of Weight on Normal Total weights Coefficient Mean
Obs. wooden block Reaction on weight of friction coefficient
hanger +weight of friction
( g-wt. ( )
of the hanger =
g-wt. Limiting
friction( )
(g-wt.)
1.
2.
3. ……
4.
5.

❖ Calculation: ​Slope from F vs R graph [up to two decimal]

❖ Result:
1. Since F/R is a constant, the value of limiting friction is directly proportional to normal
reaction.
2. By calculation, Coefficient of fiction between given surfaces, µ =-------.
3. From graph, Coefficient of fiction between given surfaces, µ =-------.

[Note: To plot the graph the origin need not be changed. Consider origin as a point and must
pass the line through it.]
 ​EXPERIMENT NO: 6
❖ AIM:

To find the acceleration due to gravity by measuring the variation in time period with

effective length of simple pendulum; plot a graph of vs. .

❖ APPARATUS:
i) a simple pendulum, ii) two halves of a cork, iii) a clamp stand, iv) vernier calipers, v)
meter scale, ​ vi) ​a stop watch, vii) a graph paper and viii) a piece of chalk.

❖ THEORY:
An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass (called bob) tied to one end of a
perfectly inextensible, flexible and weightless string. In practice, we make it by tying a metallic
spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching thread​.

Time period T of a simple pendulum is given by or ,

Or, where is the effective length of the simple pendulum and is the acceleration
due to gravity of the place.
 ❖ PROCEDURE:
i. For clamping the pendulum, we use a cork cut into two halves and clamped.
ii. The thread is allowed to pass through 2 pieces so as to hold the pendulum tightly. The
cork pieces should always be at right angles.
iii. Using vernier calipers measure the diameter of the bob up to two decimal place in cm.
Record at least three observations. Take out the mean diameter hence determine the
radius of the spherical bob ​up to two decimal place in cm unit​.
iv. Measure the length of the sting in such a way that after adding the radius the effective
length becomes 80cm, 90cm, 100cm, 110cm and 120cm.
v. For each effective length measure the time required to complete 20 oscillations for very
small angular amplitude (less than 4​0​), hence determine the time period. Also calculate T​2
up to one decimal place​.
vi. Repeat the experiment for four more effective lengths as mentioned before.

vii. Draw a vest fit graph vs. , hence determine the slope from the graph ​up to three
significant figures.

viii. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity by using the formula , ​where S is the
slope of the graph.

❖ OBSERVATION:
● Determination of diameter of the bob:
Least Count of the vernier= 0.01 cm.
Table: 1
No.of Main Scale Vernie Diameter Mean Corrected Radius
Obs Reading Reading Diameter Diameter of the
(M.S.R) bob
In cm. in cm. in cm.
in cm. in
cm.
1.
2.
3.

● Determination of time period of oscillation:

Least Count of the stop watch= 1.0 s / 0.5 s
Table: 2
 No Effective Length Time Period of 20 oscillation Time Square of
of in Mean Period time
Obs. cm. in cm. in s in s period

is
in s in s s​2

1. 80.0
2. 90.0
3. 100.0
4. 110.0
5. 120.0

❖ CALCULATION:

Slope of graph

[up to three significant figures]

❖ RESULT:

Acceleration due to gravity = ………………cm s​-2​ [ONLY INTEGER VALUE WITH

PROPER ROUNDING OFF].

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) During experiment the angular displacement of the thread should be below 4 Degree
(ii) The experiment should be done where there is no air flow
(iii) The thread should be very light weight nylon tread.
.

EXPERIMENT NO​: 7

❖ Aim:

❖ To find the force constant of a spring and to study the variation in time period of oscillation with mass
(m) of a body suspended by the spring. To find acceleration due to gravity by plotting graph of T
against .

❖ Apparatus:
i) Spring attached with a hanger and a pointer ii) slotted weights iii) vertical clamp and stand, iv) a scale
graduated in cm on a plane mirror v) a stopwatch.
❖ Theory:

The restoring force of the spring is given by , where is spring

constant and is the extension due to a load . Therefore

or (slope of graph) ………(i)

Again time period of vibration of spring mass system or

or ,where (slope of graph) and is the

slope of the graph )

[As is taken in ,so the slope of the graph and slope of the are same. S​1 the

slope of m vs. graph which is same as​ graph as W is taken in gf unit]

❖ Procedure:
● The spring attached with the pointer and the hanger is suspended from a stand and clamp system.
● The reading of the index with a free load before loading is recorded.
● A slotted weight of 40gm is placed on the hanger and record the reading of the index.
● The weight is slightly pulled downward and released and the spring is set into vertical vibration.
● The time for 20 such vertical oscillations is recorded with the stop watch.
● Increase the load by 20gm and record the reading of the index.
● The experiment as explained above is repeated with four different weights.
● Steps (iii) to (vii) are repeated by unloading in a stepwise manner.
● The mean time for 20 oscillations for every load is found and the time period of vertical vibration of
the spring for the corresponding load is also calculated.

● From the recorded observations two graphs (i) load vs. extension and (ii) time period ( ) vs.

square root of mass ( ) are plotted.

❖ Observations:

Initial Reading of the pointer = ……… cm.

Table: 1

SL. Total mass on the Reading of the Mean Actual Time for 20 vibrations while Time
No load Hanger pointer while extension Extension in seconds period
(m) T=t/20
 in gm Loading Unloading t​1 t​2 Mean t in sec. in sec. in
g​1/2
in gf in cm in cm
1. 20 95
2. 40 115
3. 60 135
4 80 155

❖ Calculations:

a) From the graph (i) slope = …………in gf cm​-1​or Nm​-1​[up to one decimal place].

b) From the graph (ii) slope =……… in s gm​-1/2​[up to three significant figures].

c) Acceleration due to gravity = …………… in m/s​2​.

❖ Precautions:
a) The spring was hung freely so that the pointer did not touch the scale or any part of the hanging
system.
b) Amplitude of vibration was not very large.
c) The load was always within the elastic limit.
d) Time for vibration during loading and unloading was recorded when equilibrium was achieved.
e) While plotting the graph the scale was so chosen that the entire plotting covered at least 60% of the
graph paper.

EXP NO: 08
Aim​: ​Verification of Boyle’s Law:
Apparatus​: (i) ​Boyle’s law apparatus, (ii) pure and dry mercury, (iii) plumb line,​ (iv)
thermometer, and (v) Fortin’s barometer
Theory​:
Temperature remaining constant the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure.
If V be the volume of the gas at pressure P then PV = Constant.
Pressure of the gas is measured in terms of height of the mercury column in cm. and Volume in
cm​3​.
Experimental Verification:
Barometer Reading:
● Least Count of the vernier attached with barometer: 0.005 cm.
● Atmospheric pressure: 75.975 cm of mercury.
● Temperature of the day: 27.0​0​C

Table
No of Volume of Reading of the Difference Pressure Value of Value of
Obs. the mercury level (Upper of the of the
enclosed Meniscus) of the heights of enclosed in
air Close Open the air cm. of
(v) in ml. tube tube mercury mercury
(h​1​ ) (h​2​) column
in cm. in cm. h= (h​1~​ h​2​) in cm of
in cm. mercury.

1. 16.4 52.5 57.2 +4.7 80.675 80.675 1323.070

2.
3.
4.
5. 19.8 67.5 58.8 -8.7 67.275 67.275
Remarks:
It appears from the experimental results that the product of pressure and volume of a given
mass of gas is constant at constant temperature of the day. The slight deviation of product PV
is due to personal error and instrumental constraints. Thus the Boyle’ law is verified.

EXPERIMENT NO​: 9

❖ AIM: To study the fall in temperature of a body (like hot water or liquid in a calorimeter) with time hence
deduce Newton's law of cooling.

❖ APPARATUS:
 i. Newton’s law of cooling apparatus that includes a copper calorimeter with a wooden lid having two
holes for inserting a thermometer and a stirrer and an open double – walled vessel.

ii. two Celsius thermometers (each with least count 0.5 or 0.1 )
iii. a stop clock
iv. a heater
v. a clamp stand
vi. two rubber stoppers with holes
vii. strong cotton thread and a beaker

❖ THEORY:
The rate at which a hot body loses heat is directly proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the hot body and that of its surroundings and depends on the nature of material
and the surface area of the body. This is Newton’s law of cooling.

For a body of mass and specific heat , at its initial temperature higher than its

surrounding’s temperature , the rate of loss of heat is , where is the amount of heat
lost by the hot body to its surroundings in a small interval of time. Following Newton’s law of

cooling we have rate of loss of heat, . Also . Using the

previous equations, the rate of fall of temperature is given by

or

, ……………… (i) [where and are constant.]

On integrating the above equation, we get

or [where is integration constant].

or, [where is integration constant].

❖ PROCEDURE:

1. Find the least count of the thermometers and . Take some water in a beaker and measure its

temperature (at room temperature ) with one (say ) of the thermometer.

2. Record the least count of the stop watch.
3. Pour some water in to the doubled walled container at room temperature.
4. Insert the second thermometer into the water contained in the doubled walled container with the help of
clamp and stand system.

5. Take some hot water in a separate beaker of temperature about above the room temperature .
Pour hot water in the doubled walled container up to its top.
6. Placed the calorimeter with hot water back to the enclosure and cover it with the lid having holes. Insert the

thermometer and the stirrer in the calorimeter through the holes provided in the lid.

7. Read and record the initial temperature of water between enclosures of double wall with thermometer

. It should be noted that the difference of readings of two thermometer and should be about

and note the initial temperature of the thermometer .

8. Keep on stirring hot water gently and constantly and note the readings of the thermometer first after
every half a minute then after one minute and finally after two minutes duration and so on and record it as

the temperature of hot water, .

9. Keep on stirring water gently and constantly and simultaneously note the reading of the stop watch and the

thermometer as instructed earlier till the temperature of water in the calorimeter falls to a temperature of

about above that of the enclosure measured by the thermometer .

10. Record the observation in the tabular form. Find the excess of temperature, and also

for each set of readings and record in the appropriate columns in the table.
11. Plot the graphs as mentioned below

PLOTTING GRAPH:

i. Plot a graph between against

​ , (taking along x-axis and along y-axis]. This is
called cooling curve.

ii. Also plot a graph between against time , [taking along x-axis and
along y-axis.]
[Note: cooling curve is an exponential decay curve and the logarithmic curve shows that the
logarithm of the excess temperature of the hot body over that of the surroundings varies
linearly with time as the body cools.]

❖ OBSERVATION:
 Least count of the identical thermometers = ……………
Least count of the stop clock = ……………s

Initial temperature of water in the enclosure

Final temperature of water in the enclosure

Mean temperature of the water in the enclosure

● Measuring the change in temperature of water with time.

Table: I
No of Temperature of hot Excess temperature of
Obs. Time in s
water hot water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
.

❖ PRECAUTIONS AND DISCUSSION:

● Water in the calorimeter should be gently stirred continuously.
● Make sure that opening for inserting thermometers are air tight.
● Care should be taken that no heat is lost to the surroundings through any working process.

● Initial temperature of the water of the calorimeter is desirable not to be about above the room
temperature.
● Personal errors likely to be involved due to delay or early in starting and stopping the stop watch must
be averted.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 10
❖ AIM:
To study the variation in frequency of air column with length using resonance column apparatus or a long
cylinder and set of tuning forks. Hence determine velocity of sound in air at room temperature.

❖ APPARATUS:
i​ ) Resonance tube apparatus, ii) a tuning fork of known frequency, iii) rubber pad
iv) Vernier calipers.

❖ THEORY:

If is the resonating length of the air column and ​f is the frequency of the corresponding tuning fork, then

the wavelength of the stationary wave formed in the pipe will be 4 , where e is the end correction and
the velocity of the sound wave, v is given by the relation,

The end correction e=0.3d, where d is the internal diameter of the tube of the resonance column.
❖ PROCEDURE:

1. The inner diameter of the resonance column apparatus is measured with Vernier calipers. The
measurement is taken at three different position of the tube hence the mean value of the diameter
is recorded.
2. The end correction is calculate by using the formula e=0.3d.
3. Resonance tube apparatus is set vertically.
4. Water is poured in to the resonance tube and filled to the desirable extent.
5. The reservoir is moved to a certain height in the upper position.
6. The tuning fork is held at its stem and is gently struck on the rubber pad.
7. The vibrating tuning fork is placed horizontally near the open end, mouth of the tube in such a way
that its prongs vibrate along the axis of the tube.
8. The reservoir is moved upward or downward as required in order to change the position of the
water level in the resonance column so as to get the resonance.
9. While water level is being changed the tuning fork is kept on vibrating by striking the fork against
the rubber pad again and again.
10. Once the position of the level of water in the tube was set at resonance, the water level in the
resonance tube is gradually and slowly lowered and its position was recorded where the intensity
of the sound was maximum.
11. Then the water level is slightly lowered by a centimeter or so and then the reservoir is slowly
moved up and the position of the water level is recorded where the intensity of the sound is
maximum.
12. In this way the position of the water level in the resonance column is recorded while the water level
in the tube is lowered and raised and repeated three times for each.
 13. The above mentioned steps are repeated for two more frequencies.

14. From this observation mean value of length of air column for the position of the resonance is
found. Hence for each set the velocity of sound is calculated. The mean value of the velocity is
calculated.

❖ OBSERVATION:
● Temperature of the day =
● Least count of the Vernier = 0.01cm

● Observations for the inner diameter of the resonance column.

Table-II
Main scale End correction
Vernier Total reading Mean diameter
SL. No. reading e=0.3d
reading in cm. in cm
in cm. in cm.
1.
2.
3.

● Observations for the length of the air column for the first resonance.
Table-I
No. Frequency of Reading of water Mean length of the Velocity of sound
of the tuning fork level in the Resonance column. in air
Obs. tube in cm. while
Lowering Raising in cm.

1.
2.
3.

❖ CALCULATION:
From the observations mean velocity of sound = …………… cm s​-1 ​= ……………… m s​-1

❖ RESULT:
-1​ 0​
Velocity of sound in air medium = ……………… m s​ at temperature ……​ C.

❖ PRECAUTIONS:
● The tube should be, exactly in the vertical position.
● The tuning fork should always be struck against a soft surface like that of rubber pad.
● The tuning fork should be struck gently
● The tuning fork should be placed horizontally, at a certain distance above the mouth of the tube.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 11
❖ AIM:​ To determine frequency of a tuning fork using a sonometer.

❖ APPARATUS:
i. A sonometer
ii. A set of tuning forks of
known frequency
iii. weight hanger
iv. Some 1.0 and 0.5kg slotted
weights
v. Rubber pad
vi. Paper rider

❖ THEORY:

If a string which is stretched between two fixed points is plucked at its center, vibrations produced and it move out
in opposite directions along the string. Because of this, a transverse wave travels along the string.

If a string of length having mass per unit length m is stretched with a tension T, the fundamental frequency of

vibration f is given by;

Laws of transverse vibrations on a stretched string

● Law of Length:​ The frequency of vibration of a stretched string varies inversely as its resonating length
(provided its mass per unit length and tension remain constant.)

● Law of Tension:​ The frequency of vibration of a stretched string varies directly as the square root of its
tension, (provided its resonating length and mass per unit length of the wire remains constant).

Relation between frequency and length

From the law of length, ​f ×l = constant
A graph between f and will be a straight line.
Nature of the graph:

❖ PROCEDURE:

● Place the sonometer on the table.

● Make sure that the pulley is frictionless. If you feel any friction, oil them.
● Stretch the wire by placing a suitable maximum load on the weight hanger.
● Move the wooden bridges outward, so that the length of wire between the bridges is maximum.
● Take a tuning fork of known frequency. Make it vibrate by strike its prong with a rubber pad. Bring it near
the ear.
● Pluck the sonometer wire and leave it to vibrate.
● Compare the sounds produced by tuning fork and sonometer wire. (Sound which has low pitch has less
frequency).
● Gently adjust the bridges for decreasing the length of wire, till the two sounds appear alike.
● Put an inverted V shaped paper rider on the middle of the wire.
● Vibrate the tuning fork and touch the lower end of its handle with sonometer board. The wire vibrates due to
resonance and the paper rider falls.
● Measure the length of wire between the bridges using a meter scale. It is the resonant length and record it
in the ‘length decreasing’ column.
● Now, bring the bridges closer and then slowly increase the length of the wire till the paper rider falls.
● Measure the length of wire and record it in ‘length increasing’ column.
● Repeat the above steps with tuning forks of other frequencies, and find resonant length each time.
● Repeat the above mentioned steps for an unknown frequency and record the resonating length and find the

reciprocal of that length. Mark it .

● Draw vs graph. In the graph find the value of along the axis. Find the corresponding point on

the axis. This gives the value of the unknown frequency. Measure and record the value of unknown
frequency from the graph. Measure the frequency from the formula also and compare the two results.

❖ OBSERVATION:

Mass per unit length of the wire (m) = 89 x 10​-5​ Kg/m

Weight of the hanger (W​0​) = 112.0 gf
To find the relation between frequency and length
Constant tension on the wire, T= 3.112 Kgf = 30.5 N
No of Frequency of the Resonant length of the wire
Obs. tuning fork Length Length Mean resonating
increasing decreasing length

1. 256
 2. 288
3. 384
4. 512

5. Unknown

❖ CALCULATION:

Value of from
​ graph = …………… cm​-1

Value of unknown frequency from graph = …………… Hz

Value of Unknown frequency obtain from formula, = …………… Hz.

❖ RESULT:

The value of the unknown frequency of the tuning fork = …………… Hz. (approximately)

❖ PRECAUTIONS:
a) Ensure that the sonometer wire is of uniform cross section and free of kinks and twist.
b) Ensure that breaking strain of the wire is high.
c) The paper rider as light as possible.
d) Ensure that the pulley friction-less by oiling and greasing before the experiment is started.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 12
AIM:​ To determine specific heat capacity of a solid using a calorimeter.
APPARATUS:
i. A solid of unknown specific heat capacity.
ii. Calorimeter.
iii. Two laboratory thermometer.
iv. Hot plate
v. Thread
vi. Sensitive balance
vii. Beaker
viii. Water.

THEORY:

Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one Kelvin. It is
expressed in joule per kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg​-1​ K​-1​) in S I units.

OBSERVATION:

i. Mass of solid = ………. g

ii. Mass of empty calorimeter = …………g

iii. Mass of calorimeter + water =………….. g

iv. Initial temperature of water in calorimeter = ……….​0​C

v. Temperature of the solid =………… 0​​ C

vi. Final Temperature of mixture = ………..​0​C.

vii. Rise in temperature of water and calorimeter (

viii. Fall in temperature of solid ( ) 0​​ C = ………..​0​C

● Calculate the specific heat capacity c of the solid as show below:

Let specific heat capacity of solid = C

Also, let specific heat capacity of calorimeter = C​1

and let specific heat capacity of water = C​w

Heat lost by solid =

Heat gained by water =

Heat gained by calorimeter =

Total heat gained =

By the principle of calorimetry heat lost by the hot body = heat gained by the cold body.

Specific heat capacity of the solid ………….

RESULT:

Specific heat of the solid = ……………

PRECAUTION:
a. Initial reading of the two thermometers must be same to avoid errors in the final result.
b. Hot body must be kept in the heat sink for a considerably long time to attain the equilibrium state.
c. Hot body must be kept is the calorimeter in very fast and rapidly so that during this transfer heat loss is minimum.
d. Instead of direct heating indirect heating is preferable.