Chapter I

Introduction

The Hindu temple construction during the medieval period (6th - 13th centuries) took
place on a magnificent scale. It reached to its final form by combining influences from
both the northern and southern India and probably also from the cultures of invaders who
continued to enter India from the north- west during this period. Every style of building
construction reflects a clearly distinctive basic principle that represents a particular
culture and era. In this context the Indian Hindu temple architecture are not only the
abode of God and place of worship, but they are also the cradle of knowledge, art,
architecture and culture. The characteristic temple plan of the northern India was
developed in the 5th century under the rule of Hindu dynasty. These temples consisted of
all the basic elements- the grabha-gariha surrounded by an ambulatory path, an outer
portico with columns in front and flat roofs of stone. The temples constructed during this
period were simple and less impressive compared to the temple constructed during the
10th -13th century temples. Some of the examples from this period are temples at Sanchi,
Tigawa and Deogarh. The development of shikhara started at the temple of Deogarh in
Madhya Pradesh. The temples constructed in the 8th century had smaller shrines and the
shikhara became the crowning feature of the temples. The addition of mandapa (the
pillared hall) to the temple started during this period itself.
The other distinct characteristic of this period was the rectangular wall around the
temple and addition of subsidiary shrines at each corner. The most common examples of
this period are the temples at Rajasthan and the cluster of Jain temples built between 8 th -
12th century in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The temple of Teli-ka mandir, Gwalior and Vaital
Deul, Bhubaneswar were unique and inspired from the early Buddhist architecture with
rectangular plan and the barrel vault roof of chaitya hall. These temples don‟t make the
full composition of Hindu temple as they only consist of main sanctuary with neither the
mandapa nor the portico. This form of architecture was abandoned by the architects in the
north but was accepted in the architecture of south India. A distinct architectural style
developed in the temples of Orissa (7th to 11th century). The elliptic curve of shikhara
from the earlier periods were modified as a perpendicular prismatic tower and converged
near the peak. For the first time in history special attention was given to the construction
of mandapa; the roof of the mandapa was now pyramidal with tapering at the top and
lower than the shikhara. The finest examples of this period are the Lingaraja temple,
Bhubaneswar, the Jaganath temple Puri and the Sun temple Konark with there shikhara
height ranging from 43 m to 57 m high.
Khajuraho situated in District Chhatarpur of Madhya Pradesh has the distinction
of possession one of the most compact and homogenous group of Indo-Aryan or
Northern temples, built under the patronage of the Chandalla rulers. Except for a few
number, all the temples of Khajuraho pertain to a cognate style and are manifestation of a
distinctive and consented architectural movement, differing only in details of expression.
These temples were built of sandstone and professedly carved with erotic sculptures.
These temples are also famous for their conical tower made of piles of stone with an
arrangement of miniature towers called shikhara. Each of these temples has portico,
entrance hall and the sanctum. The roofs of various sections of the temple have distinct
form. The sanctum is Sapta-ratha; the Shikhara divided into seven segments showing two
series of mouldings. Each and every facade, wall, ceiling of these temples have carved
figures from the mythology and history. The finest examples are the Kandariya
Mahadeva temple and Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho. Khajuraho temples were built in
the short span of a hundred years from 950 to 1050 A.D. in an inspired burst of creativity,
but were abandoned after the 14th century. The Khajuraho temples have been listed in the
world heritage site and are also considered in the Seven Wonders of the World.
Khajuraho was the capital city of Chandella dynasty in primeval time. The Chandella
capital was moved to Mahoba after this time, but Khajuraho is continued to flourish for
some time. The historic town Khajuraho has largest and spectacular group of medieval
Hindu and Jaina temples. Khajuraho is a small modest town located in the Bundelkhand
region of Madhya Pradesh, south of the Gangetic Plain and north of the rising Deccan

2
plateau. The expensive landscape of the state is cradled by the Vindhya and Satpura hills
ranges and watered by large river, Narmada and Chambal. Myths, legend, ancient
literature and inscription provide a jigsaw-puzzle picture of the story of Khajuraho, but
there are still some missing pieces. There is mention of Khajuraho in ancient texts which
explain how the village got its name.
The name Khajuraho, ancient „Kharjuravahaka‟, is derived from the Sanskrit
words kharjura = date palm and vahaka = „one who carries‟. According to a tradition,
Khajuraho was so called because one of its city-gates was ornamented with two golden
Khajur trees (bearer of date palm). In the Prithviraj Raso, the book written by
Chandabardai Khajuraho is called Khajurapura or Khajjnapura.1 Abu-Rahim who
accompanied Sultan Mahmud mentions it as the territory of king Bida, Vidyadhara. Ibn-
Batuta who visited this place in 1335 A.D. calls this place as Kajarra or Kajura. In
inscriptional records this place is known as Khajjuravahaka. Possibly in ancient time the
place was full of Khajur trees, hence it was named after Khajuraho.
During the Janapada time the region was part of the Vatsa Kingdom and then it
came under the Mauryan supremacy. Discovery of Asokan rock edict at Gujjara in
district Datia attest the supremacy of Mauryan Empire. From the early historic time to the
arrival of Chandellas, the region has witnessed the rule of Kuhanas, Nagas, Vakatakas,
Imperial Gupta and Prathiharas. According to the Chandellas and other contemporary
records the land was known as Jejabhukti or Jejakabhukti with a few derivative variants
like Jejahuti, Jajhauti and Jijahauti, Jijhoti, Jajhaoti and the Chinese from, Chi-chi-to or
Chi-ki-to in Chandellas times. This seems to account for the suggestion that Jijhoti is an
abbreviation of Jejekabhukti.2 Mahoba inscriptions delineate the genealogy of Chandella
dynasty and refer that the Kingdom has been named after King Jeja. The earliest
inscriptions of King Dhanga dated to 954 A.D. suggest the occupation of Khajuraho by
the Chandella rulers. Albaruni in 1022 A.D. speak of the region Jejahuti. The Madanpur
inscriptions dated to 1182 A.D. refers the territory as Jejakabhukti or Jejakamandala.

3
 In the 9th and 10th century Khajuraho was under the rule of the Chandela dynasty,
which traced its origin to the moon god, Chandrama. The Mahaba Khand of the
Chandabardai‟s (the famous medieval court poet) „Prithviraj Raso‟, folk balled of the 17th
century recounts a beautiful legend concerning the origin of the Chandella dynasty, who
came to rule the region in 10th century, after the birth of Christ. The story of the origin of
great Chandella dynasty is very interesting. Hemraj, was the royal priest of Kashi or
Banaras (the old name of Varanasi), had an exceptionally beautiful daughter named
Hemavati, who was unfortunately a child widow. One sultry summer night while she was
bathing in a lotus- filled pond (Rati Talab) with all her clothes put off. Chandra, the
Moon God (Chandrma) was so dazed by her beauty. He descent to earth in human form
full of lust and passion and ravished her.3 The child born of their union was
Chandravarman, who was raised in the forest by his mother who sought refuge there,
away from the censorious eyes of the medieval society. He grew up and become the
founder of the Chandella dynasty. When established as a ruler he had a dream visitation
from his mother, who implored him to build temples that would reveal human passion,
and thus bring about the realization of the emptiness of earthy desires. Chandravarman
thus started the tradition of building temples. Later the subsequent Chandella kings
carried on building temples to maintain this magnificent tradition. Chandellas built 85
temples surrounding by lakes and gardens at Khajuraho.
Yet another version of the above legend praises Hemavati as a dutiful daughter
who sacrificed all her happiness and dignity for her father. Mani Ram, the royal priest of
Kalinjar, miscalculated once and declared the dark night as the full Moon night or
Purnamasi in front of the king. Hemavati, his widowed daughter could not bear the
possibility of any stigma on her father‟s reputation and prayed to the Moon God to
uphold the word of the priest. However, she had to pay a heavy price for her wish being
granted when the Moon God who was infatuated by the lady‟s beauty ravished her in
return for his favour. When Mani Ram came to know of this entire incident, he was so
ashamed and grief-stricken that he cursed himself and turned into a stone. However,
Hemvati got pregnant with the tryst and gave birth to a virtuous son by the name of sage

4
Chandrateya who is believed to be the founder of the Chandella dynasty.4 Chandella
worshipped the Mani Ram turned stone as Maniya Dev.
The Chandellas were the builders of Khajuraho. It was Chandellas who endowed
it with a high political status and gave a distinctive position to this city of temples for
which it enjoys a unique celebrity even today.5 During their rule, cisterns, dams, forts and
palaces were all built, but none of the secular buildings survived. Only the temples
remain, giving a unique gift to the world. These temples were „discovered‟ by T.S. Burt
in 1838, a young engineer in the British colonial army, who out of curiosity diverted from
his official itinerary to follow the trail to this remarkable group of temples which his
palki-bearers had talked about.6 General Alexander Cunningham put Khajuraho on the
world map when he explored the site on behalf of the Archaeological Survey of India and
described what he found in glowing terms. 22 temples out of the original 85 have
survived the rough weather conditions over long years of time and still amongst the
greatest examples of medieval Hindu sculpture and architecture in north India. Scattered
across a dusty landscape, these temples were shared in style and the site by both the
Vaishnavites and Shaivites and even Jainas. Different components of these temples have
affinity with the temples of the other regions. But still the ingenuity of the builders of
Khajuraho can not be denied. Nor can be they stated mere imitation.7 According to Prof.
O.C. Ganguly Khajuraho style in many respect an independent growth.8 The Chandella
kings are recognized as a great builders and patrons of art and architecture. This quality
supported by the group of magnificent temples at Khajuraho.9 These temples are of
mingled faith Shaivite, Vaishnavite and Jain in keeping with the prevalent religious
convictions of the 9th to 11th century.10 By this we can judge that this was an age of
extreme toleration.11 The temples are well planned and are of ordinary size. Maximum
height of these temples is 100 feet. But the size doesn‟t lessen their beauty and attraction.
They are famous for art and architecture not for size. They have their own identity12.
Re-emergence in the Nineteenth Century
It took around three centuries for Khajuraho to surface again. In 1818 Khajuraho found a
place on the map prepared by Franklin.13 These were „discovered‟ by T.S. Burt in 1838, a

5
young officer in the British colonial army. The first local ruler to take interest in the
preservation of these temples was Maharaja Pratap Singh, who, between 1843 and 1847,
undertook large scale renovation of the Khajuraho temples. However, since he used lime
and brick in the repair work, which did not suit the ancient monuments, some of his
renovations had to be removed later by the Archaeological Survey of India. General F.C.
Maisey has been credited with the earliest drawings of Khajuraho, which he made in
1852.14
Sir John Marshall and Henry Cousens, in 1904, drew a systematic conservation
and protection programme for Khajuraho, which was implemented by the Archaeological
Survey of India. The Chaturbhuja, Duladeva, Devi Jagadambi, and Chitragupta temple
are some of the temples that underwent extensive renovation. In 1953, the Archaeological
Survey of India took direct charge of the Khajuraho monuments. The temples and the
Archaeological Museum are under the supervision of the ASI ever since. Eighteen out of
more than fifty mounds that exist in Khajuraho have been identified for excavation by the
ASI. Recently, a finely carved pedestal of a large early 11th century temple has been
uncovered in the southern area of the site. It signals that the potential of the site is yet to
be fully unleashed, in spite of the grandeur and splendor of the presently known temples.
Today Khajuraho has become a must visiting spot in India. The great attraction of
it is its group of magnificent temples. These temples are the grand specimen of Indian
temple architecture and sculpture art. They depict the philosophical background spiritual
profundity and aesthetics as understood and practiced in medieval India15. The temples of
Khajuraho are one of India‟s major tourist attractions close behind the Taj Mahal and up
there with Varanasi, Jaipur and Delhi.16 Based on their geographical location these
temples are divided into three main groups- (i) Western: western group belong to
Chaunsath Yogini, Lalguan Mahadeva, Kandariya Mahadeva, Nandi, Parvati,
Lakshmana, Devi, Matangeshvara, Varaha, Devi Jagadambi, Chitragupta and
Vishvanatha temples (ii) Eastern: eastern group belong to Brahma, Vamana, Javari,
Kakramath, Ghantai, Adinath, Parshvanath and Shantinath temples and (iii) Southern:
southern group consists of Duladeo, Chaturbhuj and Bijamandal temples.

6
Review of Literature

The review of work gives us an idea about the direction of studies done so far on the
subject concerned. Much work has been done on Chandella art and architecture by
Alexander Cunningham, E.B. Havell, Fergusson, Percy Brown, Stella Kramsrisch, Eliky
Zannas, Krishna Deva, Vidya Prakash, Urmila Agarwal, Devangana Desai and others.
The mass scale temple construction suggests a special purpose, beyond the dynasty‟s
desire to assert its power and wealth. There are several theories- such as the creation of a
religious centre, but there is no agreement among researchers. The temples of Khajuraho
represent the high peak of North Indian stone architecture. However, the temples are
world famous not for their sheer aesthetic beauty but for their exquisite erotic sculptures.
An attempt is made here to deal with the writers and their works who wrote on
Khajuraho. The study of the Chandella history began during the 19th century. For the first
time, the attention of historians towards Chandella dynasty was drawn by Lieutenant
William Price when he presented a paper on 3rd February 1813 at the Journal of Asiatic
Society of Bengal, on Sanskrit inscription found at Mau near Khajuraho. Khajuraho was
included in a map prepared by Franklin in 1818, as „Kajrow‟. Captain W.R. Pogson
published his book „History of Bundelas‟ in year 1828 in which he mentioned some
important places related to Chandellas history and art. The credit of rediscovering goes to
Captain T.S. Burt who visited Khajuraho in 1838. He also got published a detailed
account of the western group of temples in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.17 He
briefly described the Vishvanatha, Nandi, Lakshmana, Varaha and Matangeshwara
temples. It brought Khajuraho to the notice of a number of art and antique lovers. An
extract from Burt‟s account, which also highlights the significance of these temples “...
before finally taking the leave of the seven temples, I shall state my opinion, that they are
most probably the finest aggregate number of temples congregated in one place to be met
with in all India, and all are within a stone‟s throw of one another”. But authentic
record/account on Khajuraho temples was published in Alexander Cunningham‟s
„Archaeological Survey Reports‟ Volume II, VII, X and XXI issued in the years 1864 to
1885. These Reports are the rich source of information on this site. He made a detail

7
survey of the antiquities of Khajuraho temples, mounds, loose images and inscriptions.
Since then many historian and scholars have written on Khajuraho.
Among the first photographers to photograph the Khajuraho temples was Raja
Deen Dayal features prominently. He photographed the Khajuraho temples in 1882, and
in 1886, these were published in „Famous monuments of Central India‟ by L. Griffin. In
1892, some major inscriptions of Khajuraho were published in the first volume of the
“Epigraphia Indica” by F. Kielhom.
Smith published a scholarly paper on Chandellas in the year 1908, in Volume
XXXVII of Indian Antiquary. Dealing with the art and architecture of Khajuraho B.L.
Dhama (1927) issued a short guide to Khajuraho. This guide was revised by S.C.
Chandra and reissued in 1953 under their joint authorship. H.C. Ray (1936) was the first
who deal with the political history of the Chandellas. Keshav Chandra (1954) studied the
Chandella‟s history, culture and art on the basis of literary and archeological sources. The
first research work on Chandella‟s history entitled “History of Chandellas” was published
in 1956 by N.S. Bose. He made an attempt to trace the full history of Chandellas. He
discussed the administration, social, economic, cultural and religious life along with art
and architecture during the time of Chandellas. R.C. Majumdar, A.D. Pusalker, S.K.
Mitra (1958), Ayodhya Prasad Pandey (1968) and R.K. Dixit (1977) have also written
about political, administrative and military achievements of Chandellas.
The architecture, specifically the sculptures on the outer walls of the temples of
Khajuraho, has stunned the world for centuries for its unparallel sophistication. Percy
Brown (1942), Stella Kramrisch (1946) and Benjamin Rowland (1953) also showed great
aesthetic perception in dealing with the architectural excellence of Khajuraho temples.
Raymond Burnier (1950) published a beautiful album of the sculptures mostly of the
sursundaries of Khajuraho temples.
O.C. Ganguly (1957) published a monograph “Art of Chandellas” which for the
first time accords aesthetic value to Chandella sculpture of Khajuraho. He also
highlighted the sculptural wealth of Khajuraho with contribution from Stella Kramsrisch
in art journal Marg. The same year saw the publication of serious analyses of the art and

8
architecture of temples by S.K. Saraswati. He challenged the view held by previous
scholars that Khajuraho temples could be dated between A.D. 950-1050 and propounded
his own scheme of chronology of temples on the basis of architectural movement in
different parts in India during that time. He affirmed that the original temples referred to
in the Khajuraho inscription dating from A.D. 954 -1002 were all destroyed by Mahmud
of Ghazni and temples now stand there date from middle of the 11th century onwards. In
1958, S.K. Mitra published his doctoral thesis entitled “Early Rulers of Khajuraho”
describing political history of Chandellas and also highlighted social, economic religious
condition along with art and architecture of the Chandellas. Krishna Deva has given a
classification of Khajuraho sculptures in his article entitled” The Temples of Khajuraho
in Central India” in Ancient India (No.15) in 1959 and analysed the Khajuraho
sculptures, temple architecture and sculptural art in depth.
Eliky Zannas and J. Aubuyer (1960) have also given a detailed description of the
temples along with Chandellas‟ cultural and political background in their work
“Khajuraho.” Urmila Agarwal (1964) discussed the social significance of sculptures for
the study of contemporary social as revealed in Khajuraho sculptures in her doctoral
thesis entitled “Khajuraho Sculptures and their Significance”. She gave an account of
contemporary dress and ornaments, hair styles, cosmetics, music, dance, painting, games,
amusements and miscellaneous activities of everyday life. Vidya Prakash also studied the
social life as reflected in sculptures and carvings at Khajuraho in his book “Cultural Life
in Khajuraho Sculptures” in 1967. Kanwar Lal (1965) wrote on erotic themes of the
temples. His book “Immortal Khajuraho” is a delightful and well-illustrated literary work
which revels in admiring and unfolding the significance of erotic themes. Mulkraj
Anand‟s monograph “Khajuraho” highlighting the aesthetic value of Khajuraho
sculptures was published in 1968. L.K. Tripathi has also written on the same. H.D.
Sankalia published his paper, „Socio-economic background of Khajuraho‟ in the Journal
of Indian History in 1966. He made an attempt to discuss the factors which made it
possible for these magnificent elements in its sculpture and possible reasons for the
construction of temples at Khajuraho. Krishna Deva‟s guide book “Khajuraho” published

9
by Archaeological Survey of India in 1966, gives an authentic account of Khajuraho
temples for general readers and also for scholars. This book provides descriptions of the
plans, design, sculptures and images of the Khajuraho temples based off of the original
survey reports and Dr. Deva‟s personal research. Krishna Deva‟s monograph is a
compilation of original data. Ramashrya Avasthi (1967) made an attempt to study the
iconography of some important deities of Khajuraho temples in depth in his book entitled
“Khajuraho Ki Deva Pratimayain ”. R.K. Dikshit‟s thesis “Chandellas of Jejakabhukti”
(1967) provides authentic account of history of Chandellas and is well documented. S.K.
Dikshit (1968) has divided the history of Chandellas into two period‟s viz. I. Creative
period in Khajuraho and II. Non-productive period in Khajuraho in his book entitled
“Spot-Light on the History of the Chandellas”. K. L. Aggarwal‟s book “Khajuraho”
(1980) contains the study of the monuments of Khajuraho in the light of geo-political,
socio-economic and religious background.
Devangna Desai has made a genuine contribution to the study of Chandella art
and iconography with his book “The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho” (1966). She
critically discussed the importance of religious imagery of Khajuraho and placement of
images. Again this book published in 1996, in which she gave a closer view of the
divinities and their configurations, particularly in the major Hindu temples of Khajuraho.
She concentrated on the iconic schemes and pantheons of two magnificent temples, one a
rare preserved shrine of Vaikuntha-Vishnu and the other dedicated to Shiva. This book
highlights the important cult of the Yogin and the synergetic role of Surya in Khajuraho's
pantheon. Her outstanding book Erotic Sculptures of India (1975) is a much more sober
and scientific study of erotic sculptures of Khajuraho. She made an attempt to explain the
meaning of erotic sculptures on the textual basis. She also published another book
“Khajuraho” in 2000 with latest information regarding temples. R. Nath (1980) published
his notable monograph “The art of Khajuraho”. It is the most comprehensive and well
documented work on the art and architecture of Khajuraho, lying stress on their aesthetic
evaluation and interpretation of erotica. R. Nath has given detailed quotations about
feminine beauty and grace and classification of the erotic figural postures. Maqbool

10
Ahmad also had written on the same in his book “Khajuraho Erotica and Temple
Architecture”. K.K. Chakravarti‟s monograph “Khajuraho” in 1985 specifies the line
drawings of Khajuraho temples and sculptures along with beautiful photographs.
Laxminarayan Pachori also published his book “The Erotic Sculptures of Khajuraho” in
1989; M.N.P. Tiwari‟s “Khajuraho ki Jain Puratattava” in 1987 provides a critical
account of Jain sculptures of Khajuraho. Shobita Punja studied the Khajuraho
temples and published “Khajuraho: The First Thousand Years”, “Khajuraho:
Our World in Color”, “Khajuraho and its Historical Surrounding”, “Divine
Ecstasy: The Story of Khajuraho”, “Khajuraho” (1991), Henri Stierlin‟s book
”Hindu India: From Khajuraho to the Temple City of Madurai” (1998) includes detailed
photographs, drawings, plans and excavation materials of Khajuraho temples.
K.M. Suresh made a study of different sculptures at Khajuraho in his wok
entitled “Saivite Sculpture of Khajuraho” (1998), “Iconography of Vishnu from
Khajuraho” (1999) and analysed the plan, elevation and section and art of Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple of Khajuraho (1999). Dr. P.K. Mishra, published his book”
Khajuraho- with Latest Discoveries” in 2001. The excavation of Banjamandal mound is
important discovery whose plinth is longer that that of largest Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple. Khajuraho Unknown (2006) by Onkar Rahi presents before us sculpture as
manifestation of refinement rekindling creative fire all around us. It presents erotica
where sexo-yogic postures depict Tantric and cult details whereas reverential attitude in
erotic represents devotion and renunciation. Chelsea Gill investigated the complexity of
the temples architectural style over time, as well as the sculptures on the temples in her
thesis “A Comparative Analysis of the Temples of Khajuraho and the Ruling Chandellas
of India” (2008).
V.A. Smith gave a detail account of Chandella rulers , their temple
architecture and art especially feminine world and eroticism in sculptures in his
book “Khajuraho Unveiled” (2011). David Raezer and Jennifer Raezer„s Approach
Guide (2012) “India Revealed: The Temples of Khajuraho” provide a detailed review of
the art and architecture of Khajuraho. It highlights the architectural advancements that

11
were undertaken to make its Hindu temples the culmination of the North India temple
style. This guide continues with a broad discussion of Khajuraho‟s sculptural legacy and
delves into the unique character of Khajuraho‟s sculptures, with a special focus on the
religious philosophy of Tantra that inspired these masterful works.
Need of Study
Khajuraho represents one of the highest and most intense moments of the Mediaeval
Hindu renaissance. Khajuraho temples are world famous for their magnificence, delicacy
of chisel and the romance of sculptures. They form a mirror of art and contemporary life.
It is strange but true that such an important temple town has not been mentioned in any
text as a Tirtha are pilgrimage centre. The Puranas, the Tantras and special manuals on
Tirthas such as 12th century text Tirtha kanda of Lakshmidhara of Kannauj and 15th
century text Tirthachintamani are silent about Khajuraho. The Muslim traveler Ibn-Batuta
was the first who mentioned Khajuraho in his traveling account. He visited this place in
1335 A.D. The British Engineer T.S. Burt rediscovered it in 1838 A.D. Since then this
place is attracting many historians and research scholars. There has been a lot of research
has been conducted on art and architecture of Khajuraho temples, still many aspects of
this subject is still unexplored. This study attempts to collate all the existing research that
has been undertaken in this field, and potentially contribute to the existing body of
knowledge through a structural and sculptural analysis of Khajuraho temple architecture
and especially two main temples at Khajuraho. I have been opted this topic to deal with
the salient aspects of Khajuraho temples. I need this study to have deep insight of
philosophical background, spiritual profundity and aesthetic appeal of the temples.
Objectives
The main objectives of my study are:
1. To know the historical significance of Khajuraho temples.
2. To study the role of temples in socio-cultural sphere.
3. To make a systematic study of the architecture found in temple complex.
4. To analyze sculpture of temples and their distinctive features.
5. To analyze the art and architecture of Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva temple.

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Period of Study
The period of present study is 10th century A.D. to 13th century A.D. Chandellas emerge
as a power during the early 10th century and survived as a powerful independent royal
family until the close of the 13th century. Before coming to the power they were
feudatories under the empirical Pratiharas. The magnificent temples of Khajuraho were
built by Chandellas. They do not illustrate a development over a long period of time.
They were all erected within the relatively narrow interval of a hundred years from about
A.D. 950 to 1050. The whole area was enclosed by a wall with eight gates each flanked
by two golden palm trees. There were originally over 85 temples of which only 22 now
stand in a reasonable state of preservation scattered over an area of above 8 sq. miles.
Scope
Many scholars have dealt with the architectural development, the socio-political
atmosphere and philosophical aspects of the erotic contents at Khajuraho. The present
study aims to have deeper insight into the role of temples of Khajuraho in various spheres
of life from the ancient time to the modern days. It also analyses the contribution of the
sacred place Khajuraho to the origin and development of the temple cluster. Another
endeavor of this research is to bring out salient features of Khajuraho temples art and
architecture.
Study Temples
The present study aims at art and architecture of Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva
temples of Khajuraho. These temples are considered the high point of architectural genius
in the medieval period. These temples are situated in southern parts of western group of
temples of Khajuraho (Figure 1.1) and aligned east to west, with the entrance facing east.
Western group of temples spread over the 11.307 hectares area. Lakshmana temple is the
earliest organised and well-planned temple of Khajuraho which was constructed in about
A.D. 950 while Kandariya Mahadeva, a century later, is more magnificent and has
mature plan and designs. Both the temples are biggest and tallest among the other
temples of all groups of temples. These temples are richly carved internally and
externally with excellent sculptures that are frequently sensual and, at times,

13
 Fig. 1.1 Study Temples: Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva of Khajuraho (western group)

sexually explicit. These temples are made of fine sandstone. The builder did not use
mortar; the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in
place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and
architraves were built with megaliths that weighted up to twenty tons. Lakshmana temple
is situated in front of Lakshmi and Varaha temple, and Matangeshvara temple sits parallel
in southern. It is 80 ft in height. Lakshmana temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It houses
a sacred image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu brought from Tibet. Though the temple is one of the
oldest in the Khajuraho field, it is also one of the most exquisitely decorated, covered
almost completely with images of over 600 gods in the Hindu Pantheon. It looks elegant
and well-developed panchayatna temple. The plan of this temple is sandhara type, with
two pairs of transepts. Lakshmana temple is probably the earliest and best preserved of

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Khajuraho. Kandariya Mahadeva temple is situated at the distance of just 200 m

Fig. 1.2 Satellite images of western group temples of Khajuraho

from west of Lakshmana temple and southern side of the Devi Jagadambi. This temple is
stands on common platform with Jagadambi. Kandariya Mahadeva is one of the largest
and dedicated to Shiva in the form of Shiva-Linga enshrined in the sanctum-sanctorum.
Architecturally and sculpturally it is most impressive in India owing to its perfection of
design and profusion of sculptures. It marks the most evolved and finished temple of
North Indian style. This is the alone temple which have two makra-toranas. Kandariya
Mahadeva temple displays few number of sculptures of alluring beauty appears on the
three bands on its wall and represented gods and goddesses, mithunas, apsras,
surasundaries, vyalas and nagins in recesses.

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Source of Research Work
This study work is based on archival research and other documentary, literary works and
theoretical investigation on ancient treatise and modern research works on the temple
architecture of India and especially on temples of Khajuraho. The archival research has
helped to bring out the basic concept of architecture and how it influenced the design of
Khajuraho temple architecture.
Research Plan
This research work is divided in eight chapters. The first chapter is introduction of the
study. The second chapter deals with the physical and regional setting of Khajuraho.
Khajuraho had the advantage of having the significant and natural setting with low lying
hills, thriving forest and Khudar River on the southern side. This features provided an
almost inimitable surroundings to the superlative temples. Environmental geography
played a key role in the selection of site and construction of temples. The popularity of
the Khajuraho‟s art and architecture has made the place one of the most popular tourist
destinations and in the UNESCO list of the World Heritage Sites in the nation. The third
chapter contains an account of the political background and administration of the
Chandella king- the builders and patrons of these magnificent temples. The Chandella
kings are recognised as a great builders and patrons of art and architecture. The fourth
chapter is related with general distribution and historical significance of these temples.
From A.D. 900 to 1150, a period of 250 years, a large number of temples were built at
Khajuraho. It specifies the chronology of the temples.
The fifth chapter deals with architecture patterns of temples. Every style of
building construction reflects a clearly distinctive basic principle that represents a
particular culture and era. Three most basic forms of temples architecture were prevailing
in north as well as in the south India, the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the
southern style and the Vesara or mixed style. The temples of Khajuraho built in central
India are marvelous example of Nagara style of architecture. The archaeological analysis
of temple architecture includes analysis of the temple plan, the ceiling architecture,
construction material and sculptural contents of the temples and architecture of temples

16
of Khajuraho are analysed on these grounds. The sixth chapter contains the art and
architecture of Lakshmana Temple. Lakshmana Temple is one of the oldest and finest of
the western group of temples of Khajuraho. Sculpturally and architecturally, this temple
has remarkable features which are analysed in detail. The seventh chapter describes the
art and architecture of Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. This temple has been praised as the
pinnacle of the tradition of medieval Hindu North Indian temple building and is the
largest and most ornate Hindu temple. The last chapter is related with the conclusions.

References
1. Prithvirajraso, Ed. By Shyamsunder Das, p. 2
2. Alexander Cunningham, Bundelkhand and Rewa in 1883-84, Vol. XXI, part I & II, p. 58
3. N.S. Bose, History of Chadellas, pp. 1-2
4. P.K. Agrawal, The Story of Khajuraho, pp. 39-46
5. S.K. Mitra, Early Rulers of Khajuraho, p. 1
6. Shobita Punja, Divine Ecstasy : The Story of Khajuraho, p. 3-4
7. S.K. Mitra, The Early Rulers of Khajuraho, p. 216
8. O.C. Ganguly, The Art of Chandella, p. 16
9. S.K. Mitra, Op. cit., p.209
10. B.L. Dhama, Khajuraho Guide, pp. 7-8
11. Rustam, J.Mehta, Op. cit., p. 12
12. Shyam Sharma, Ancient Indian Art, Architecture & iconography, p. 111-112
13. Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, p. 3
14. Shobita Punja, Khajuraho: The First Thousand Years, p. 4
15. A.K. Dey, Khajuraho: The immortal ancient sculpture, p. 1
16. Barbara Wightman, A. Third World Tour Landscapes, Annals of Tourism Research, p. 227
17. The Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VIII, Year 1839

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