Earth Science

Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 3 – Earth Sci Subject Teacher:

Outline:
1. Minerals in Everyday Life
2. Mineral Deposits
3. Mineral Resources
4. Mineral Exploration
5. Environmental Impacts

Learning Objectives:
After completing the module, the students should be able to:
• identify the minerals important to society;
• describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use; and
• cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation, extraction,
and use of mineral resources

MINERAL RESOURCES

MINERALS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. Antimony - used to create batteries
2. Barium - used in X-ray technology, rubber, glass and can be a rat poison.
3. Cobalt - used in making glass
4. Copper - used for currency, jewellery
5. Calcium carbide - known as “Kalburo” used for fruit ripening
* Minerals in cell phone, keys, coins, pencil/pen, make-up, powder, glasses,

MINERAL DEPOSITS
1. Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest.
2. Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable
extraction under the most favorable conditions.
3. Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable
to mine.
4. Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally
used to describe nonmetallic deposits.
5. Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be
extracted.

Types of mineral resources:

1. Metallic mineral deposits: gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron
2. Non-metallic resources: talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel occurrence of a mineral
resource

Mineral resources and their origins

Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism responsible for concentrating
the valuable substance.

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

- These are the valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through
magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling.
- Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable
substances after accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low
concentrations within the magma.

Kinds:
a. Crystal settling: as magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize
early and settle at the lower portion of the magma chamber
E.g. chromite (FeCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4) and platinum (Pt)
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 3 – Earth Sci Subject Teacher:

b. Fractional crystallization: The residual melt contains high percentage of water

and volatile substances that are favorable for the formation of pegmatites.
E.g. Pegmatites are enriched in Lithium, Gold, Boron, rare elements and some
other heavy metals.

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- Concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through
fractures and pore spaces in rocks

Examples:
a. Vein type
- A fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant
and typically narrow.
- Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones within
the country rock.
- Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the most
productive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as
hydrothermal vein deposits

b. Disseminated deposits
- Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses (very low
concentration) through large volumes of rocks.
- This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits

a. Massive sulfide deposit(at oceanic spreading centers)

- Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS) and
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluids that circulated above magma
chambers at oceanic ridges that may contain sulfur, copper and zinc come
in contact with cold groundwater or seawater as it migrate towards the
seafloor.
- Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic sediment)
- This deposit is formed when the dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid
precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of
a lake or ocean. Such minerals may contain economic concentrations of
lead, zinc and copper, usually in sulfide form like galena (PbS), sphalerite
(ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from
lakes or seawater.

a. Evaporite Deposits:
- This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where
evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates,
the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the residual water
and would eventually precipitate.
- Ex.Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax (used in soap) and sylvite (KCl,
from which K is extracted for fertilizers)

b. Iron Formation:
- These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and
several other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite.
- Iron formations appear to be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly
formed in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years
or older).
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 3 – Earth Sci Subject Teacher:

4. Placer Ore Deposits

- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity
separation during sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the
heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense
particles remain suspended and are carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.
- Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and
tin;
- The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located.

5. Residual Ore Deposits

- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through
chemical weathering processes. During the process, the volume of the original rock is
greatly reduced by leaching. Important factors for the formation of residual deposit
include parent rock composition, climate (tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable
for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow accumulation).
- Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites. Bauxite, the principal ore of
aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo intense chemical
weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements
that include silicon, sodium and calcium through leaching.
- Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the
laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite. Like in the
formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common
elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.

MINERAL EXPLORATION

Major stages involved in Mineral Exploration

1. Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project.

- This involves review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.),
government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental,
political and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization
proposals.

2. Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can
be subdivided into three phases:
A. Regional Reconnaissance: The main objective is to identify targets or interesting
mineralized zones covering a relatively large area (regional).

B. Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with
the objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.

C. Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive
resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3)
environmental and societal cost assessment.

3. Pre-production Feasibility Study : The feasibility study determines and validates the
accuracy of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for
independent assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into
production.
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 3 – Earth Sci Subject Teacher:

MINING METHODS
2 Main Methods of Mining
1. Surface Mining
◦ Utilized to extract ore minerals
that are close to Earth’s
surface
◦ Different types include open
pit mining, quarrying, placer
mining and strip mining.

600m deep open pit diamond mine (Source: CK12 Earth Science)

Limestone Quarry in northern Illinois(source: Physical Geology Earth

Revealed by Carlson, 2011)
102

Strip Mining

2. Underground mining
◦ Utilized to extract ore minerals
from the ore body that is
deep under the Earth’s
surface

Underground Mining
Source:https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-
investing/underground-block-caving-guide-investors-/

The Milling Process

The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral separation and recovery.This is because
the materials extracted or “mined" are rocks composed of both ore and waste material.

Crushing Screening Grinding

 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 3 – Earth Sci Subject Teacher:

Milling or Recovery Methods

1. Heavy media separation

- The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser minerals sink thus
are separated from the lighter minerals.
- This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining
processes of extracting copper.
2. Magnetic separation:
- If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste
materials using a powerful magnet.
3. Flotation:
- The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals
and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or
may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals
from the waste.
4. Cyanide heap leaching:
- This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on a
“leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile.
- As the leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the
solution.
- The solution is processed further to extract the gold.
- The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond,
while the metals are sent for further processing

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Improper mining can cause : Mitigation of the harmful effects of irresponsible

1. Flooding mining:
2. Erosion 1. Topsoil replacement using
3. Subsidence uncontaminated soil
4. Water and air pollution 2. Reintroduction of flora and fauna;
5. Damage to wildlife and habitat 3. Neutralizing acidic waters;
4. Backfilling and sealing of abandoned
underground mines; and
5. Stabilizing the slope of impacted area to
reduce erosion,

Role of the Government

1. Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)
- The Mines and Geosciences Bureau is the primary government agency under the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), responsible for the
conservation, management, development and proper use of the country’s mineral
resources including those in reservations and lands of public domain.
2.Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
- The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) formulates plans, programs, and
appropriate environmental quality standards for the prevention and control of pollution
and the protection of the environment, and ensures their implementation.
3. Philippine Mine Safety and Environment Association (PMSEA)
- The forerunner in the promotion of occupational health and safety, sound
environmental management and social responsibility in the country’s minerals industry

Reference Material/s:
Leopoldo de Silva, Ph.D. (2016)Teaching Guide for Senior High School Earth Science, Commission on Higher
Education,C.P. Garcia Ave., Diliman, Quezon City

Environmental Management Bureau(2020) Retrieved from: https://www.dbm.gov.ph/wp-

content/uploads/OPCCB/OPIF2010/DENR/EMB.pdf