Communication Engineering

Semester-V
Communication
Engineering
EEE_Semester-V_Ch04.indd 1 7/19/2012 12:50:43 PM

The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and
reliable. This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to
be treated as such. While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the
information presented within, neither the publisher nor its authors bear any responsibility for
any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or
factual) that may have found their way into this book.
EEE_Sem-VI_Chennai_FM.indd iv 12/7/2012 6:40:43 PM

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,
Nov/Dec 2013
Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Find transmission power efficiency for a tone modulated signal when
modulation index is 0.5.
2. Define the modulation index of FM.
3. State sampling theorem.
4. What is the principle of delta modulation?
5. What is BSC?
6. What is the rule for AMI code?
7. Define multiple access.
8. What is the principle of SDMA?
9. What is a satellite’s footprint?
10. What is SCADA?
Part B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Explain a method of generating a single sideband signal using
balance modulators. (8)
(ii) Discuss the principle of AM based radio frequency receiver with
block diagram. (8)
CE_Nov-Dec 2013-QP.indd 1 4/24/2014 12:13:48 PM

1.2 B.E./B.Tech. Question Papers
Or
(b) (i) Draw and explain the block diagram of Armstrong system of
generating FM signal. (8)
(ii) Derive the equation for the spectrum of FM signal. (8)
12. (a) (i) Discuss the generation method of PWM. Explain how you will
convert PWM to PPM with diagram. (6)
(ii) Explain a pulse code modulation system with its block diagram.
(10)
Or
(b) (i) Explain frequency shift Keying method with equations. (8)
(ii) Discuss the method of modulation and demodulation in MSK
with equations and block diagram. (8)
13. (a) (i) Given states S = {S0,S1,S2,S3,S4} and their probabilities P =
{0.4,0.2,0.2,0.1,0.1}. Find coding efficiency and entropy for
Huffman coding. (8)
(ii) Give the procedure for Shannon Fano coding and use the procedure
to obtain the code for the source symbols S0,S1,S2,S3,S4,S5 with
their respective probabilities ½, 1/3, 1/12, 1/15, 1/120, 1/120.
(8)
Or
(b) Discuss the concept of coding and decoding methods of block
codes with its mathematical frame work and diagram. (16)
14. (a) (i) Explain the principle of FDMA with diagram. (8)
(ii) Discuss TDMA technique in detail and compare it with FDMA.
(8)
Or
(b) (i) Describe CDMA technique in detail. (8)
(ii) Explain the role of SDMA in wire and wireless communication.
(8)
15. (a) (i) Draw and explain the block diagram of an earth station. (8)
(ii) Describe the aperture actuators used in satellites. (8)
Or

Communication Engineering Nov/Dec 2013 1.3
(b) (i) Discuss various types of fibers. (5)

Explain the following
(i) Laser diode
(ii) Avalanche photodiode. (6+5)

Solutions
Nov/Dec 2013
PART A
2. The value of the modulation index indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated
level. It relates to variations in the carrier frequency:
f f x (t )
h=   m
fm fm
3. A signal that varies continuously with time is completely determined by its values at an infinite sequence of
equally spaced times if the frequency of these sampling times is greater than twice the highest frequency
component of the signal. Also known as Shannon’s sampling theorem.
4. Delta modulation in a set of discrete time relations
e(nT3) = x(nT3) – x(nT3)
= x(nT3) – u(nT3 – T3)
b(nT3) = fsgn[e(nT3)]
u(nT3) = u(nT3 – T3) + bnT3
5. BSC is Binary symmetric Channel. In this communication channel, the transmitter send the information in the
form of bit (Zeros and ones) and the receives the same.
6. The rules of AMI are:
 B8ZS (North American T1)

 HDB3 (European E-carrier)
7. Refer Q.no. May/June 2011
8. SDMA is Space-Division multiple access. SDMA is a channel access method based on creating parallel spatial
pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial multiplexing and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer
superior performance in radio multiple access communication systems.
9. The Satellite footprint is the ground area that its transponders offer coverage, and determines the satellite dish
diameter required to receive each transponder’s signal.
10. SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
A SCADA system usually refers to an industrial control system. It is basically computer system monitoring and
controlling a process.
PART B
11.a i) If noise n(t) having power spectral density Sn(f) is multiplied with the sinusoidal signal cos2 fct then the
resultant signal becomes n(t) cos2 fct. The resultant noise in the multiplied signal is given as,
Sn ( f )
Sn ( f c  f )  Sn ( f c  f )  .
4
Thus two components of noise are produced at the output of mixer. One component at frequency fc + f and
other component at frequency fc – f. Both of these components have 1/4th power of the original noise. The input
noise is white gaussian having power spectral density of Sn = N0/2. This noise is passed through the carrier
filter. Thus the filter passes the noise frequencies only from fc to fc + fm. Hence the power spectral density of
noise at the output of carrier filter will be shown in Figure 1.
Synchronous
Signal source
xc(t ) cos (2 fct) x0(t) A/2 cos 2 fmt
xi(t) A cos (2 (fc fm)t)
x1(t) x2(t) Baseband P0 A2/ 8
Carrier
Pi A2/2
filter, HC(f ) S Sn2 filter, HB(f )
Noise spectral n1 Noise spectral
Multiplier density Sn0
density Sn N0/ 2 (demodulator)
Fig. 1
HC(f )
fc fm fc O fc fc fm f
Fig. 2 The bandpass range of carrier filter. It passes frequencies fc to fc + fm. This is upper sideband.
HB(f )
1
fm O fm f
Fig. 3 Low pass baseband filter. It passes frequencies.
When the noise components between fc and fc + fm is multiplied with carrier cos2fct, then the spectral density at
the output of multiplier will be Sn2. We have seen that multiplication of noise with sinusoidal signal shifts the
original noise to fc – f and fc + f and reduces amplitude to 1/4. In the above figure consider the pulse of Sn1 from
Xfc to fc + fm. This pulse is shifted by fc to get new pulse at 2fc to 2fc + fm. And it is shifted by –fc to get one more
pulse at 0 to fm. Both the pulses are reduced in amplitude by 4. Similarly the pulse on negative frequencies side is
shifted.
Now the noise with spectral density Sn2 is passed through a baseband filter. This filter passes frequencies less than
fm. Hence the pulse around origin is passed in Figure 2. The power spectral density of noise at the output of the
baseband filter is shown in Figure 3. The noise power can be obtained by integrating the power spectral density.
(ie).,
 fm N0
Pn 0   Sn ( f )  df    df .
  fm 8
In the above equation Sn( f ) = Sno which has value of N0/8 over –fm to fm. Hence integration limits are changed to
±fm. Solving the above integration we get,
N0 N0 fm
Pn 0  [ f ]fmfm   Pn 0  .
8 4
This is noise power at the output.
11 a ii)
When the carrier to noise ratio reduces below certain value, the message information is lost. The
performance of envelope detector deteriorates rapidly and it has no proportion to carrier to noise ratio.
This is called threshold effect.
• Every nonlinear receiver exhibits threshold effect. Coherent receivers do not have threshold effect.
• The detector output does not depend only on message signal m(t), rather it is the function of noise also.
When the noise is higher compared to signal, the noise dominates the performance of the receiver. Let us express
noise in terms of envelope and phase components. (ie)
n(t) = r(t) cos[2fct + (t)].
Here r(t) is magnitude of noise and
(t) is the phase of noise.

The signal plus noise will be,
x(t )  s (t )  n(t )
 Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos 2 f c t  r (t ) cos[2 f c t   (t )]
x(t )  [ Ac  Ac ka m(t )]cos 2 f c t  r (t ) cos[2 f c t   (t )]. (1)

The below figure shows the phasor diagram of above equation. The term r(t) is used as a reference.
t
tan
sul Ac Ackam(t)
Re
(t)
r(t)
Fig. 1 Phasor diagram of AMS/8 for two carrier to nise ratio

If this figure observe that the phasor r(t) is added to phase Ac + Ackam(t). As per the Equation (1), the angle
between these phasors is . Since Ac is very small compared to r(t) we can approximately express the resultant y(t)
as,
y (t )  r (t )  Ac cos (t )  Ac ka m(t ) cos (t ).

• Above equation shows that output of envelope detector is the function of noise components as well as
message.
• Output is not strictly proportional to message signal.
11 b i) Refer Q. no. 11 (b)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011
12 a ii) Refer Q. no. 13 (b) from Nov/Dec 2010
13 a i) Refer Q. no. 13 (a) (ii) from Nov/Dec 2010
13 b) Refer Q. no. 13 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011
14 a i) Refer Q. no. 15 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011
14 a ii) Refer Q. no. 14 (a) from Nov/Dec 2011
14 b i) Refer Q. no. 14 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011
15 a) i) Refer Q. no. 15 (a)(i) from May/June 2011
15 b) ii) Refer Q. no. 15 (a)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011

May/June 2013
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. An AM transmitter is modulated by three sources of audio with m1
= 0.5, m2 = 0.7, m3 = 0.4. The Unmodulated carrier power is 50 kw.
Calculate the modulated power output.
2. Why is FSK preferred over ASK? Give reasons.
3. Define PSK.
4. What is meant by slopeoverload distertion?
5. Define quantization error.
6. State the significance of source coding.
7. Mention the advantages of SDMA Technique.
8. For a total transmit power Pt of 1000w, determine the energy per bit (Eb)
for a transmission rate of 50 Mbps.
9. Define apogce, perige and geocenter.
10. Why is single mode propagation impossible with graded index fibers?
Part B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Explain with a neat circuit, generation of AM wave. For an AM
DSBFC modulator with carrier frequency fc = 100KHz and a
CE_May-June 2013-QP.indd 3 4/22/2014 3:48:54 PM

maximum modulating singal fm = 5KHz, determine Bandwidth and

sketch the output frequency spectrum. (10)
(b) Draw the block for an Armstrong indirect FM generation and
describe its operation. Compare FM and PM. (6)
12. (a) Explain the concept and method of generating of PWM. What are
the advantages and application of PTM? (16)
Or
(b) Explain DPCM technique with neat block diagram. For minimum
line speed with an 8 bit PCM for speech signal ranging upto 1volt.
Calculate the resolution and quantization error. Calculate the coding
efficiency for a resolution of 0.01 volt with the 8 bit PCM. (16)
13. (a) (i) Explain Bandwidth –SNR trade off in source coding. (8)
(ii) Discuss various types of Leni coding techniques. (8)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the concept of noiseless coding theorem and state its
significance. (8)
(ii) Discuss about error control codes and their applications. (8)
14. (a) (i) Discuss in detail about FDMA and TDMA Techniques with a
neat diagram. (10)
(ii) Compare various multiple access techniques. (6)
Or
(b) Explain with a neat block diagram the SDMA technique and discuss
its applications in wire and wireless communication.
15. (a) (i) Explain Kepler’s law and how they relate to satellite
communication. (8)
(ii) Describe significance of satelite link budgets s and how they are
calculated. (8)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the operation of an injection laser diodes and mention its
characteristics. (8)
(ii) Discuss power line carrier communication with suitable example
and diagram.

Nov/Dec 2012
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Draw the frequency spectrum of AM wave.
2. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of FM.
3. Define PSK.
4. State sampling theorem.
5. For a 12 bit data string of 1011 0001 0010, determine the number of
hamming bits required.
6. Compare block and convolutional codes.
7. What is FDMA?
8. Mention the significance of CDMA techniques.
9. List the merits and demerits of geosynchronous satellite.
10. What are the types of optical fiber mode structure?
Part B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) What are the relative merits of high level modulation and low level
modulation in AM transmission? The anode dissipation of a class
c power amplifier is 944 watts when modulation depth is 60%, the
efficiency of a power amplifiers is 60%, while that the modulator is
25%. Find

(i) Carrier power and modulator tube dissipation when modulation

depth is 100%
(ii) AF output and rating of the modulation value to affect 100%
modulation
(iii) Overall efficiency at 60% modulation depth.
Or
(b) Explain in detail Amstrong method of FM generation and compare
NBFM and WBFM.
12. (a) What is meant by quantization? Explain in detail DPCM
communication system.
Or
(b) Discuss the advantages of data communications and explain QPSK
and QAM techniques with neat diagram.
13. (a) Discuss in detail binary symmetric channel and binary erasure
channel. Find the Shannon-Fano code for the following seven
messages with probabilities indicated. $$.
Or
14. (a) How is interference avoided by using code division multiplexing?
Explain.
Or
(b) Discuss in detail the concept of TDMA and SDMA and their
applications in wire and wireless communication. (8 + 8)
15. (a) Explain the concept of satellite communication system and its
application.
Or
(b) Write short notes on;
(i) Optical sources and detectors (10)
(ii) SCADA. (6)

May/June 2012
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Define Modulation Index.
2. State Carson’s Rule.
3. What is aliasing?
4. What is slope overload error?
5. Define entropy.
6. Draw the NRZ and RZ waveforms for the pulse stream 10101011.
7. What is multiplexing?
8. What are the advantages of SDMA?
9. What is a geosynchronous orbit?
10. State Snell’s Law.
Part B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Derive an expression for AM wave and its power relation. (10)
(ii) What are the advantages of single sideband modulation
technique? Explain any one method of SSB generation. (6)
Or

(b) (i) Derive an expression for the Narrowband FM wave. (8)

(b) (ii) Explain the Armstrong method of FM generation. (8)
12. (a) (i) State and Prove sampling theorem. (8)
(ii) Explain the generation of PWM and PPM waves. (8)
Or
(b) (i) Compare PCM and DM. (6)
(ii) Explain the concept of BPSK and QPSK techniques in data
communication. (10)
13. (a) (i) With suitable examples, explain Shannon Fano encoding scheme.
(8)
(ii) Explain Huffman coding with suitable example. (8)

Or
(b) Discuss in detail about CDMA technique and compare its
performance with TDMA and FDMA. (16)
14. (a) Discuss in detail about TDMA and FDMA techniques. (16)
Or
(b) Discuss in detail about CDMA technique and compare its
performance with TDMA and FDMA. (16)
15. (a) (i) Explain the satellite Link Budget. (8)
(ii) Explain the uplink and downlink model of satellite

Communication system. (8)
Or
(b) (i) With neat sketch explain the various blocks and its functionalities
of a Fiber optic Communication system. (10)
(ii) Write a note on power line carrier communications. (6)

NOV/DEC 2011
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Draw a pre-emphasis circuit.
2. Define quantization error.
3. Write the difference between QPSK and MSK.
4. AM transmitter radiates 9 kw with the unmodulated carrier and 10.125 kw

when the carrier is modulated. Calculated the modulation index.
5. What is the information rate?
6. Mention the significance of AMI code.
7. Define near-far problem.
8. What are three types of redundancy checks used in data communication?
9. What are the types of optical fiber available?
10. What are the essential components of a satellite system?
PART B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Compare wide band and narrow band FM.
(ii) How does the phase shift method efficiently suppress the
unwanted side band? Explain with diagram.
Or

(b) (i) With a neat block diagram, explain the operation of Armstrong
frequency modulation system.
(ii) Illustrate the operation of VSB transmission.
12. (a) How does ADM differs from DM? Support your answer with
diagrams?
Or
(b) (i) What is DPSK? Discuss its operation with the required diagrams.
(ii) Compare PCM and DPCM techniques.
13. (a) (i) Describe bandwidth-SNR trade off problem.

(ii) Discuss any one of the decoding methods of convolutional cod-
ing precisely.
Or
(b) Explain the coding and decoding process of block codes?
14. (a) With a neat block diagram, explain the operation of a typical TDMA
system and compare with FDMA.
Or
(b) Discuss the concept of CDMA techniques and mention its merits
and demerits.
15. (a) (i) Explain the characteristics of sources and detectors used in
optical communication?
(ii) Determine the optical power received in dBm and watts for a
20 Km optical fiber link with the following parameters:
• LED output power of 30 mw
• Four 5 Km sections of optical cable each with a loss of
0.5 dB/km
• Three cable to cable connectors with a loss of 2 dB each
• No cable splices
• Light sources to fiber interface of 1.9 dB
Or
(b) Explain types and multiple access technique in satellite communication?

Solutions
PART A
1.
7H
R1 MODEL GRAPH
10 kΩ C2
100 kΩ dB
C1 o/p
BC 108 0.01 Mf
Pre-emphasis
0.01 Mf
FG
R2
10 kΩ
54 kΩ
t
2. The difference between the instantaneous values of the quantized signal

and the input signal is called as quantization error.
ε = xq (t ) − x (t )
3. QPSK MSK
Number of bits per symbol (N) is (2) Number of bits per symbol (N) is (2)
Uses coherent detection method Uses coherent detection method
Minimum bandwidth = fb Minimum bandwidth = 1.5fb
⎛ m2 ⎞ 10.125
4. Pt = Pc ⎜1 + a ⎟ = − 1 = 1.125 − 1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 9
ma2
= 0.125
2
ma = 0.250
ma = 0.5
5. The rate of information (R) is defined as ‘the Average number of bits of

information per second’. It is given as,
R = rH bits/sec..
6. In this encoding no mechanism to ensure the synchronization of a long
string of O’S, especially for long-distance transmission.
7. Some of the mobile units are closed to the base station while others are
far from it. A strong signal received at the base from a near-in mobile

units masks the weak signal from a far end mobile unit. This phenom-
enon is called near-far problem.
8. Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding
extra bits for detecting errors at the destination there ate three types of
redundancy checks are common in data communication:
• Parity check
• Cyclic Redundancy check (CRC)
• Checksum.
9. • Step index fiber
• Graded index fiber
• Mono-mode
• Multi-mode
10. • Uplink
• Transponder
• Receiver
PART B
11. (a) (i)
Parameters Wideband FM Narrow band FM
1. Modulation Index Greater than 1 Lesser then 1
2. Maximum derivation 75 KHz 5 KHz
3. Range of modulating 30 Hz to 15 KHz 30 Ω to 3 KHz
frequency
4. Bandwidth BW = 2(Δf + fm) BW = 2fm
5. Maximum modulating 5 to 2500 Slightly greater
Index than 1
(ii) The phasing method avoids the prime disadvantage of filtering

method.
Input signal for modulators (1)
Vc(t) = Vc sinwct
Vm(t) = Vm sinwmt
Input signal for modulators (2),
⎛ π⎞
Vc (t ) = Vc sin ⎜ ω c + ⎟ t = Vc cos ω c t
⎝ 2⎠

Communication Engineering (Nov/Dec 2011) 4.7
Audio Input Balancing V1 (t )

Modulator
(1) Antenna
Linear
90° Crystal Summing Matching
Power
Phase Shift Oscillator Amplifier Network
Amplifier
90°
Phase Shift
Balancing V2 (t)
Modulator
(2)
⎛ π⎞
Vm (t ) = Vm sin ⎜ ω m + ⎟ t = Vm cos ω m (t ) → (4)
⎝ 2⎠
Output from modulator (1)
V1 (t ) = Vc sin ω c t.Vm sin ω m t

1
= VmVc [cos (ω c − ω m )t − cos(ω c + ω m )t ] → (5)
2
Output from modulator (2)
V2 (t ) = Vm cos ω m t ⋅Vc sin ω c t
1
= VmVc [cos(ω c − ω m )t + cos(ω c + ω m )t ] → (6)
2
From (5) and (6)
1 1
VmVc cos(ω c − ω m )t − cos VmVc (ω c + ω m )t
2 2
1 1
V V cos(ω c − ω m )t + VmVc cos(ω c + ω m )t
2 m c 2
LSB USB

Merits
• It does not require any sharp cut off filter.
• It is possible to generate the desired side band in a single
frequency translation step regardless of how large the carrier
frequency may be.
Demerits
• In spite of these merits, the phasing method is less popular
than the fitter method.
(b) (i) In this method, the modulating signal is integrated and the
phase modulated with the carrier signal, as a result of which
some form of FM signal is obtained.
Later frequency multipliers are used to get the desired wide-
band FM.
In this indirect method, a stable crystal oscillator is used to gen-
erate PM from which narrow band FM is obtained.
This method is widely used in practice.
Transmitting
Antenna
Phase
Crystal Modulator
Oscillator
Carrier
FM
Wave Classic
Carrier Combining Group of Group of
Buffer Mixer Power
Network Multipliers Multiplier
AMP
Only
Sidebands
90° Crystal
90° Phase Balanced
Phase Oscillator
Shifter Modulator
Carrier
Equalized
Modulating Signal
Audio
Equalizer
Modulating Signal

Technique Used in Indirect Method
VPM (t ) = Vc sin(ω c t + mP sin ω m t )

dθ (t )
ωP =
dt
d
ω P = [ω c + mP sin ω m t ]
dt
= ω c + mP cos ω m t × ω m
f P = f c + mP f m cos(2π f m t )
f P = f c + Δf
Δf = mP f m cos(2π f m t )
Δf = f m mP
(ii) Generation of VSB (Filter Method)

DSB-SC
Modulated
Message Wave VSB
Product Band Pass
Signal Modulated
Modulator Filter
m (t) Wave
Vc sin (2p fc t )
Carrier Signal
The product modulator generates DSB-SC signal from the mes-

sage signals and carrier signals.
The special design of the band-pass filter is that distinguishes
VSB modulation from DSB-SC modulation.
Magnitude Response of VSB Filter
I H (f ) I Suppressed Portion of USB
1.0
0.5
Vestige of LSB
f
fc – fv fc fc + fv fc + fm

Here fc to fc + fm is upper side band (USB). Its portion from fc to

fc + fV is suppressed partially.
fc to fc − fm is lower side band (LSB). Its portion from fc − fV to fc
is to be transmitted as vestige.
The filter response is only for positive frequencies. This frequency
response is normalized, so that at the carrier frequency we have
1
H ( fc ) =
2
In the transition Interval f c − fV ≤ f ≤ f c + fV , the following
two conditions are satisfied,
• The sum of the values of the magnitude response H ( f ) at
any two frequencies equally displaced above and below fc is
unity.
• The phase response arg H( f ) is linear
Output
VSb Signal Product v (t) Low Pass Signal
s (t) Modulator Filter vo (t)
Carrier A´c cos 2p fct
H( f ) satisfies the condition,

H ( f − fc ) + H ( f + fc ) = 1 − fm ≤ f ≤ fm
Transmission bandwidth,
BT = f m + fV
f m → message bandwidth
fV → width of the vestigial sideband
1 1
S (t ) = Vc m(t ) cos(2π f c t ) ± Vc m ′(t ) sin(2π f c t ) → (3)
2 2
H Q ( f ) = j ⎡⎣ H [ f = f c ] − H ( f + f c ) ⎤⎦ for − f m ≤ f ≤ f m
Advantages
• Low frequencies, near fc are transmitted without any
attenuation.
• Bandwidth is reduced compared to DSB.
• The filter required need not have a sharp-cut off.

Applications
• VSB is used in television for transmission of “picture signal”
12. (a) Parameters DM ADM

1. Number of bits per N=1 N=1
sample
2. Step size Step size is fixed Step size is
variable
3. Distortion Slop overload Granular noise
distortion and
granular noise
4. Signaling rate and Low Low
band width
5. System complexity Simple Simple
6. Noise immunity Very good Very good
DM Transmitter
Comparator
Sampled + e (n) b [nTs ]
DM Wave
Input Quantizer Encoder
m (n)
–
m q (n –1)
+
–
Prediction
Filter m q (n)
>
e [nTs ] = m [nTs ] – m [nTs ]
Where,
e[nTs] → Error at present sample
m[nTs] → Sample signal of m(t)
u[nTs] = u[( n − 1)Ts ] + [±Δ ]

DM Receiver
Reconstructed
Sampled Message
Low Pass
Channel Decoder
+ – Filter
Output Signal
+
Z –1
Quantization Noise
Delta modulation is subject to two types of quantization error
• Slop overloaded distortion
• Granular noise
Slope Overloaded Distortion
Granular Noise
Slop Overload Distortion

If the slop of the analog signal m(t) is much higher than that of mq (t)
over a long duration then mq (t) will not able to follow m(t).
Δ
The slop of mq (t ) = = Δf s
Ts
Advantages
• Low signalling rate and low transmission channel bandwidth.
• Less complicated to impliment.
Disadvantages
• Slop overloaded error and granular noise are present.
ADM Transmitter
In ADM transmitter logic for step control is the only additional block.
The remaining blocks are same as that of linear DM transmitter.

Logic for
Step Size
Control
Input Error
+ e (nTs )
m (nTs ) Output
One-bit
– Quantizer
>
m (nTs )
u [(n – 1) Ts ] +
Delay Ts
u [nTs ]
Accumulator
ADM Receiver
The entire operation of receiver is divided into two parts.
In the first stage, for each incoming bit step size is produced.
Finally, the original message signal is reconstructed from the stair-
case waveform using low pass filter.
Accumulator
Input + Output
Low Pass
Filter
+
Logic for
Step Size
Control
Delay T
Advantages of ADM
• Wide dynamic range due to variable step size
• Better utilisation of bandwidth as compared to delta modulation
• Low signalling rate

(b) (i) Transmitter

The block diagram of a binary phase shift keying transmitter is
as shown in figure.
The block consist of
• Level convertor
• Balanced modulator
• Carrier oscillator
• Filter
Modulated
Binary
Level Balanced o/p
Data BPF
Convertor Modulator
Input
Sin (Wct )
Buffer
Ref Carrier
Oscillator
The BPSK signal can be generated by applying a carrier signal

to the balanced modulator.
The input binary data is applied to an level encoder. The level
encoder converts the binary data sequence into a bipolar signal.
Balanced Ring Modulator
D1
T1 T2
Ref BPSK
Carrier Modulated
i/p i/p
D2

Binary Input (1)
Ref
0° Carrier
Carrier
o/p
i/p o
Binary Input (0)
Ref
180° Carrier
Carrier
o/p
i/p o
BPSK Output Waveform
Binary 1 0 1 0 1
Sequence
t
Level
Encoder
Signal
Bpsk
Signal

In the above figure the diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, acts as OFF
diodes under the control of binary data input.
If the binary input is logic 1, the diodes D1 and D2 are turned
ON.
In this condition, the carrier voltage developed across the trans-
form is 0° in phase.
Binary Input Binary Output
Logic 0 180°
Logic 1 0°
(ii) Parameter PCM DPCM

1. Number of bits N = 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 N=1
per second
2. Step size Depends on number Step size is fixed
of Q levels
3. Distortion Quantisation error Slop overload
distortion
4. Signalling rate High Lower then PCM
5. System complexity Complex simple
6. Feedback from No feedback Feedback is
output present
7. Noise immunity Very good Very good
8. Use of repeater Possible Possible
13. (a) (i) The amplitude of the pulse carrier is changed in proportion with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Types of PAM
Depending upon the wave shape
1. Natural PAM
2. Flat top PAM
Natural PAM
The modulating signal X(t) is passed through a low pass filter
which band limits this signal to fm.

Continuos
Low Pass PAM
Modulating Multipier
Filter Signal
Signal x (t )
Pulse Train
Generator
Band limiting is necessary to avoid ‘alaising’

V
Modulating Signal
(V )
t
(V )
Pulse Carrier
(V ) Double Polarity PAM Signal
Flat TOP PAM

A sample and hold circuit is used to produce flat top sample
PAM.
The sample and hold circuit consist of two fields. Effect transis-
tor (FET) switches a capacitor.
During this period, the capacitor ‘C’ quickly charged upto a
voltage equal to the instantaneous sample value of the incom-
ing signal X(t).
The discharges switch is then opened and thus capacitor has no
voltage.

Charging Switch
+
c
x (t ) Flat Top
PAM
–
Discharge
Switch
Flat Top PAM
Input x (t )
Generating of PAM Wave
Generation and Detection of ASK

ASK Generator
The input binary sequence is applied to the product modula-
tor. The product modulator amplitude modulates the sinusoidal
carrier.
Binary Ask
Binary Product
Signal
Signal b (t ) Modulator
s (t )
Carrier
2P s cos (2p fo t )
It passes the carrier signal when input bit is ‘1’. It does not pass
the carrier signal when input bit is ‘0’.
ASK Detector
The block diagram of coherent ASK detector is shown below.
The ASK signal is applied to the correlated consisting of mul-
tiplier and Integrator.

Tb
Detected
Binary
Ask Signal ∫ dt
Decision
Device
Binary
Signal b (t )
o
2P s cos (2p fo t ) Thrushold
Coherent Carrier
(ii) The are different methods for decoding the convolutional

codes. They are:
• Viterbi algorithm
• Sequential algorithm
• Feedback coding
• Threshold coding
Viterbi Algorithm
• It is one of the best decoding technique of convolutional
code in digital communication as follows
• Starting at first level compute the metric for the single path
Entering each state of the encoder store path survivor and
metric for each state
• Increment the level, compute metric for all path entering
each state adding the metric of the incoming branches to the
metric connectivity survivor from the previous unit.
• For each state, identify the path with the lowest metric as the
survivor of step 2.
• Continue step 3 till the end level reaches.
• The example problem is given at the back.
Sequential Decoding
• The limitation of viterbi decoding algorithm is that the
computational complexity is more if the constraint length ‘k’
is larger.
• The complexity of a sequential decoder is essential indepen-
dent of the constraint length ‘k’
• Sequential decoding is a trial and error technique for search-
ing out the correct path in a code tree.

Advantages of Convolutional Codes

• The memory requirement of the convolutional decoder is
less since the block size is smaller.
• The decoding delay is small, since it operate on smaller
blocks.
• Synchronization problem does not affect the performanance
of the codes.
Disadvantages of Convolutional Codes

• It is very difficult to analyse
• These codes are most developed much as compared with
block codes.
(b) Linear Block Codes
In channel encoder, a block of ‘k’ message bits are encoded into a
block of ‘n’ bits by adding (n − k) number of checks bits or parity bits
with condition n > k. Such a code formed is called (n, k) block code.
Message Code
Block Input Block Output
Channel
Encoder
Linear Property: Let c1, c2 be any two code words of ‘n’ bits
belonging to a set of (n, k) block code.
Systematic Property: A (n, k) linear block code is said to the sys-
tematic of the k-message bits appear either at the beginning of the
cord word.
n n
Message Parity Bits Parity Bits Message
(k ) (n – k ) (n – k ) (k)
Matrix Description of Linear Block Codes

The encoding operation in a linear block encoding scheme consist
of two steps. They are:
• The information sequence is segment into message block, each
block consisting of K successive information bits.

• The encoder transforms each message block into larger block of

n bits according to some predetermined set of rules.
Each message block is transformed to codeword C of length n bit
by the encoder.
⎛ k⎞
η=⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ n
where,
k = The number of message bits.
n = The total number of messages and check bits.
ci = mi
where,
i = 1, 2, 3,…..k
Ck +1 = P11m1 + P21m2 + ……… + Pk1mk
Ck + 2 = P12 m1 + P22 m2 + ……… PK 2 mK

Cn = P1, n − k m1 + P2, n − k m2 + …… + Pk , n − k mk
where,
Ck +1 , Ck + 2 , Ck + 3 ……Cn = corresponding code word bits
m0 , m1 , m2 …… mk1 = corresponding message bits
1+1 = 0
1+ 0 = 1
0 +1 = 1
0+0 = 0
⎡1000 … 0 P11 P12 … P1 , n − k ⎤
⎢0100 … 0 P P22 … P2 , n − k ⎥
[C1 , C2 ……Cn ] = [m1 , m2 …… mk ] ⎢ 21 ⎥
⎢ . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0000 …1 Pk1 Pk 2 … Pk , n − k ⎦
C = MG
G = Generator matrix of code

where,
G = [ I k − Pk ]K × n
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
I 3 = ⎢⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥
⎣⎢0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Parity check matrix
H = [ P T .I q ]q × n
⎡ P11 P12 P13 … p1q ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ P21 P22 P23 … P2 q ⎥
P=⎢
⎢ . . . . ⎥⎥
⎢ PK 1 PK 2 PK 3 … Pkq ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ P11 P21 P31 … PK 1 ⎤
⎢P P22 P32 PK 2 ⎥
PT = ⎢ ⎥
12
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ P1q P2 q P3q PKq ⎥⎦
⎡ P11 P21 P31 … PK 1 ; 1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢P P22 P32 … PK 2 ; 0 1 0 0 ⎥
H q×n = ⎢ ⎥
12
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ P1q P2 q P3q PKq ; 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
14. (a) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code
Channel n
...
....
Frequency
....
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
Time

TDMA Frame
Preamble Info Message Trail Bits
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 ........... Slot N
Trail Bits Syn Bits Info Data Gaurd Bits
Two Types of TDMA

1. Narrow band TDMA
2. Wide band TDMA
Narrow Band TDMA
In wideband TDMA, the entired frequency spectrum is available to
any individual user.
Wide Band TDMA
In Narrow band TDMA, the whole frequency bands are divided into
sub bands.
Synchronous TDMA: If the assigned slot is fixed from frame to
frame for the duration of the connection, the users have to synchro-
nize to their respective assigned slots.
Asynchronous TDMA: A user is not assigned a fixed time slot for
the duration of its connection.
Efficiency of TDMA
bott = Nrbr + Nt bP + Nt bg + Nr bg
Disadvantages
• Higher synchronization is required in TDMA.
• In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized for higher efficiency.
• There is a need for Increased bandwidth.
Comparison With FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Features
• FDMA is relatively simple to implement.
• FDMA is usually implemented in Narrow band systems.

• Absence of synchronization.
• To provide Interference-free transmissions between uplink and
downlink.
Number of Channels
Code
Channel N
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Frequency
Time
Bs − 2 Bg
Ns =
Bc
where,
Bs → total spectrum allocation
Bg → Gaurd band allocated
Bc → Channel bandwidth
Spectral Efficiency of FDMA
N data Bc
ηFDMA = <1
Bs
Disadvantages
• This type of multiple access support is narrow band, and is not
suitable for multimedia communications.
• To minimize the effects of intermodulation distortion and adja-
cent channel interference.
• Lack of flexibility in case of reconfiguration.
(b) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA is spread Spectrum Multiple Access method.

Code
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 4
.
. Frequency
.
.
Channel n
Time
Transmitter
dk (t) ak (t) dk (t) xk (t )

Modulator
Base Band
Signal
ak (t) Ac cos(2pfc t )
Spread Signal Carrier
Channel
Receiver
y (t) Tb (sk,t )
r (t )
Demodulator ∫ ( )dt
Decision
Device
o
ak (t)
Despreading
Signal
Features of CDMA
• Frequency reuse
• Soft capacity
• Reduction in multipath fading
• Data rate
• Soft Round off
• Flexibility
Disadvantage
• ‘Near-far problem’ is the main disadvantage.

15. (a) (i) The commonly used light detectors are,

• PIN Diodes
• APD (avalanche photo diodes)
PIN Diodes
To cause current to flow in a photodiode, light of sufficient
energy must be absorbed to give valance electrons enough
energy to jump the air gap.
Avalanche Photo Diode

A high electric field intensity developed across the i-p-n junc-
tion by reverse bias causes impact ionization to occurs.
During impact ionization a carrier can gain sufficient energy to
ionise other bound electrons. These ionized carriers cause more
ionization called as carrier multiplication.
Characteristics of Light Detectors

• Responsivity
• Dark current
• Transit time
• Spectral response
• Light sensitivity’s
(ii) “Out of syllabus”
(b) FDMA
Gaurd Band
Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch 3 Ch 4
Frequency
Transponder Bandwidth
FDMA was the first multiple access technique used in satellite com-
munication system

Transmitter
From 1 Gaurd Band

B C D
Modulator
Terest in Base Band Satellite
and BA BB BC
Multiplexer
Transmitter
Network in
BA
f1 f2
Receiver
To
Filter for
Base Band
Receiver Earth Demodulation Demultiplexer
Filter
Station B
Terest In
Network In
BA
B C D B
f1 f2
The FDM-FM-FDMA was the preferred method for the transmis-

sion of telephone channels over Intelsat satellites for more than
20 years
• Multiple channels per carrier (MCPC)
• Single channel per carrier (SCPC)
Multiple Channels Per Carrier (MCPC)
When several voice-band channels are frequency-division multi-
plexed together to form a composite baseband signal
Single Channel Per Carrier (SCPC)
When an earth station sends one signal on a carrier, the FDMA
access technique is called single channel per carrier.
Advantages of FDMA
• Uses existing hardware hence technology is nature
• There is no need of networking
Disadvantages
• Lack of flexibility
• Requires uplink power control
• Inter modulation noise

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA is an RF multiple access technique that allows a single tran-
sponder to shared in time
R1 A1 B1 C1 R2 A2 B2 C2 R3 A3 B3 C3
Frame Frame
R1, R2, R3, → reference bursts

A1, A2, A3, → burst form station 1
B1, B2, B3, → burst form station 2
C1, C2, C3, → burst form station 3
Frame and Burst Format

Reference Burst
The reference burst that marks the beginning of a frame is subdi-
vided into time slots
Guard Time
A guard time is necessary between bursts to prevent the bursts form
overlapping. The guard time will be varied form burst to burst
Frame
T ref T1 T2
CBR BCW SIC G CBR BCW SIC OW To1 To2 ...... Q
Carrier and Bit-timing Recovery (CBR)

The CBR slot is used by receivers for recovering the carrier bit time
essential for coherent demodulation

Station Identification Code (SIC)

This identifies the transmitting station
In intelsat system, two ref bursts are transmitted in each frame first
reference burst is transmitted by the primary reference station for
acquisition and synchronization
Preamble
Preamble is the starting portion of a traffic burst
Postamble
In some phase detection system, some time is allowed to recover
from one burst. This time slot is postamble.
Advantages
• Uplink power control is not required
• Maximum use can be made of available satellite power
Disadvantages
• Analog signals must be digital form
• Interface with analog terrestrial plot
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code division multiple access is a scheme in which a number of
users can use entire transponder bandwidth
PN Sequence
PN Sequence Clock

PN Sequence
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
Direct Frequency Spread Spectrum
Balanced Balanced
Modulator Modulator
p (t )coswdt
1 2
TQ
Transmitter Receiver
p (t)
Coherent
Datection
c (t) fLL
Acquisition
and
Tracking
The uplink carrier is given by

X u (t ) = c(t ) p(t ) cos ω u t
The downlink carrier is given by

X d (t ) = c(t ) p(t ) cos ω d t
Advantages
Spread spectrum systems are resistant to multipath noise which is
commonly experienced by mobile terminals.

APRIL/MAY 2011
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Write down the basic principle used in superhetrodyne receivers.
2. Draw the frequency spectrum of the amplitude modulated signal,
s(t ) = 5cos 2π 105t + 3cos 2π 105 15cos 2π 103t .
3. What do you meant by aliasing?
4. Define collector circuit efficiency.
5. Advantages of VSB.
6. Draw the NRZ signaling format of given binary sequence 1101001.
7. Explain the multiple access technique used in satellite link.
8. Mention other linear block codes.
9. List the types of errors.
10. Mention the types of sources and detectors used in optical communica-
tion systems.
PART B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Explain a method of generation of an amplitude modulated sig-
nal, and sketch the time domain waveform of message, carrier
and modulated signals.

(ii) Derive the power relationship of amplitude modulator signal.

Or
(b) (i) Explain the generation of frequency modulated signal using
reactance modulation scheme with neat diagram.
(ii) Describe the relationship between FM and PM.
12. (a) (i) With neat sketch explain the generation of delta modulated
signal and derive the expression for SNR.
(ii) State the drawbacks of DM and suggest a method to overcome it.
Or
(b) (i) Explain the QPSK modulation schemes with its constellation
diagrams.
(ii) Briefly explain the concept of QAM and describe the constella-
tion diagram.
13. (a) (i) Explain in detail the procedure of Shannon-Fano coding

scheme.
(ii) Apply the above method to a source which generates symbols
1 1 1 1
x1, x2, x3, x4 with probabilities , , and respectively and
determine the code efficiency. 8 2 4 8
Or
(b) Describe bandwidth–SNR trade off.
14. (a) With the next block diagram explain the frequency division multiple
access technique. Discuss its application in communication.
Or
(b) (i) Explain the application of CDMA in wireless communication.
(ii) Compare the performance of CDMA, FDMA and TDMA.
15. (a) (i) Draw the block diagram of satellite link and explain.
(ii) Write a brief note on INSAT.
Or
(b) (i) Describe the principle of operation of power line carrier
communication.
(ii) Draw the block diagram of optical fiber communication link
and explain.

Solutions
PART A
1. The super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming radio frequencies
to a fixed lower frequency, called intermediate frequencies. This is then
amplitude and detected to get the original signal.
2. “Out of syllabus”
3. When the high frequency interfaces with low frequency appears as low
frequency, then it is called as aliasing.
4. The ratio of output power and input power in the collector circuit
pout
ηc =
pin
5. • Low frequencies near fc are transmitted without any attenuation

• Bandwidth is reduced compared to DSB
6.
11 0 1 00 1
7. The uplink and downlink carriers of the satellite are required to be modu-
lated by a signal to be transmitted. The modulation can be either analog
or digital
In the earlier satellites analog modulation were dominant and therefore
they are used in communication satellites
8. • Single party check

• Repeated codes
• Dual codes

9. • Random errors
• Burst errors
10. Sources Detectors

1. Light emitting diode 1. DN photo diode
2. Semi conductor laser 2. PN photo diode
3. Diode 3. Avalanche photo diode
PART B
11. (a) (i) There are two methods. They are:
1. Square law modulator
2. Balanced modulator
Square Law Modulator
The square law modulator circuits consist the following
• A non-linear device
• A band pass filter
• A carrier source and modulating signal
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with
each other V1(t) is applied at the input of the non linear devices,
such as diode, transistor etc.
V1 (t ) = Vm cos ω m t + Vc cos ω c t
(1)
Non-linear
Device
Tuned Circuit Act as
Band Pass Filter
Carrier
Signal
Vc coswct
V1 (t ) V2 (t ) RL V (t )
o
Modulating
Signal
Vm coswmt
V2 (t ) = aV1 (t ) + bV12 (t )
where a and b are constants.

Communication Engineering (April/May 2011) 4.35
Substituting the expression for V1(t),

V2 (t ) = a[Vm cos ω m t + Vc cos ω c t ] + b[Vm cos ω m t
+ Vc cos ω c t ]2
V2 (t ) = aVm cos ω m t + aVc cos ω c t + bVm cos ω m t
+ bVc2 cos 2 ω c t + 2bVmVc cos ω m t cos ω c t
Frequency
O fc 2fm
V2 (t ) = aVc cos ω c t + bVmVc

⎡cos (ω c − ω m ) t + cos (ω c + ω m ) t ⎤
⎣ ⎦
Balanced Modulator
The circuit that is very commonly used for AM generation. Here
two non-linear devices are connected in the balanced mode.
It consist of two transistors identical and circuit is symmetrical
Vc = −Vc′
Vbc = Vc + Vm = Vc cos ω c t + vm cos ω m t
Similarly, the input voltage to transistor T2 is given by

Vbc′ = Vc′ + Vm = −Vc cos ω c t + vm cos ω m t
By the non-linear relationship, the collector current can be

written as,
i1 = a1Vbc + a2Vbc2
i2 = a1V ′ bc + a2Vbc2

I1
T1
Vbc
Carrier
– + Am Output
Vc coswct
V´bc
Modulating
Signal
i1 = a1 ⎡⎣Vc cos ω c t + vm cos ω m t ⎤⎦

2
+ a2 ⎡⎣Vc cos ω c t + Vm cos ω m t ⎤⎦
(
V0 = k i1 − i1′ )
V0 = 2ka1Vc cos ω c t + 4 ka2VcVm cos ω c t cos ω m t
⎡ 2a V ⎤
V0 = 2kVc a1 ⎢1 + 2 m cos ω m t ⎥ cos ω c t
⎣ a1 ⎦
V0 = 2ka1Vc ⎣1 + ma cosω m t ⎦ cosω c t
⎡ ⎤
2a2Vm
ma = → modulating index
a1
Advantages
• Harmonics are eliminated by band pass filter
• Band pass filter must be carefully designed
(ii) The total power transmitted in AM is,
⎡ m2 ⎤
Pt = Pc ⎢1 + a ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Vc2
where, Pc =
2R

ma2Vc2 ma2Vc2 ⎡V 2 ⎤
Pt ′ = PLSB + PUSB = + = ma2 ⎢ c ⎥
8R 8R ⎣ 4R ⎦
ma2
Pt = P
2 c
I +
Id
C I1
V
Vg
R
I1
–
The figure shows the FET reactance modulator. It behaves as

reactance across terminal A-B. The terminal A-B of the circuit
may be connected across the tuned circuits
I1 is written as,
V
I1 =
1
R+
jω c
Since jωc >> R, we can write above as,

I1 = jω c v
From the circuit,

Vg = I1 R = jω c RV
For the FET,

I d = g mVgs = g mVg = jω c Rg mV
From the circuit, impedance of the FET is,

V V
z= =
id iω g mCRV

Pt − Pt1
Power savings =
Pt
⎡ m2 ⎤ m2
Pc ⎢1 + a ⎥ − a Pc
= ⎣
2 ⎦ 2
⎡ m2 ⎤
Pc ⎢1 + a ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
ma2 ma2
Pc + pc − P
2 2 c = 1
=
⎡ m ⎤ 2
⎡ ma2 ⎤
Pc ⎢1 + a ⎥ ⎢1 + 2 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1 2
% Power saving = × 100 = × 100
⎡ ma2 ⎤ 2 + ma2
⎢1 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
If ma = 1 (100 % modulation) then, the power saving is
2
= × 100 = 66.67%
3
1
(b) (i) z =
jω Ceq
Hence Ceq = g mCR. Thus the impedance of FET is capacitive

reactance. By varying the modulating voltage across FET, the
operating point gm can be varied.
(ii) The basic difference between FM and PM has in which prop-

erty of the carrier is directly varied by modulating signal. Note
that when frequency of the carrier varies, phase of the carrier
also varies.
Instantaneous phase = ω c (t ) + θ (t ) rad (1)
Instantaneous frequency deviation,
d
=θ (t ) = θ ′(t ) HZ (2)
dt
Instantaneous frequency,
d
ω1 (t ) = [ω t + θ (t )] (3)
dt c

= ω c + θ (t ) rad/sec (4)
θ (t ) = kem (t ) rad (5)
θ ′(t ) = k1em (t ) rad/sec (6)
θ (t ) = ∫ θ ′(t ) dt = ∫ k1em (t ) dt
= k1 ∫ em (t ) d (t ) (7)
Let the modulating signal be given as,
em (t ) = E M cos ω m t
Putting above equation (7)
θ (t ) = k1 ∫ Em cos ω m t dt
Em
= k1 sin ω m t (8)
ωm
The angle modulated wave of mathematically expressed as,
e(t ) = Ec sin ⎡⎣ω c t + θ (t ) ⎤⎦ (9)
FM equation:
⎡ E ⎤
e(t ) = Ec sin ⎢ω c t + k1 m sin ω m t ⎥ (10)
⎣ ω m ⎦
PM equation:
e(t ) = Ec sin ⎡⎣ω c t + k Em cos ω m t ⎤⎦
12. (a) (i) Simple quantization is used for constructive the encoded signal.
DM provides a staircase approximation to the sampled version
of the input based band signal.
The differences between the input and the approximation is
quantized into two levels.
Signal is denoted by x(t).
Delta modulation in a set of discrete time relations
e( nT3 ) = x( nT3 ) − x( nT3 )

= x( nT3 ) − u( nT3 − T3 )

b( nT3 ) = f sgn [e( nT3 )]

u( nT3 ) = u( nT3 − T3 ) + bnT3
e (nT 3) b (nT 1)
Sample One-bit
Output
Input x (nT 3 ) Quantizer
>
x (nT 1) +> +
Delay Ts
u (nT 3)
Accumulator
Input + Low Pass
Output
Filter
Delay T5
Accumulator
Where T3 = Sampling period.

In the modulator it consists of a summer, a two level quantizer
and an accumulator inter connected as shown in the figure.
Bandwidth S/N Trade-Off
Channel capacity of a Gaussian channel is given by,
⎡ S⎤
c = B log 2 ⎢1 + ⎥ bits/sec
⎣ N⎦
It depends upon
• Bandwidth of the channel
• Signal to noise ratio ⎡ ⎤
S
⎢⎣ N ⎥⎦
Noiseless Channel has Infinite Capacity

c = B log 2 [1 + α ] bits/sec
c=α
The channel has infinite capacity.

Infinite Bandwidth Channel has Limited Capacity

Noise power is given by,
N = ηβ
we have,
⎡ S⎤
c = B log 2 ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ N⎦
⎡ S ⎤
c = B log 2 ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ ηβ ⎦
S ηβ ⎡ S ⎤
c= ⋅ ⋅ log 2 ⎢1 + ⎥
η S ⎣ ηβ ⎦
ηβ s
S ⎡ S ⎤
c= ⋅ log 2 ⎢1 + ⎥
η ⎣ ηβ ⎦
But we know that,
lim (1 + a )
1
a
=e
a→ 0
S
If a = then as B approaches infinity, a approaches to zero
ηβ
ηβ S
⎛ S ⎞
lim 1 + =e
B →α ⎜
⎝ ηβ ⎟⎠
S
c= log 2 e
η
S log e
= ×
η log 2
S
c = 1.44
η
(ii) Slope Overload Distortion

It arises because of large dynamic range of input signal.
The rate noise of the input signal x(t) is so high, that the staircase
cannot approximate the input signal. The step size a becomes
too small to follow x(t). This is called slope overload distortion.

x (t) Slope Overloaded

Distortion
Granular
Noise
Granular Noise
When the step size is too large relative to slope of the input
signal, this makes the stair case approximation to hunt around
a relatively flat segment of waveform. This is called granular
noise.
(b) (i) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

The communication systems, we know that there are two main
resources.
In BPSK, we know that when symbol changes the level, the
phase of the carrier is changed by 180°. Since there were only
two symbols in BPSK, the phase shift occurs in two levels only.
QPSK Transmitter
PS sin (2p fo t )
ba (t ) QPSK
Binary Bipolar Signal
De
Data Nrz Level Adder
Multiplexer s (t )
Sequence Encoder
bc (t )
PS cos (2p fo t )

The figure shows the block diagram of QPSK transmitter. The

input binary sequence is first converted to a bipolar NRZ type
of signal. This signal is called b(t).
It represents binary ‘1’ by 1V or ‘0’ by –1V. It is as shown in
the figure.
The symbol duration of both of these odd and even numbered
sequences is 2Tb.
QPSK Receiver
Thrushold = 0
T
X1
∫dt Decision
Device
o
Q 1 (t ) Bin
Received
Signal
In Phase Channel Multiplexer
x (t)
Sequence
t X2
∫dt
Decision
Device
o
Q 2 (t )
The figure shows the receiver. This is the synchronous recep-

tion. Therefore co-herent carrier is to be recovered from the
received signal s(t).
The received signal s(t) is first raised to its 4th power s4(t). Then
it is passed through bandpass filter centered around 4fo.
These synchronous demodulator consists of multiplier and an

integrator.
Symbols and corresponding phase shifts in QPSK:
S.No Input Symbol Phase

successive bits shift in carrier
i = 11 (1V) S1 π/4
i = 20 (–1V) S2 3π/4
i = 30 (–1V) S3 5π/4
i = 41 (1V) S4 7π/4

Phasor Diagram
sinwct coswct + sinwct
(1,1)
cos(wct + 135°)
(0,1)
coswct
– coswct
(0° reference)
(1,0)
cos(wct – 45°)
(0,0)
cos(wct – 135°)
– sinwct
Waveforms
Voltage
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
Bipolar
NRZ Signal
t
Odd Number
Bit Seq
V
t
V
Carrier
t
Carrier
t
V
se (t ) = a 2 (t)
P s sinw2t
t

Bandwidth of BPSK
1
BW = 2 ×
2Tb
1
BW =
2Tb
T
BW = = fb
Tb
Bandwidth = f b
(ii) The correct detection of the signal depends upon the separation
between the signal points in the signal space. In case of PSK
systems all points lie on the circumferences on the circle. This
is because PSK signal has constant amplitude throughout. If the
amplitude of the signal is also varied.
I Channel
AM Modulator
Data 2 to 4
Level
Convertor
fb/2
16 State
QAM
Binary
Local
% Data Oscillator
Data
90° Phase
Shift
2 to 4
Level
Convertor
AM Modulator
1
Es = ⎡( a 2 + a 2 ) + (9a 2 + a 2 ) + ( a 2 + 9a 2 ) + (9a 2 + 9a 2 )⎤⎦
4⎣
Es = 10 a 2
a = 0 − 1Es
E s = 4 Eb
d = 0.4 × 4 Eb = 1.6 Eb

dQPSK = 2 Eb = 4 Eb
π π
d16 PSK = 2 Es sin = 2 4 Eb sin
16 16
d16 PSK = 0.6 Eb
Thus the distance of 16 QASK is greater than 16. Any PSK

where as it is less than QPSK.
13. (a) (i) This method of coding is directed towards constructing reason-
ably efficient separate binary codes.
Let x = Ensemble of the messages to be transmitted
p = Corresponding probability of [x]
The sequence ck of binary numbers of length nk associated to
each message xk should fulfil the following conditions.
Procedures for Shannon-Fano Coding
• The message is first written in the order of non-increasing
probability.
• The message set, then is partitioned or divided into two or
more equiprobable subsets (X1) and (X2).
• Assign 0 to each message contained in X1 and assign I to
each message contained in X2 and vice-versa
X 11 = 00
X 12 = 01
X 21 = 10
X 22 = 11
1 1 1 1
(ii) , , ,
8 2 4 8
Probability Stage-I Stage-II Stage-III Codeword No of Bits

0.5 0 − 0 1
0.25 1 0 − 10 2
0.125 1 1 0 110 3
0.125 1 1 1 111 3

M ⎛ 1⎞
Entrophy (H ) = ∑ Pk log 2 ⎜ ⎟
k =1 ⎝ pk ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 0.5log 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.25log 2 ⎜
⎝ 0.5 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
+2 × 0.125log 2 ⎜
⎝ 0.125 ⎟⎠
= 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.75
H = 1.75 bits/message
L −1
N = ∑ Pk nk
k =0
= (0.5)(1) + (0.25)(2) + (0.125)(3) + (0.125)(3)

= 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.375 + 5
= 1.75
H 1.75
Code efficiency η = = = 100%
N 1.75
(b) Refer answer 12(a) from Nov/Dec 2010 Question paper.
14. (a) Refer answer 14(a) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(b) (i) Refer answer 14(b) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(ii)
Parameter FDMA TDMA CDMA

• Technique Sharing of over- Sharing of time Sharing of the
all bandwidth of the satellite bandwidth and
of satellite transponder time both
transponder
• Interference Adjacent fre- Interference Performance is

effects quency bands between the affected because
interference gen- user of adjacent of adjacent time
erated because time slots gen- and frequency
of non-linearity erated because slots. But due to
of satellite of in correct frequency hop-
transponder synchronization ping the effect
amplifier is less

• Synchronization No synchro- Time syn- No synchroniza-

nization is chronization tion is required
required essential
• Code word No code word No code is Code words are

is required required required by the
ground station
• Power efficiency Is reduced Full efficiency Full power
is possible efficiency is
possible
• Guard times and Guard bands Guard bands Guard times and
bands are required are required bands both are
required
15. (a) (i) A satellite consists of

• Uplink
• Satellite transponder
• Downlink
Uplink
Earth Station Transmitter
To
Satellite
Transponder
Up-convertor
Base
Modulator IF RF
Band
(Fm, PSk, BPF Mixer BPF HPF
in
QAM)
FDM
RF
MW Generator
6 GHz or 14 GHz
1. The primary component with the up-link section of a satel-

lite system in the earth station transmitter.

2. The earth station or ground station is the terrestrial base of

the system.
3. The earth station communicates with the satellite to carry
out the designated mission.
4. The principal function of up convertor circuit is to translate
the modulated IF output frequency to up-link frequency lev-
els of “6 to 14 GHz”.
Satellite Transponder
Frequency Transistor
RF
Low Noise Low Power

BPF Amplifier Mixer BPF Amplifier
LNA TWT
RF
From Earth Station To Earth Station

MW Shift 4 GHz (or)
6 GHz (or) 14 GHz Oscillator 2 GHz 12 GHz
To other Transponder
A satellite transponder system consists of band pass filter

(BPF), low noise filter (LNA), frequency translator, a low-level
power amplifier and on output band pass filter.
The figure shows the RF to RF repeater type transponder.
The input BPF limits the total noise applied to the input of the
LNA.
Each RF satellite channel requires a separate transponder.
Earth Station Receiver
From
Satellite Down-Convertor
Transponder
Low Noise Demodulator
BPF Amplifier Mixer BPF CFM, DSK FDI
LNA QAM
RF
MW Generator
4 GHz or 12 GHz

The receiver section of a satellite earth station performs the

exact opposite function to that the transmitter.
An earth station receiver includes an input BPF, an LNA, and an
RF to IF down converter.
The BPF limits the input noise to the LNA.
Satellite cross links or inter satellite links is used to communi-
cate between satellites.
(ii) • Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is one of the
largest domestic satellite systems in the whole day.
• This system services telecommunications, TV broad band-
ing ratio networking, meteorlogical services and disaster
management services.
• INSAT transponder capacity is also being leased to the coun-
tries. It is a multipurpose and multi agency system.
• SITE → Satellite Instructional Television Experiment.
STEP → Satellite Telecommunication Experiments project.
• The first phase of INSAT programme is also known as
INSAT-I series.
(b) (i) SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

A SCADA system usually refers to an industrial control system.
It is basically computer system monitoring and controlling a
process.
Human Machine Interface
It presents the process data to a human operator. It allows the
human operator to monitor and control a process.
Supervisory System
It acquires the data on the process and sends commands to the
process.
Remote Terminal Units (RTU)
The RTU connects the sensors to the process. They convert
the sensor signal to digital data and send it to the supervisory
system.
Control Substation
Modem Modem RTU
Centre Controller

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

The PLC’s are used a field devices. They are more economical,
versatile, flexible and configurable than special purpose RTU’s.
Power Line Carrier Communications
It uses the power lines to transmit the RF signals in the range of
30-500 KHz. This communication is more reliable than lesser
telephone lines. The power lines, however are not suitable for
high noise levels. The attenuation is also significant across the
power lines.
SCADA Communication Through Power Lines

Power lines can be used to communicate SCADA signals. The
power line provides necessary infrastructure. The communica-
tion between substation controller and RTU takes place through
with the help of modems across both the ends.
(ii)
Input Analog Voltage Source to

Light
or to Current Fiber
Source
Digital Convertor Interface
Optical Fiber
Fiber to
Current Analog/ Output
Light Light
to Voltage Digital
Detector Detector
Convertor Convertor
Interface
The block diagram of an optical fiber communication link is as

shown in the figure. The three primary building blocks of the
link are the transmitter, the receiver and the fiber guide.
The transmitter consist of an analog or digital interface, as a
volt-to-current convertor, a light source and a source to fiber
light coupler.
The receiver including volt-to light convertor coupling device,
a photo detector, a current to voltage an amplifier and an analog
to digital interface.

In optical fiber transmitter, the light source can be modulated

from or an audio signal. For analog modulation, the input inter-
face matches into and limits the input signal amplitude.
The voltage to current source convertor serves as an electrical
interface between but circuitry and the light source. The light
source is either a light emitted (LED) or an injecting laser diode
(ILD). The amount of light emitted by a ILD is proportional to
the amount of drive current.
The analog or digital interface at the receiver output is also an
electrical face. It analog modulation is used in the face matches,
the impedances and the levels to the output circuitry.

NOV/DEC 2010
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Mention the disadvantages of single sideband transmission.
2. The carrier frequency of an FM broadcast transmission is 100 MHz

and maximum frequency deviation is 75 KHz. Find the bandwidth of
the signal when the highest audio frequency modulating the carrier is
15 KHz.
3. What are the elements of digital communication systems?
4. How does the phase of carrier vary for the message m(n) = {1,0,1,1,0,1....}?
⎧1 1 1 1
5. An event has six possible outcomes the probabilities ⎨ , , , ,
1 1⎫ ⎩2 4 8 6
, ⎬ . Find the entropy of the system.
32 32 ⎭
6. Find the hamming distance between the following code words
c1 = 10001111, c2 = 0001011.
7. Mention the advantages of CDMA systems.
8. Specify uplink and downlink frequency ranges for satellite communication.
9. State the advantages of fiber optic systems.
10. What is geosynchronous satellite?

PART B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Explain the principle of indirect method of frequency modula-
tion with a neat sketch.
(ii) A carrier wave of 10 MHz is amplitude modulated to 50% level
with a tone of 5000 Hz. Sketch the waveform and amplitude
distribution in time and frequency domain. Assume carrier
amplitude as 10 V.
Or
(b) (i) Draw the block diagram for generation and demodulation of a
VSB signal and explain the principle of operation.
(ii) With a suitable sketch discuss about square law detector.
12. (a) With a neat block diagram explain the PAM modulation and demod-
ulation process and derive an expression for PAM wave and depth of
modulation.
Or
(b) Explain the working principle of ASK modulator and detector with
a neat diagram.
13. (a) (i) Brief the properties of entropy.

(ii) Five symbols of the alphabet of discrete memory less source
and their probablities are given below:
S = {S0, S1, S2, S3, S4}
P(s) = {0.4, 0.2, 0.2, 0.1, 0.1}
Code the symbols using huffman coding.
Or
(b) Explain the operation and working principle of PCM transmission
and receiver with block diagram.
14. (a) (i) Discuss the BSC and BEF with their channel diagram and tran-
sition matrix.
1
(ii) Consider that a source is transmitting equiprobable at the
10
b 1
rate of 103 and the probability of error id Pe = . Determine
s 16
the rate of transmission.
Or

(b) Explain the various multiple access techniques used in wireless

communication with their merits and demerits.
15. (a) Compare optical fiber cable with RF cable?

Or
(b) Give short notes on the following:
• Satellite substations
• Power line carrier signals

Solutions
PART A
1. • SSB systems require more complex and expensive receivers than
conventional AM transmission.
• SSB receivers require more complex and precise tuning than conven-
tional AM receivers.
2. Δf = 75 KHz
Fm = 15 KHz
Bandwidth = 2m f . f m
Δf 75 × 103
Mf = = =5
f m 15 × 103
Bandwidth = 2 × 15 × 5 = 150 KHz
3. • A/D convertor
• Source detector
• Channel encoder
• Modulation
• D/A convertor
4. m(n) = {1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, …}
Phase = {0, π, 0, 0, π, 0}
M
1
5. Entrophy = ∑ Pi log 2
i =1 Pi
1 1 1 1 1 1
= log 22 + log 24 + log82 + log16
2
+ log32
2
+ log32
2
2 4 8 16 32 32
= 1.9375 bits/sec.
7. • Collision is not destructive

• Less error rate

8. For C band of frequencies,

5.925 GHz − 6.425 GHz (uplink)
3.7 GHz − 4.2 GHz (downlink)
For Ku band of frequencies,
14 GHz − 14.5 GHz (uplink)
11.7 GHz − 12.2 GHz (downlink)
9. • Larger information carrying capacity

• Less space and easy installation
• Immunity to interference
• Resistivity to temperature and environmental changes
10. • Geosynchronous satellite is a satellite which orbital track on the earth

respects regularly over points on the earth over time.
• Have an orbital time of 24 hours.
• An earth satellite whose period of resolution of the earth about its
rate.
• Thus it appears to be stationary as they remain in fixed position in
respect to given point in earth.
PART B
11. (a) (i) Refer answer 11(b)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(ii)
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Em 10 V
Ec 2.5 V 2.5 V
Equation of an AM wave,
e = Ec (1 + ma sin ω m t ) sin ω c t
Ec = 10V , ma = 0.5, ω m = 10000π , ω c = 2π × 10 7 t

e = Ec (1 + ma sin ω m t ) sin ω c t
Ec = 10V , ma = 0.5, ω m = 10000π , ω c = 2π × 10 7 t
e = 10[1 + 0.5sin10000π t ]sin 2π × 10 7 t
= 10 sin 2π × 10 7 t + 2.5cos 2π (10 7 − 50000)t
−2.5cos 2π (10 7 + 500)t
USB frequency = 10 + 500 = 10005 KHz
7
LSB frequrncy = 107 − 500 = 9995 KHz
(b) (i) Refer answer 11(b)(ii) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(ii) The square law modulator consists of
• A non-linear device
• A band-pass filter
• A carrier source and modulating signal
Non-Linear
Device
Tuned Circuit Tuned To fc
Acting as a Band Pass Filter
Carrier
Signal
Vc coswct
V1 (t ) V2 (t) RL Vo
Modulating
Signal
Vm coswmt
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with

each other,
V1 (t ) = Vm cos ω m t + Vc cos ω c t
The input and output relation for Non-linear devices are,

V2 (t ) = aV1 (t ) + bV12 (t )
where a and b constants.

V2 (t ) = a[Vm cos ω m t + Vc cos ω c t ] + b[Vm cos ω m t + Vc cos ω c t ]2
V2 (t ) = aVm cos ω m t + aVc cos ω c t + bVm2 cos 2 ω m t
+ bVc2 cos 2 ω c t + 2bVmVc cos ω m t cos ω c t

Voltage
Frequency
O fc
2 fm
V2 (t ) = aVc cos ω c t + bVmVc [cos(ω c − ω m )t + cos(ω c + ω m )t ]
12. (a) Refer answer 13(a)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(b) ASK-ON or OFF Shift Keying
Amplitude shift keying or ON-OFF keying is the simplest digital
modulation technique. In this method, there is only one unit energy
carrier and it is switched ON or OFF depending upon the input
binary sequence.
S (t ) = 2 Ps cos(2π f 0 t ) (to transmit1)
To transmit symbol ‘0’ the signal S(t) = 0. That is no signal is

transmitted. S(t) contains some complete cycles frequency ‘f ’. The
symbol 1→ pulse ie transmitted symbol ‘0’. No pulse is transmitted.
Thus the ASK waveform looks like an ON-OFF of the signal. Hence
it is called ON-OFF shift keying.
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Signal Space Diagram of ASK
2
S (t ) = Ps tb cos(2π f 0 t ) = Ps tbφ1 (t )
Tb
The locally generated coherent carrier is applied in the multipliers.

13. (a) (i) Average amount of information per source in a particular inter-
val is called entropy.
Properties of Entropy
• Entropy function is functionally symmetry is every PK
W ( Pk , Pk −1 ) = W ( Pk −1 , Pk )
• W(k) is continuous in the interval 0 ≤ Pk ≤ 1

• 0 ≤ W(x) ≤ log M
• W(x) = 0 if all the probabilities are zero new except for one
which must be unity
• Entropy of source Sn is n time that of primary some,
W ( s n ) = nW ( s)
• Partitioning of entropy into different sub nets does not effect

of value of W(k)
(ii) Symbol Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

S0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6
S1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4
S2 0.2 0.2 0.2
S3 0.1 0.1
S4 0.1
Symbol Probability Codeword

S0 0.4 00
S1 0.2 10
S2 0.2 11
S3 0.1 010
S4 0.1 011
Average Code Word Length
L = 0.4(2) + 0.2(2) + 0.2(2) + 0.1(3) + 0.1(3)

L = 2.2

Entropy of specified discrete memory less space,

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
W (e) = 0.4 log 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.2 log 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.2 log 2 ⎜
⎝ 0.4 ⎠ ⎝ 0.2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
+ 0.1 log 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.1 log 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.1⎠ ⎝ 0.1⎠
W (e) = 2.12193 bits
13. (b) • PCM is the preferred method in the public switched telephone
network because, it is easy to combine digitized voice and digital
data into single high speed digital signal and propagate it over
either metallic or optical fiber cables.
• PCM is the only digitally encoded modulation technique, that is
commonly used for digital transmission
• The band pass filter limits the frequency of the analog input signal
to the standard voice band frequency rage of 300 Hz to 3000 Hz.
• The sample and hold circuit periodically samples the analog input
signal and converts those samples to a multilevel PAM signal.
• The digital to analog convertor converts the PAM samples to par-
allel PCM codes, which are converted to serial binary datain.
• The hold circuit is a UPF, that converts the PAM signals back to
its original analog form.
PCM Parellel
Transmitter Data
Analog Analog to Parellel

Band Sample
Input Digital To Serial
Pass Filter and Hold
Signal Convertor Convertor
Serial
Sample Pulse Conversion Code Line Speed Clock
PCM
Code
Serial PCM
Serial PCM Code Regenerative Code Regenerative
Repeater Repeater
Serial To Digital To
Hold Low Output
Parellel Analog
Circuit Pass Filter Signal
Convertor Convertor
Line Speed Conversion

Clock Clock

14. (a) (i) Binary Symmetric Channel

A symmetrical channel means
H ( y /xi ) is independent of ‘i’
Entropy corresponding to each row of (P(y/x)) is the same

n
∑ P ( y /x ) is independent of ‘i’
i =1
i i
The giving all the columns of P(Y/k) is the same

⎡ 0.3 0.3 0.4 ⎤
P ( y /x ) = ⎢⎢0.4 0.3 0.3⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0.3 0.4 0.3⎥⎦
⎡ 0.5 0.5⎤
P ( y /x ) = ⎢⎢0.4 0.6⎥⎥ = Not a symmetrical channel
⎣⎢ 0.3 0.7⎦⎥
⎡ P 1 − P⎤ ⎡P q⎤
P [ y /x ] = ⎢ = where q = 1 − P
⎣1 − P P ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ q P ⎥⎦
For symmetrical channel
n
( x, y ) = H ( y ) − H ( y /x ) = H ( y ) − ∑ P ( y /xi )( Pxi )
i =1
n
= H ( y ) − A∑ P ( xi ) = H ( y ) − A
i =1
The channel capacity is C = Maximum 1 (x, y)

C = Maximum
[H(y) – A] = Maximum [H(y)] − A = log n – A
Cascaded Channel
x0 → y0 → z0 and x0 → y1 → z0
P1 = P2 + q2 = (P + q)2 − 2Pq = 1 − 2Pq
Cascaded Channel
P yo zo xo zo
xo
(1–P) 1–P 1
(1–P) 1–P 1
P yo zo xo zo

Similarly the message from X1, to Z sub reached in two ways
x1 → y1 → z1 (or) x1 → y0 → z1
Hence q1 = Pq + qP = 2Pq
The channel matrix is given by,
⎡1 − 2 Pq 2 Pq ⎤ ⎡ P1 q1 ⎤
P ( y /x ) = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ 1
⎣ 2 Pq 1 − 2 Pq ⎦ ⎣ q P1 ⎥⎦
channel capacity C = 1 − H ( q1 )
C = 1 − H (2 Pq)
Binary Erase channel (BEC)

The binary erase channel has 2 inputs and 3 inputs.
The channel matrix is given by P( y/x)
⎡P q 0 ⎤
P ( y /x ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 q P⎦
1 1
If P (0) = a log + (1 − a) log
a (1 − a)
Binary Erase Channel

P
o
(1–P) = q
(1–P) = q
I
P
⎡ aP aP 0 ⎤
P ( x /y ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 (1 − a) q (1 − a) p ⎦
The conditional probability matrix is

P ( x, y )
P [ x /y ] =
P( y)
⎡ aP aP 0 ⎤
⎢ aP q (1 − a)q ⎥
P [ x /y ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 (1 − a)q (1 − a) P ⎥
⎢ aP (1 − a) P ⎥⎦
⎣ q
⎡1 a 0⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 − a 1 ⎦
The channel capacity C = maximum 1(x, y)
= Maximum
[P H(x)] = P if max H(x) = 1
(ii) 1
Pe =
16
⎡ 15 ⎛ 16 ⎞ 1 ⎤
Rate of Transmission = 103 ⎢1 + log ⎜ ⎟ + log(16) ⎥
⎣ 16 ⎝ 15 ⎠ 16 ⎦
= 10 [1 − 0.087 − 0.25]
3
= 663 b/sec
(b) Refer answer 14(b) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
15. (a) • Basically light waves are also electromagnetic waves with very
high frequencies in the range of 3 × 106 GHz. Hence very large
bandwidths are possible in fiber optic communication.
• The optical fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon diode.
This material is very easily available from the earth.
• At many places electrical and electromagnetic interference is the
major problem in fiber optic. Communication is most suitable at
such places.
• Since optical fiber has very large bandwidth, large number of
signals can be transmitted through a small size of cables.
(b) Refer answer 15(b)(i) from April/May 2011 Question paper.

APRIL/MAY 2010
Fifth Semester
PART A (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Define energy and power signals.
2. One input to a conventional AM modulator is a 500 KHz carrier with an

amplitude of 20Vp. The second input is a 10 KHz modulating signal that
is sufficient amplitude to cause a change in the output wave of ±7.5Vp.
Determine:
(a) Upper and Lower side frequency.
(b) Modulation efficiency.
3. Define differential transmission line.
4. Define maximum unstable frequency.
5. What is the difference between FSK and MSK?
6. What is guard band?
7. What is vertical redundancy checking?
8. Difference between error detection and error correction.
9. Define apogee and perigee.
10. Define numerical aperture.

PART B (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Explain the modulation and demodulation process of AM wave.
Or
(b) Describe the operation of frequency division multiplexing.
12. (a) Explain path loss and fade margin in detail.

Or
(b) Describe quarter wavelength transformer and stub impedance
matching used in transmission line.
13. (a) Explain the operator of binary phase shift keying transmitter.
Or
(b) Explain the operation of PCM transmission system with neat block
diagram.
14. (a) Describe the physical, electrical and functional characteristics of

RS-232 interface.
Or
(b) Explain the functions of ISO-OSI seven layers architecture.
15. (a) Discuss the functional characteristics of an uplink, a transponder

and downlink model for a satellite system.
Or
(b) Describe the operation of PIN diode and APD:
Co R
P I N

Solutions
PART A
1. Power Signal
The normalized average power is finite and non-zero. The power is
obtained by,
T
2
1
P = lim
T →α T ∫x
−T
2
(t ) dt
2
Energy Signal
Total normalized energy is finite and zero.
Total normalized energy is,
T
2
α ∫
E = lim x 2
(t ) dt
T→
−T
2
2. • The upper and lower side band frequencies are simply the sum of dif-
ference be frequencies.
f USB = f c + f m
= 500 KHz + 100 KHz
f USB = 600 KHz
f LSB = f c − f m
= 500 KHz − 100 KHz
f LSB = 400 KHz
Em
• Modulation co-efficient m =
Ec
7.5
m=
20
m = 0.375
Modulation efficiency,
M = m × 100
M = 0.375 × 100
M = 37.5%

4. The maximum unstable frequency is the highest frequency that can be used
for skywave propogation between two specific points on earth surface.
MUF = Critical frequency × SPC θi
5. FSK MSK
• In FSK the modulating signal The MSK yields ortho gonality
shifts the output frequency of I and Q channels is that which
between predetermine levels. results in a phase shift of ± ⊕/2
radians/sec
• Used for higher frequency. Used for GSM
6. Guard band is used to avoid overlapping of frequencies. The guard band

allotted between two difference frequencies or adjacent frequencies.
7. The common and least expensive mechanism for error detection in the
VRC is called parity check. In this technique, a redundant bit is called as
parity.
8. Error detection Error correction

• It is a process of monitor- This method enables receiver
ing data transmission and to determine when an error has
determining when errors have occurred and which bit is in error.
occurred.
• This method is not to prevent This method is used to prevent the
the errors from occuring but to errors from occuring.
prevent undetected errors from
occuring.
9. Apogee
The point in an orbit that is located farthest from earth.
Perigee
The point in an orbit that is located closest to earth.
10. Numerical aperture is mathematically defined as the sine of the maxi-

mum angle of a light ray entering the fiber can be have respect to the axis
of the fiber and still propogate down the cable by internal reflection.

PART B
11. (a) Low Level AM Modulator
A small signal, class A amplifies, such as the single transistor emit-
ter modulator. It can be used to perform amplitude modulation, how-
ever the amplifier must have two inputs.
With no modulating signal present, in the circuit operates as a linear
class A amplifier and the output is simply the carrier amplifier by the
quiscent voltage gain.
However, when a modulating signal is applied, the amplifier oper-
ates non-linearly, and signal multiplication as described by equation
4 – 10 occurs.
The modulating signal voices the gain of the amplifier of a sinusoi-
dal rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.
Av = Aq [1 + m sin (2π f m t )]
where,
Av → Amplifier voltage gain
Aq → Amplifier quiescent voltage gain
Thus equation reduces to,
Av = Aq (1 ± m)
Av (max) = 2 Aq
Av (min) = 0
Vcc = 30 Vac
R1 Rc
Roe
c1
Vf R2 c3
Vu

AM Demodulation
Receive
Antenna
RF Mixer/ IF
BPF BPF
Section Convertor Section
All AM
BPF BPF
Detector Detector
Speaker
FM demodulation, is the reverse process of AM modulation. A con-

ventional double-sideband AM receiver simply converts received
amplitude-modulated wave back to this original source.
To do this, a receiver must be capable of receiving, amplifying and
demodulating an AM wave.
It must also be capable of band limiting the total radio-frequency
spectrum to a specific desired band of frequencies.
The selection process is called tunning the receiver.
To completely understand the demodulating process first it is neces-
sary to have a basic understanding of the terminology commonly
used to describe radio receivers and their characteristics.
The RF section is the first stage of the receiver and is therefore often
called the receiver front end.
The primary functions of the RF section are detecting, band limiting
and amplifying and to received RF signals.
(b) Frequency Division Multiplexing

Most of the message signals are low pass in nature, when modu-
lated onto a sinusoidal carrier, they become bandpass in nature and
occupy a higher frequency region spectrum. If a communication
channel with a bandwidth much larger than that of the message is
available then many low pass signals can be transmitted over the
same channel by differentially modulating the message signal and
combining them.

Transmitter Section
• The incoming message signal are assumed to a low pass type but
their spectra do not necessarily have non-zero values. This mes-
sage signal is passed through a low pass filter which is designed
to remove high frequency components
• The filtered outputs of the LPF are applied to the modulator. The
modulators shift the frequency range of the signals to occupy
mutually exclusive frequency intervals.
Low Pass Bandpass
Filter Modulator Filter
1 LP MOD BP
2 LP MOD BP
N LP MOD BF
Carrier
Supply
Transmitter
Receiver Section
• At the receiver side the output from common channel is given to
a bank of bandpass filters to separate the message signals on a
frequency occupancy basis
• Finally the original message signals are recovered by individual
demodulators. Here FDM operates only in one direction.
12. (a) “Out of syllabus”

(b) “Out of syllabus”

13. (a) Refer answer 12(b)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011 Question paper.
(b) Refer answer 13(b) from Nov/Dec 2010 Question paper.
14. (a) “Out of syllabus”

(b) “Out of syllabus”
15. (a) Refer answer 15(a)(i) from April/May 2011 Question paper.
(b) Pin Diode Construction
• Equivalent circuit when reverse biased
• Equivalent circuit when forward biased
Pin diode is the acronym for ‘positive-intrensic negative diode’.
It consists of heavily doped n-type and n-type regions separated by
an intrensic region.
But actually the intrensic layer is slightly doped n-type semiconductor.
The same material usually silicon is used for all three regions.
It is used most often for its power handling capability and because it
provides high resistive intrinsic region.
This allows a faster response time for the diode.
The PIN diode acts an ordinary diode at frequencies upto about
100 MHz, but above this frequency operation characteristic change.
N-type Si
R
Intrensic Si
(Lightly Ndoped)
P Type Si
Pin Diode Characteristics Pin Diode Construction
Construction
1. The construction of the PIN diode is shown in the figure.
2. The chip is prepared by starting with a wafer of slightly n-dopped
intrinsic silicon and N-region is diffused on the other surface as
shown in figure.

3. When a PIN diode is forward biased, holes and electrons are

injected form P an N region into I-region.
4. These charges do not recombine immediate.
5. Instead a finite quantity if charge always remain stored and result
in lowering of the resistance of I-region.
Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)
Multiplication Region
P+ i(p) P n+
Deflection
Region
RL V
Avalanche photo diode (APD’s) internally multiply the primary sig-

nal photo current before it enters the input circuitry of the following
amplifier.
Extremely high electric field region is created.
Impact Ionization:
The photogenerated carriers transverse a region where a very high
electric field is present.
This process is called as impact ionization.


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Semester-V

EEE_Semester-V_Ch04.indd 1 7/19/2012 12:50:43 PM

EEE_Sem-VI_Chennai_FM.indd iv 12/7/2012 6:40:43 PM

2. Define the modulation index of FM.

3. State sampling theorem.

4. What is the principle of delta modulation?

6. What is the rule for AMI code?

7. Define multiple access.

8. What is the principle of SDMA?

9. What is a satellite’s footprint?

10. What is SCADA?

CE_Nov-Dec 2013-QP.indd 1 4/24/2014 12:13:48 PM

CE_Nov-Dec 2013-QP.indd 2 4/24/2014 12:13:48 PM

(b) (i) Discuss various types of fibers. (5)

CE_Nov-Dec 2013-QP.indd 3 4/24/2014 12:13:48 PM

4. Delta modulation in a set of discrete time relations

e(nT3) = x(nT3) – x(nT3)

= x(nT3) – u(nT3 – T3)

u(nT3) = u(nT3 – T3) + bnT3

6. The rules of AMI are:

 B8ZS (North American T1)

7. Refer Q.no. May/June 2011

10. SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Fig. 3 Low pass baseband filter. It passes frequencies.

This is called threshold effect.

n(t) = r(t) cos[2fct + (t)].

Here r(t) is magnitude of noise and

(t) is the phase of noise.

x(t )  [ Ac  Ac ka m(t )]cos 2 f c t  r (t ) cos[2 f c t   (t )]. (1)

Fig. 1 Phasor diagram of AMS/8 for two carrier to nise ratio

y (t )  r (t )  Ac cos (t )  Ac ka m(t ) cos (t ).

12 a ii) Refer Q. no. 13 (b) from Nov/Dec 2010

13 a i) Refer Q. no. 13 (a) (ii) from Nov/Dec 2010

13 b) Refer Q. no. 13 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011

14 a i) Refer Q. no. 15 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011

14 a ii) Refer Q. no. 14 (a) from Nov/Dec 2011

14 b i) Refer Q. no. 14 (b) from Nov/Dec 2011

15 a) i) Refer Q. no. 15 (a)(i) from May/June 2011

15 b) ii) Refer Q. no. 15 (a)(i) from Nov/Dec 2011

2. Why is FSK preferred over ASK? Give reasons.

4. What is meant by slopeoverload distertion?

5. Define quantization error.

6. State the significance of source coding.

7. Mention the advantages of SDMA Technique.

9. Define apogce, perige and geocenter.

CE_May-June 2013-QP.indd 3 4/22/2014 3:48:54 PM

maximum modulating singal fm = 5KHz, determine Bandwidth and

CE_May-June 2013-QP.indd 4 4/22/2014 3:48:54 PM

2. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of FM.

4. State sampling theorem.

6. Compare block and convolutional codes.

8. Mention the significance of CDMA techniques.

9. List the merits and demerits of geosynchronous satellite.

10. What are the types of optical fiber mode structure?

EEE_Semester-V_Ch01.indd 3 4/19/2014 2:52:38 PM

(i) Carrier power and modulator tube dissipation when modulation

EEE_Semester-V_Ch01.indd 4 4/19/2014 2:52:38 PM

2. State Carson’s Rule.

4. What is slope overload error?