Ch. 1: What Is Biology?

o Biology:
1. The concepts, principles, and theories that allow people to
understand the natural environment form of biology, the study of
life.
2. One of the most general principles in biology is that living things do
not exist in isolation; they are all functioning parts in the delicate
balance of nature.
o Scientific Method:
1. The common steps that biologists and other scientists use to gather
information and answer questions.
o Experiments (controlled)
1. A hypothesis is an explanation for a question or a problem that can
be formally tested.
2. The control is the group in which all conditions are kept the same.
3. The condition in an experiment that is changed is the independent
variable; because it’s only variable that affects the outcome of the
experiment.
4. The condition is the dependant variable, because any changes in it
depends on changes made to the independent variable.
Ch.2: Ecology
o Water Cycle:
1. The water vapor in the air condenses on the surface of the can
because the can is colder than the surrounding air. Just as water vapor
condenses on cans, it also condenses on dust in the air and forms
clouds. Further condensation makes small drops that build in size until
they fall from the clouds as precipitation in the form of rain, ice, or
snow. The water falls on Earth and accumulates in oceans and lakes
where evaporation continues.
o Biotic/ Abiotic Factors:
1. The nonliving parts of an organism’s environment are the abiotic
factors.
2. All the living organisms that inhabit an environment are called biotic
factors.
o Ecology:
1. The scientific study of interactions among organisms and their
environments.
2. Ecology combines information and techniques from many scientific
fields, including math, chemistry, physics, geology, and other branches
of biology.
o Biosphere:
1. The portion of Earth that supports life.
o Ecosystem:
1. It is made up of the interactions among the populations in a
community and the community’s physical surroundings, or abiotic
factors.
 2. A population is a group of organisms of one species that interbreed
and live in the same place at the same time.
3. A community is a collection of interacting populations.
4. A habitat is the place where an organism lives out its life.
5. A niche is the role and position a species has in its environment-
how it meets its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and
how it reproduces.
6. Predators are animals such as lions and insect-eating birds that
which there is a close and permanent association among
organisms of different species called symbiosis.
7. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species
benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited.
8. A symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit is called
mutualism.
9. A symbiotic relationship in which one organism derives benefit at
the expense of the other is called parasitism.
o Autotroph/ Heterotroph:
1. Autotrophs are animals that make their own food by using the sun
or energy stored.
2. Heterotrophs don’t make their own food and feed on other
organisms.
o Food Web/ Chain:
1. A food chain is a simple model that scientists use to show how matter
and energy move through an ecosystem.
2. A food web expresses all the possible feeding relationship at each
trophic level in a community.
Ch.3: Communities & Biomes
o Succession:
1. The colonization of new sites like these by communities of
organisms is called primary succession.
2. The first species in an area are called pioneer species.
3. Secondary succession refers to the sequence of community
changes that takes place after a community is disrupted by natural
disasters or human actions.
4. Secondary succession, however, occurs in areas that previously
contained life, and land that contains soil.
o Climax Communities:
1. A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in
species is called a climax community.
o Limiting Factors:
1. Environmental factors that affect an organism’s ability to survive in
its environment, such as food availability, predators, and
temperature.
2. A limiting factor is a biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the
existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms.
o Biomes:
 1. A large group of ecosystems that share the same type of climax
community.
2. The portion of the marine biome that shallow enough for sunlight to
penetrate is called the photic zone.
3. Deeper water that never receives sunlight makes up the aphotic
zone.
4. Estuary is a coastal body of water, partially surrounded by land, in
which fresh and salt water mix.
5. Portion of the shoreline that lies between the high and low tide lies
is called the intertidal zone.
6. Tundra is a treeless land with long summer days and short periods
of winter sunlight.
7. Underneath this topsoil is a layer of permanently frozen ground
called permafrost.
8. Taiga is the land of larch, fir, hemlock, and spruce trees.
9. Desert arid region with sparse to nonexistent plant life.
10. Grasslands are large communities covered with grasses and similar
small pants.
11. Temperate forests are dominated by broad=leaved hardwood trees
that lose their foliage annually.
12. Tropical rain forests have warm temperatures, wet weather, and
lush plant growth.
Ch.4: Population Biology
o Carrying Capacity:
1. The number of organisms of one species that an environment
can support.
o Density Dependent / Independent:
1. Density-dependent factors include disease, competition, parasites,
and food.
2. Density-independent factors affect all populations, regardless of
their density.
o Demography:
1. The study of human population grown characteristics.
o Exponential Growth:
1. That as a population gets larger, it also grows faster.
2. Limiting factors limit population growth
o Stress:
1. As populations increase in size, individual animals begin to exhibit
a variety of symptoms, including aggression, decrease in parental
care, decrease fertility and decreased resistance to disease.
o Reproduction:
1. A population’s growth rate is the difference between the birthrate and
the death rate.
2. When fertility rates are high, populations grow more rapidly unless the
death rate is also high.
 3. Age structure can be visualized by the use of graphs, as shown in
population is growing rapidly, growing slowly, or not growing at all.
Ch.5: Biological Conservation
o Biodiversity:
1. The variety of life in an area.
o Threats/ Habitat Destruction/ Etc:
1. The population of a species begins to declining rapidly, the species is
said to be a threatened species.
2. A species is considered to be an endangered species when its
numbers become so low that extinction is possible.
3. Habitat fragmentation is the separation of wilderness areas from other
wilderness areas.
4. The different conditions along the boundaries of an ecosystem are
called an edge effect.
5. Habitat degradation is the damage to a habitat by pollution.
6. Exotic species are organisms that are not native to a particular area.
o Conservation Biology:
1. A new field that studies methods and implements plans to protect
biodiversity.
2. Reintroduction programs, such as this one, release organisms into
an area where their species once lived.
Ch.6: Chemistry of Life
o Organic/Inorganic Compounds:
1. Organic Compounds contains the elements Carbon and Hydrogen
occur naturally in living things.
2. Inorganic Compounds do not contain Carbon and Hydrogen together
and are essential to living things.
o Chemical Reactions/Compounds:
1. When chemical reactions occur, bonds between atoms are formed or
broken, causing substances to combine and recombine as different
molecules.
2. All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism are referred
to as the organism’s metabolism.
3. A compound is a substance that is composed of atoms of two or more
different elements that are chemically combined.
4. When two atoms share electrons, such as hydrogen sharing with
oxygen in water, the force that holds them together is called a covalent
bond.
5. The attractive force between two ions of opposite charge is known as
an ionic bond.
6. The attraction between the hydrogen of 1 H2O and oxygen of another
H2O molecule is an example of a hydrogen bond.
7. A polar molecule is a molecule with an unequal distribution of charge;
that is, each molecule has a positive end and a negative end.
o Proton/Neutron/Electron:
 1. The nucleus is made of positively charged particles called protons and
particles that have no charge, called neutrons.
2. Forming a cloud around the nucleus are even smaller, negatively
charged particles called electrons. (first ring holds 2, second ring holds
eight, and third holds 18)
o Acid/Base:
1. An acid is any substance that forms hydrogen ions in the water with a
pH below 7.
2. A base is any substance that forms hydroxide ions in the water with a
pH above 7.
o Diffusion:
1. The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration.
o Protein/Enzymes:
1. A protein is a large, complex polymer composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur.
2. An enzyme is a protein that changes the rate of chemical reactions.
3. The basic building blocks of proteins are called amino acids.
4. High temperatures damage the site of the enzyme.
5. Enzymes are proteins and made of nucleic acid.
6. Dehydration Synthesis- takes out H2O and puts together the
molecule
7. Hydrolysis- adds the H2O and takes apart the big molecule
Molecule of Life Subunits Function Examples
Carbohydrates monosaccharides Store energy Starch(plant)
Glycogen(animal)
Cellulose(plant)
fiber
Lipids 1 glycero/ 3 fatty Stores 2x as much Oils, fats, steroids,
acids as carbohydrates waxes,
phospholipids
Proteins Animo acids Speed up Structural protein,
20 different animo chemical transport protein,
acids reactions, defend defensive protein,
against enzymes
patholgens, carry
materials
Nucleic Acid nucleotides Heitarary material DNA, RNA
info to make
protein

Ch.7 Cells:
o Cells/ell Theory:
1. The basic unit of living organisms is a cell.
2. The cell theory is made up of 3 main ideas:
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
 The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms
All cells come from preexisting cells
o Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic:
1. The cells of most unicellular organisms such as bacteria do not have
membrane-bound structures are therefore called prokaryotes.
2. Most of the multicellular plants and animals we know have cells
containing membrane-bound structures and are therefore called
eukaryotes.
o Fluid Mosaic Model
1. Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to
move sideways within the lipid bilayer.
o Selectively Permeability:
1. The feature of the plasma membrane that maintains homeostasis
within a cell by allowing some molecules into the cell while keeping
others out.
o Organelles/Functions:
1. Plasma Membrane- allows certain materials in and out
2. Nucleus- controls the cell
3. Nucleolus- makes ribosomes
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum- the site of cellular chemical reactions
5. Ribosomes- makes proteins
6. Cytoplasm- holds organelles in place
7. Mitochondria- transforms energy for the cell
8. Cell Wall(only in plant cells)- protect the cell
9. Chloroplast (only in plant cells)- captures light energy and produce
food to store
o Homeostasis:
1. The process of maintaining the cell’s environment.
o Phospholipid Bilayer:
1. The structure of a plasma membrane is a bilayer of phospholipids
with proteins on its surface or embedded in the membrane.
2. The lipids in the plasma membrane have a glycerol backbone, 2
fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.

o Transport Proteins:
1. Transport proteins allow needed substances or waste materials to
move through the plasma membrane.
 2. Proteins at the inner surface of a plasma membrane play an important
role in attaching the plasma membrane to the cell’s internal support
structure, giving the cell its flexibility.
Ch.8: Cell Transport & Cycle
o Osmosis/Isotonic/Hypertonic/Hypotonic
1. The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
2. In an isotonic solution, the concentration of dissolved substances in
the solution is the same as the concentration of dissolved
substances inside the cell.
3. The concentration of dissolved substances outside the cell is higher
than the concentration inside the cell.
4. The concentration of dissolved substances is lower in the solution
outside the cell than the concentration inside the cell.
o Passive/Active Transport:
1. The cell uses no energy to move these particles; therefore, this
movement of particles across membranes by diffusion is called passive
transport.
2. Movement of materials through a membrane is called active transport
and requires energy from the cell.
o Facilitated Diffusion:
1. The passive transport of materials across the plasma membrane with
the aid of transport proteins.
o Endocytosis/Exocytosis:
1. A process by which a cell surrounds and takes in the material from
its environment
2. The expulsion or secretion of materials from a cell.
o Chromosome:
1. These structures, which contain DNA and become darkly colored when
stained.
o Cell Cycle:
1. The sequence of growth and division of a cell.
2. G1 phase- Rapid growth and metabolic activity
3. S phase- DNA synthesis and replication
4. G2 phase- centrioles replicate;cell prepares for division
5. The majority of a cell’s life is spent in the growth period known as
interphase.
o Mitosis:
1. Following interphase, a cell enters its period of nuclear division
called mitosis.
2. Prophase- the chromatin coils to form visible chromosomes.
3. Metaphase- the chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle.
4. Anaphase- the centromeres split and the sister chromatids are
pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
5. Telophase: two distinct daughter cells are formed. The cells
separate as the cell cycle proceeds into the next interphase.
Ch.9: Energy in a Cell
o ATP/ADP
1. Energy-storing molecule in cells composed of an adenosine
molecule, a ribose sugar and 3 phosphate groups; energy is stored
in the molecule’s chemical bonds and can be used quickly and
easily by cells.
2. Molecule formed from the breaking off of a phosphate group for
ATP; results in a large release of energy that is used for biological
reactions.
o Photosynthesis:
1. The process by which autotrophs, such has algae and plants, trap
energy from sunlight with chlorophyll and use this energy to convert
carbon dioxide and water into simple sugars.
o Chlorophyll:
1. The most common pigment in chloroplasts.
2. Chlorophyll in forms a and b absorbs most wavelengths of light
except for green.
o Light Dependent/ Independent Reactions:
 o Photolysis:
1. Two water molecules of water are split to replace electrons lost from
chlorophyll.
o Calvin Cycle:
1. The second phase of photosynthesis does not require light and is
called the Calvin cycle, which is a series of reactions that use
carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates.
2. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
o Cellular Respiration:
1. The process by which mitochondria break down food molecules to
produce ATP.
o Anaerobic/ Aerobic Respiration:
1. No oxygen is required for this stage.
2. The last two stages are aerobic and require oxygen to be
completed.
o Glycolysis:
1. A series of chemical reactions in the cytoplasm of the cell that
break down glucose, a six-carbon compound, into two molecules of
pyruvic acid, a 3-carbon compound.
o Citric Acid Cycle:
1. A series of chemical reactions similar to the Calvin cycle in that one of
the molecules needed for the first reaction is also one of the end
products.
o Fermentation:
1. When this happens, an anaerobic process called fermentation
follows glycolysis and provides means to continue producing ATP
until oxygen is available again.
2. There are two major types of fermentation: lactic acid fermentation
and alcoholic fermentation.
3. Lactic acid fermentation is one of the processes that supplies
energy when oxygen is scarce.
4. Another type of fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, is used by
among others, yeast cells to produce CO2 and ethyl alcohol.
Ch.10: Mendel & Meiosis
o Genetics:
1. Although people had noticed for thousands of years that family
resemblances were inherited from generation to generation, a
complete explanation required the careful study of genetics-the branch
of biology that studies heredity.
2. Heredity is the passing on of characteristics from parents to offspring.
o Mendel’s Laws:
1. Mendel’s Prince of Dominance is when one allele of a pair (dominant)
can completely mask or hide the opposite allele (recessive). For
example: In Mendel’s experiment with peas the hybrids of the tall x
short cross were always tall. The red flower x white flower cross were
always red.
 2. Mendel’s Principle of Segregation states that although the recessive
allele doesn’t show in the hybrid (heterozygote), it is neither lost nor
contaminated by its association with its dominant allele. It can
segregate (separate) away from the overshadowing dominant allele,
and appear unchanged in the next generation.
3. Mendel’s Principle of Independent Assortment states that every trait is
inherited independently of every other trait.
o Heterozygous:
1. An organism that is heterozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait
differ from each other (Tt).
o Homozygous Dominant/Recessive
1. An organism is homozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait
are the same.
2. Homozygous dominant is TT and homozygous recessive is tt.
o Hybrid:
1. The offspring of parents that have different forms of a trait, such as a
tall and short height (Tt).
o Phenotype:
1. The way an organism looks and behaves.
o Genotype:
1. The gene combination an organism contains.
o Allele:
1. Alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an
organism.
o Punnet Square:
1. If you know the genotypes of the parents, you can use a Punnet
square to predict the possible genotypes of their offspring.
o Monohybrid Crosses:
o Dihybrid Crosses:

o Meiosis:
1. Meiosis occurs only in the reproductive organs.
2. Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half.
3. Meiosis has 2 nuclear division forming 4 new cells that are different.
4. During interphase that precedes meiosis I the cell replicates its
chromosomes.
5. Prophase I synapsis and a tetrad is formed allowing for crossing
over to occur.
6. Metaphase I is when the homologous are lined up at the
metaphase plate.
7. Anaphase I is when the homologous pairs separate.
8. Telophase I the cell splits into two cells.
o Diploid/Haploid:
1. A cell with two of each kind of chromosome is called a diploid cell and
is said to contain a diploid, or 2n, number of chromosomes.
2. A cell with one of each kind of chromosome is called a haploid cell and
is said to contain a haploid, or n, number of chromosomes.
o Gamete:
1. Male gametes are sperm and female gametes are called eggs.
2. Sperm fertilizes the egg is called a zygote.
o Crossing-over:
1. Crossing-over is when the homologous exchange genetic material.
o Nondisjunction:
1. The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly
during meiosis.
o Homologous Chromosomes:
 1. The 2 chromosomes of each pair in a diploid cell help determine what
the individual organism looks like.
o Genetic Recombination:
1. This reassortment of chromosomes and the genetic information
they carry, either by crossing over or by independent segregation of
homologous chromosomes.
o Trisomy/Monosomy/Triploidy:
1. For example, when a gamete with an extra chromosome is fertilized by
a normal gamete, the zygote will have an extra chromosome called
trisomy.
2. When a gamete with a missing chromosome fuses with a normal
gamete during fertilization, the resulting zygote lacks a chromosome
called monosomy.
3. When a gamete with an extra set of chromosomes is fertilized by a
normal haploid gamete, the offspring has three sets of chromosomes
and is triploid.
Ch.11: DNA & Genes
o Nitrogen base:
1. A carbon ring structure that contains one or more atoms of
nitrogen.
o Double Helix:
1. The shape of a DNA molecule formed when two twisted DNA strands
are coiled into a springlike structure and held together by weak
hydrogen bonds between the bases.
o Replication:
1. The DNA in the chromosomes is copied.
2. It breaks the hydrogen bonds and the nucleotides that are floating
free in the surrounding medium bond to the single strands by base
pairing.
3. Another enzyme bonds these new nucleotides into a chain.
o Nucleotide:
1. It contains a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and one base.
o mRNA/tRNA/rRNA
1. mRNA brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s
factory floor, the cytoplasm.
2. Ribosomes made of rRNA clamp onto the mRNA and use its
information to assemble the animo acids in the correct order.
3. tRNA is the supplier and transport anime acids to the ribosome to
be assembled into a protein.
o Transcription/Translation
1. In the nucleus, enzymes make an RNA copy of a portion of a DNA
strand.
2. The process of transcription is similar to that of DNA replication.
3. The main difference is that transcription results in the formation of one
single-stranded RNA molecule rather than a double-stranded DNA
molecule,
 4. The process of converting the information in a sequence of nitrogen
bases in mRNA into a sequence of animo acids that make up a
protein.
5. Translation takes place at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
6. In prokaryotic cells that have no nucleus, the mRNA is made in the
cytoplasm.
7. In eukaryotic cells, mRNA leaves the nucleus through an opening in
the nuclear membrane and travels to the cytoplasm.
o Codon/Anticodon:
1. Each set of three nitrogen bases in mRNA representing an animo
acid.
2. tRNA is not the codon.
3. The anticodon region of a transfer RNA is a sequence of three
bases that are complementary to a codon in the messenger RNA.
o Mutation:
1. Any change in the DNA sequence.
o Point/Frameshift/Chromosomal Mutation:
1. A point mutation is a change in a single base in DNA.
2. Chromosomal mutations is a mutation that occurs at the chromosome
level resulting in changes in the gene distribution to gametes during
meiosis; caused when parts of chromosomes break off or rejoin
incorrectly.
3. A mutation in which a single base is added or deleted from DNA is
called a frameshift mutation.
o Mutagen:
1. Any agent that can cause a change in DNA.