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[Specimen 2003]
25.[a].state six factors that caused the Mfecane in Nguniland [6]
 Growth in population and pressure on land
 Desire to control trade, especially with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay
 Importance of cattle in society and desire to acquire more
 Desire to control hunting grounds especially where ivory was concerned
 Desire to control the grazing lands for the increasing number of cattle
 Development of advanced military tactics which promoted aggression
 Emergence of ambitious African leaders who desired to dominate others
 Famine [Madlatule Famine] that occurred caused rivalry as food shortage spread
 Creation of large powerful kingdoms supported by smaller ones, e g The
Mthethwa; the Ndwandwe; the Ngwane; etc, the small Zulu ethnic group sided
with the Mthethwa
[b].Describe the fighting that took place between the ethnic groups in Nguniland during
Mfecane from 1818 to 18123.
[11]
1816 rivalry of the Ndwandwe and Ngwane began over land the latter were defeated and
pushed away north
1818 Ndwandwe under Zwide attacked Mthethwa of Dingiswayo
Dingiswayo was captured and killed and the Mthethwa were defeated and scattered
Ndwandwe attacked the other groups in the area east of the Drankensburg
Some remnants of the Mthethwa fled giving Zwide free reign in the area of Nguniland
Zwide then decided to fight the small Zulu tribe now under Tshaka
The military tactics he developed in the early stages of the mfecane gave Tshaka a
decisive advantage over the Ndwandwe
Tshaka then reassembled the Mthethwa and the Zulus into a powerful military machine
Weaker tribes who could not flee decided to seek refuge under Tshaka and became part of
the empire
Threat of the whites from the south also helped the people to rally behind the most
powerful leader, thus becoming part of an enlarged state
Tshaka adopted new fighting methods, like the cow-horn formation and began to attack
his neighbours. His small Zulu kingdom began to expand and be a challenge to the
Ndwandwe
1818 Zwide decided to crush the emerging Zulu state. In the first battle the Ndwandwe
were defeated and driven off
End of 1818 he sent a full army across the Mfolozi River. Tshaka at first he withdrew his
whole population and wealth. Zwide followed across deserted country with no food.
Ndwandwe army became weakened and began to retreat. Tshaka then attacked and
drove the Ndwandwe back to their capital which he ransacked. Ndwandwe were
defeated.
Tshaka drove the Ndwandwe generals-Zwangendaba and Sotshangana away. They fled
after Zwide was defeated
Zwide fled to the region of upper Nkomati River
Soshangana left in 1821 attacking tribes to the North and ended up in Gaza land, near
modern-day Chipinge/chirinda.

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Other smaller tribes fled to the west into the Sotho and Tswana area I terror and in turn
spread the terror on their way
Tshaka proceeded to attack tribes between 1819 and 1822 and subdued them and
incorporated to form a large Zulu kingdom
[c].How far did the Mfecane lead to the rise of the Zulu state?
Mfecane wars allowed Tshaka to develop the Zulu state
.Desertion by the key rivals, e,g Mzilikazi of the Khumalo.
[JUNE 2004]
26.[a].State any three states and their respective leaders which emerged amongst the
Northern Nguni in the early 19th century.
[11]
The Mthethwa under Dingiswayo
The Ndwandwe under Zwide
The Ngwane under Sobhuza
The Ngwane under Matiwane
[b].Outline the military reforms introduced by Tshaka in the Zulu Kingdom.
[11]
Tshaka gained control of the Zulu clan on the death of Senzangakhona in 1816.
Adopted and perfected military innovations by Dingiswayo such as banning of
circumcision and drafting boys into age-set regiments
Each regiment had distinct dress and color
Tshaka banned the use of sandals in the army; soldiers were to walk barefoot for speed
Equipped his soldiers with the short stabbing spear [assegai] for hand-to- hand fighting
and large man-size shields
Soldiers were punished by death for losing weapons especially the assegai
Tshaka’s armies employed the cow-horn battle formation
Adopted surprise attack on enemy as a strategy
Employed spies to gather information about his enemies
Made use of smoke signals for communication
Banned married of all men before the age of 40 or before military service
Employed young boys as baggage carriers for soldiers
Isolated soldiers from community and fed soldiers on beef
Believed in total destruction of the enemy, killing the ruling family of defeated tribes and
totally incorporating defeated tribes.
[c].Explain why Shaka was assassinated in 1828.
[i].Reasons for Shaka’s assassination
Shaka became dictatorial.
Did not consult traditional council of advisors on national issues
Nor did he consult his indunas frequently
Maintained a cruel system even when it was no longer justified
Shaka’s strict discipline- and cruelty killing of subjects for minor offences

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[ii].Shaka’s also kept his soldiers on ceaseless campaigns

Army became exhausted
However, Shaka success made his relative such as half brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana,
aunt Mkabayi jealous and ambitious to rule.
Mkabayi-suspected Shaka of having killed his own mother
Subsequently killed large numbers of people for failing to mourn his mother Nandi
Shaka’s brothers were also quite ambitious.
[NOV 2004]
27.[a].List any six military reforms introduced by Tshaka.
[6]
Use of long shields-cowardice punished by death
Use of a short-stabbing spear [assegai]
Conscription of all men under 40 years into the army-runners to relay messages
Going to war barefooted
Young boys to carry baggage for soldiers
Creation of a standing army
Total destruction of enemies
Improvement of the cow-horn formation
Use of female regiments
Banned circumcision ceremonies
Used spies, nyanga/sangomas-to treat soldiers
Use of smoke signals for communication
Used mock battles as training
[b].Outline the problems faced by Tshaka as king of the Zulu State
[11].
Expansion policy characterized by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states
thus creating hatreds
The death of Nandi, his mother, created problems for him as he killed many people. Even
his sister suspected that Tshaka was responsible for Nandi’s death. Tshaka’s mother
was his advisor.
Jealous relatives who ultimately assassinated him
High rate of executions created enemies for Tshaka among the army
Mzilikazi’s rebellion in 1822.
Threat from the expansionist Boers and British
Battled to control the Delagoa trade route
Shortage of resources-e g land
Lack of trust by commanders
[c].Is it true that Tshaka was responsible for his own downfall? Explain your answer.
[i].Tshaka’s own responsibility for downfall:
 Was a dictator-all power in his hands
 Ignored traditional chiefs
 Failed to work with brothers and sisters who should have assisted him

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 Frequent raids exposed him-not enough protection

 Rather cruel, e g is said to have killed many people when his mother died
especially those not showing enough signs of grief
 Allowed Khumalo to remain autonomous
[ii].other factors
 Jealous brothers and sisters-envied Tshaka’s success
 Ambitious leaders who also wanted to rule
 Soldiers tired of continuous raids
 Tshaka was an illegitimate child
 Usurped power from brother Sigujana
 Threats of whites
[NOV 2009]
28.[a].Identify any three Northern Nguni leaders and their respective chiefdoms who
were involved in the Mfecane wars.
[6]
 Dingiswayo –Mthethwa
 Sobhuza-Ngwane
 Zwide-Ndwandwe
 Tshaka-Zulu
 Dingane-Zulu
 Mzilikazi-Ndebele
 Nxaba-Ngoni
 Soshangane-Shangane
 Zwangendaba-Ngoni
[b].Describe the political organization of the Zulu State [11]
 King was the supreme ruler
 King was commander in chief
 Controller of labour, religion, trade and land
 King assisted by chiefs and councillors most of whom were relatives and those he
trusted
Power distributed at three levels, the king at the top; members of the ruling Zulu lineage;
the incorporated trusted chiefs
 Below them were other smaller chiefs who were supposed to regard themselves as
Zulu and would be allowed to be councillors
 Other chiefs were those not related to the Zulu-had privileges but had to pay
tribute, excluded from making important decisions
 Army used by the king to control the state. Had a standing army
 Zulu was the official language
 State divided into regimental towns under izinduna
 The inkatha was a symbol of unity
 Religious leaders installed chiefs
[c].How important was the army in the Zulu political system?
[i].importance of army in political system

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 Used to expand the state

 Used to collect tribute
 Used to raid other states
 Protected the king and the state
 Used to protect trade routes/hunting grounds
 Used to punish rebellious chiefs
[ii].others also important:
 Chiefs ,councillors and king’s relatives helped to administer the state
 Traders were the source of foreign goods
 Tribute payment by subjects
 Religion used as a unifying force e g Inxwala festival
 Intermarriages
 The king’s personality
[JUNE2006]
29.[a].State any three leaders and their respective groups whom Zwide fought during
the Mfecane [6].
 Sobhuza-Ngwane
 Dingiswayo-Mthethwa
 Tshaka - Zulu
[b].Outline the causes of the Mfecane in Northern Nguniland
[11]
 Population explosion in Nguniland
 Competition for pastures, fertile soils
 Creation of larger chiefdoms for protection
 Trade in skins with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay-to get cloth, beads ,guns
 Need to control areas rich in ivory, access to trade routes caused conflicts
 Creation of age-set regiments
 Amabutho for hunting, farming and raiding for cattle and grain
 The Madlatule and long drought precipitated conflicts over pasture, grain and cattle
 European expansion into interior
 Demand for labour led to raids for slaves by Boers, Korans, Portuguese
 Expansion of Zulu kingdom under Tshaka created chain reaction of conflicts in
Nguniland
 Civil wars and ambitious leaders
[c].Is it true that the Mfecane was caused by the Europeans? Explain your answer.
[i].European influence on Mfecane;
 Mfecane largely attributable to white expansion into interior.
 Boer demand for labour in interior
 Portuguese also raiding for slaves for export-chiefdoms fought to get people to
sell as slaves
[ii].other factors;

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 However, Mfecane also traceable to problems like population explosion-with

resultant competition for scarce resources such as pastures fertile land
 Mfecane precipitated creation of age regiments for raids on neighbours
 Madlatule/drought
 Tshaka and the rise of the Zulu nation

[Nov 2007].
30.[a].List any six reasons for the rise of the Zulu State.
[6].
Main Nguni kingdoms fought and destroyed each other giving a chance to the Zulu
 Influence of Dingiswayo on Tshaka
 Shaka’s able leadership
 Shaka’s reorganization of defeated Mthethwa and his Zulu state into a war
machine
 The defeat of the Ndwandwe by the combined Mthethwa/Zulu armies [now called
the Zulu].
 Conquest of all surrounding ethnic groups and chiefdoms by Zulu armies
 New military innovations introduced by Tshaka
 Role of trade
 Population pressure,
 Madlatule/famine
[b].Outline the military reforms introduced by Tshaka.
[11]
 The use of long shields
 The use of short spears[assegai]
 Conscription until 40 years of age
 Standings armies in different in different areas of kingdom away from society
 Strict military discipline
 Use of the death penalty for minor/major offences
 Mock battles and military drills
 Use of the cow-horn battle tactics
 Female regiments
 Youths carried for soldiers
 Use of total war in which enemy structures were completely destroyed, including
royal family
 Use of spies and smoke signals for information
 Military demands led to banning of circumcision because it took long to heal
 The use of speed in war[fighting barefooted]
 Use of traditional healers
 War cry
 Fed soldiers on beef
 Use of surprise attacks
 Mfasimba [distinct head dress]
 Perennial warfare
[c].How effective was Shaka in his use of these reforms?

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[i]The tactics brought successes: Effectiveness

 Succeeded in building a very strong/powerful Zulu kingdom –feared throughout
Southern Africa
 Conquered and controlled many other states for his own personal glory
 Managed to become the king of the Zulu state from the status of a small chiefdom
at the beginning of Mfecane
 Managed to build a very strong economy based on cattle
 The Zulu culture and tactics of survival were adopted in the area and other regions
in Southern Africa
[ii].The reforms had negative effects;
 Created a very big state which he failed to keep together
 His dictatorial tendencies created more enemies. Tshaka’ s half –brother and
sister plotted his downfall
 The military reforms led to massive exodus of experienced and skilled personnel
 He maintained a cruel system when it was no longer necessary as a result of the
effectiveness of the reforms
 Depopulation
 The army no longer enjoyed military campaigns
 Led to death of many people and destruction of property
[NOV 2006]
31.[a].Identify any three people who plotted the assassination of Shaka and any three
reason for his assassination
[6]
[i].Dingane, -Mbopha, -Mhlangana, -Mkabayi
[ii].-Tshaka’s autocratic rule
-jealous
-Tshaka’s endless warfare
-Strict discipline
-Increased execution for petty offences
-Execution of people for not mourning Tshaka’s mother/his cruelty
[b].Outline the political and social organization of the Zulu state during Tshaka’s reign.
[11]
[i] Political organization
 Tshaka created a centralized state
 Defeated chiefs were often deposed and replaced by Tshaka’s appointees
 Kingdom was organized on military lines
 Age-regiments accommodated in regimental towns

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 Regimental towns administered by an induna helped by a female member of the

royal family
 Regimental towns allocated royal cattle to look after
 King was the chief judge
 Council of advisors rendered irrelevant as Tshaka became autocratic
 King was army commander
 Traditional chiefs reduced to administration of local affairs
 Inkatha a symbol of unity
[ii]Social organization
 Marriage was only allowed to men after retiring from army
 Females organized into regiments
 Regiments of women –used to cultivate land and for ceremonial dances and
displays
 Division of labour
 Society was patrilineal
 The king officiated at the Inxwala ceremony, King’s spiritual power was renewed
through traditional medicines
 Settlement set up
[c].Did the political organization of the Zulu state benefit the Zulu nation? Explain your
answer.
[i].Benefits of Tshaka’s political organization;
 Organization on military lines strengthened state against external aggression
during Mfecane
 Military power also necessary for raids on neighbours
 Fostered unity amongst young adults recruits/raided people
 It incapacitated vassal chiefs from rebelling thwarting civil wars
[ii].Disadvantages/Non-Benefits;
 Regimental/ibutho system resented by young men for delaying marriage and for
perennial warfare
 Political system made king an autocratic ruler who ignored indunas, traditional
chiefs’ advice
[June 2011]
32[a].Identify any six ethnic groups that existed south of the Limpopo. [6]
 Zulu, Khumalo, Qhwabe
 Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Swazi
 Hlubi, Ngwane, Mpondo.
[b].Describe the effects of the Mfecane south of the Limpopo. [11]
 Depopulation- large areas of NATAL, Orange Free state and Transvaal were left
depopulated as people sought security elsewhere
 Loss of lives – many people lost their lives as warfare was the order of the day

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 Hunger and starvation –farming was disrupted and people resorted to survival
techniques such as feeding on game meat and wild fruits
 Destruction of property –most of the affected groups lost their valuable properties
including livestock as raiding took its toll
 Uninhabited lands- attracted Boer trekkers from the Cape Colony
 Cannibalism- cases of cannibalism increased due to shortage of food
 Destruction of states –new and old states were destroyed
 Empire building- ethnic groups which fled the Mfecane built new empires e,g
Sobhuza
 Emergency of defensive kingdoms such as Swazi, Bapedi and Basotho
 Spread of Nguni religion e,g Inxwala
 Disruption of Delagoa Bay trade with the Portuguese
 Spread of NNguni warfare tactics
 Spread of Nguni language
[c].To what extent was the Mfecane responsible for the fall of kingdoms in Central
Africa? Explain your answer. [8]
Effects of Mfecane wars
 Movements of various groups in search of land
 Better fighting methods, better leadesrship qualities
 Use of Assegai and long shield spread
 Establishment of military towns, better leadesrship methods
 Raiding and incorporation of defeated people
 Hunger and starvation, widespread deaths and destruction of property
 Constant faer of rebellious elements, better fighting methods
Other effects
 Succession disputes, Civil wars
 Weak leadership, drought
 Decline in trade, colonialism
 Disunity, military weakness