Qualities of a Good Technical Report

Technical writing is an important part of everyone's career. Writing well is difficult and time consuming
and writing in a technical way about technical subjects even makes it more difficult. People write to
propose projects, to document their own actions, to help other understand the research, to analyze and
solve problems, to describe procedures and objects. If done well, technical writing is an exciting,
fulfilling experience but if done poorly, it is frustrating, even harmful to career development.
Technicality in writing is based upon the following points

There are six basic properties of Technical writing:

Clarity

Accuracy

Comprehensiveness

Accessibility

Conciseness

Correctness

1. Clarity

Technical document must convey a single meaning that the reader can understand. Unclear Technical
writing is expensive. They vital communication link among
the various employees is usually the report, if this link is
weak, the entire project may be jeopardized.
Unclear technical writing can be dangerous e.g. unclear
instruction on how to operate machinery.

2. Accuracy

Unclear writing can cause many problems and even inaccuracy in the report. If you mean to write
40,000 don’t write 400,000. If you mean to refer to fig 3.1 don’t refer to fig 3.2. Slightest error can
confuse or even annoy the reader of the report. If the reader suspects that you are slanting information
they have the right to doubt the entire document.

3. Comprehensiveness:

When writing technically, all the information should be provided, its background must be described and
clear description of any process, or method of carrying out a specific work, should also be given. It also
includes results, conclusions and recommendations.

4. Accessibility:
It means the ease with which the readers can locate the information they seek. To increase Accessibility,
include headings and lists in the report. A table of contents, list of illustrations glossary and index are
preferred.

5. Conciseness:

Technical writing is meant to be useful. The longer a document is, the more difficult it gets to use it.
Even it takes more of the user's time. Conciseness works against clarity and comprehensiveness.
Solution to this conflict is to create a balance between the requirements of clarity, conciseness and
comprehensiveness. In short, in T.W every aspect of the subject is discussed in optimized detail.
Document must be long enough to be clear. It must give the audience purpose and object but no extra
details. Technical writing can be shortened 10-20% by eliminating unnecessary phrases and choosing
short words and sentences.

6. Correctness

Qualities of technical report writing also includes correctnes. Good technical report must also be
correct. It. Must be free from grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, and should have appropriate
format standard. If a report contains grammatical errors, the reader will doubt the accuracy of the
information in the report. Technical writing is meant to convey information and to persuade the
audience. To accomplish these goals it must be clear auccurate, easy to access and must be economical
and correct. If you mean to write "the three persons: person 1, person 2 and person 3 attended a
session" but you use commas instead of the colon, your readers might think 6 people attended the
session, not 3.

Kinds of Reports
Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The
tone of a report is always formal. The important section to focus on is
the target audience. For example – report writing about a school event,
report writing about a business case, etc. Let us briefly discuss the
different kinds of reports
Kinds of Report Writing – A Brief Introduction

All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to
be bias-free, but they also have to be 100% correct. Proof-reading and
fact-checking is always what you do as a thumb rule before submitting a
report.

Reports are written with much analysis. The purpose of report writing is
essential to inform the reader about a topic, minus one’s opinion on the
topic. It’s simply a portrayal of facts, as it is. Even if one
gives inferences, solid analysis, charts, tables and data is provided.
Mostly it is specified by the person who’s asked for the report whether
they would like your take or not if that is the case.

In many cases, what’s required is your suggestions for a specific case

after a factual report. That depends on why are you writing the report
and who you are writing it for in the first place. Knowing your
audience’s motive for asking for that report is very important as it sets
the course of the facts focused on your report.
Kinds of Reports
Based on some special characteristics, a report can be a certain kind.
Why classify them in kinds? Well, depending upon the purpose of the
report, it’s always best to know what kind would be the best for that
case.

For example, informal reports in office formal contexts may not be

suitable. In that case, even if your report is on point and the best, just the
structure or format or language could work against your report.

Small things like that should not stand in the way of you conveying
your point. And thus for these reasons and more, let’s dive into the
kinds of reports that exist so we can make clear decisions of their usage.

All Types of Reports and their Explanation

Long Report and Short Reports:

These kinds of reports are quite clear, as the name suggests. A two-page
report or sometimes referred to as a memorandum is short, and a thirty-
page report is absolutely long. But what makes a clear division of short
reports or long reports? Well, usually, notice that longer reports are
generally written in a formal manner.

Internal and External Reports:

As the name suggests, an internal report stays within a certain

organization or group of people. In the case of office settings, internal
reports are for within the organization.

We prepare external reports, such as a news report in the newspaper

about an incident or the annual reports
of companies for distribution outside the organization. We call these as
public reports.

Vertical and Lateral Reports:

This is about the hierarchy of the reports’ ultimate target. If the report is
for your management or for your mentees, it’s a vertical report.
Wherever a direction of upwards or downwards comes into motion, we
call it a vertical report.

Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the

organization. A report traveling between units of the same organization
level (for example, a report among the administration and finance
departments) is lateral.

Tips and Conventions with Sample Reports

Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are sent out on regularly pre-scheduled dates. In most

cases, their direction is upward and serves as management control.
Some, like annual reports, is not vertical but is a Government mandate
to be periodic in nature.

That is why we have annual or quarterly or half-yearly reports. If they

are this frequent, it only makes sense to pre-set the structure of these
reports and just fill in the data every period. That’s exactly what
happens in most cases too.

Furthermore,

Formal and Informal Reports:

Formal reports are meticulously structured. They focus on objectivity
and organization, contain deeper detail, and the writer must write them
in a style that eliminates factors like personal pronouns.

Informal reports are usually short messages with free-flowing, casual

use of language. We generally describe the internal report/memorandum
as an informal report. For example, a report among your peers, or a
report for your small group or team, etc.

Informational and Analytical Reports:

Informational reports (attendance reports, annual budget reports,

monthly financial reports, and such) carry objective information from
one area of an organization to maybe a larger system.

Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and employee

appraisals) show attempts to solve actual problems. These analytical
reports usually require suggestions at the end.

Proposal Reports:

These kinds of reports are like an extension to the analytical/problem-

solving reports. A proposal is a document one prepares to describe how
one organization can provide a solution to a problem they are facing.

There’s usually always a need to prepare a report in a business set-up.

The end goal is usually very solution-oriented. We call such kinds of
reports as proposal reports.

Functional Reports:
These kinds of reports include marketing reports, financial reports,
accounting reports, and a spectrum of other reports that provide a
function specifically. By and large, we can include almost all reports in
most of these categories. Furthermore, we can include a single report in
several kinds of reports.

Now, as we have progressed from knowing what report writing is and

then the kinds of reports. So, let’s see step-by-step how one
actually writes a report. Stay tuned to Toppr Guides.

Solved Example on Kinds of Reports

Question: We know that reports are a part of formal communication.
So, is there any kind of informal report? If yes, then explain?

Answer: Informal reports are usually short messages with free-flowing,

casual use of language. We generally describe the internal
report/memorandum as an informal report. For example, a report among
your peers, or a report for your small group of team, etc.

Kinds of Report Writing – A Brief Introduction

All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to
be bias-free, but they also have to be 100% correct. Proof-reading and
fact-checking is always what you do as a thumb rule before submitting a
report.

Reports are written with much analysis. The purpose of report writing is
essential to inform the reader about a topic, minus one’s opinion on the
topic. It’s simply a portrayal of facts, as it is. Even if one
gives inferences, solid analysis, charts, tables and data is provided.
Mostly it is specified by the person who’s asked for the report whether
they would like your take or not if that is the case.

In many cases, what’s required is your suggestions for a specific case

after a factual report. That depends on why are you writing the report
and who you are writing it for in the first place. Knowing your
audience’s motive for asking for that report is very important as it sets
the course of the facts focused on your report.

Kinds of Reports
Based on some special characteristics, a report can be a certain kind.
Why classify them in kinds? Well, depending upon the purpose of the
report, it’s always best to know what kind would be the best for that
case.

For example, informal reports in office formal contexts may not be

suitable. In that case, even if your report is on point and the best, just the
structure or format or language could work against your report.

Small things like that should not stand in the way of you conveying
your point. And thus for these reasons and more, let’s dive into the
kinds of reports that exist so we can make clear decisions of their usage.
VIEW MORE

All Types of Reports and their Explanation

Long Report and Short Reports:

These kinds of reports are quite clear, as the name suggests. A two-page
report or sometimes referred to as a memorandum is short, and a thirty-
page report is absolutely long. But what makes a clear division of short
reports or long reports? Well, usually, notice that longer reports are
generally written in a formal manner.

Internal and External Reports:

As the name suggests, an internal report stays within a certain

organization or group of people. In the case of office settings, internal
reports are for within the organization.

We prepare external reports, such as a news report in the newspaper

about an incident or the annual reports
of companies for distribution outside the organization. We call these as
public reports.

Vertical and Lateral Reports:

This is about the hierarchy of the reports’ ultimate target. If the report is
for your management or for your mentees, it’s a vertical report.
Wherever a direction of upwards or downwards comes into motion, we
call it a vertical report.

Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the

organization. A report traveling between units of the same organization
level (for example, a report among the administration and finance
departments) is lateral.

Tips and Conventions with Sample Reports

Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are sent out on regularly pre-scheduled dates. In most

cases, their direction is upward and serves as management control.
Some, like annual reports, is not vertical but is a Government mandate
to be periodic in nature.

That is why we have annual or quarterly or half-yearly reports. If they

are this frequent, it only makes sense to pre-set the structure of these
reports and just fill in the data every period. That’s exactly what
happens in most cases too.

Furthermore,

Formal and Informal Reports:

Formal reports are meticulously structured. They focus on objectivity

and organization, contain deeper detail, and the writer must write them
in a style that eliminates factors like personal pronouns.

Informal reports are usually short messages with free-flowing, casual

use of language. We generally describe the internal report/memorandum
as an informal report. For example, a report among your peers, or a
report for your small group or team, etc.

Informational and Analytical Reports:

Informational reports (attendance reports, annual budget reports,
monthly financial reports, and such) carry objective information from
one area of an organization to maybe a larger system.

Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and employee

appraisals) show attempts to solve actual problems. These analytical
reports usually require suggestions at the end.

Proposal Reports:

These kinds of reports are like an extension to the analytical/problem-

solving reports. A proposal is a document one prepares to describe how
one organization can provide a solution to a problem they are facing.

There’s usually always a need to prepare a report in a business set-up.

The end goal is usually very solution-oriented. We call such kinds of
reports as proposal reports.

Functional Reports:

These kinds of reports include marketing reports, financial reports,

accounting reports, and a spectrum of other reports that provide a
function specifically. By and large, we can include almost all reports in
most of these categories. Furthermore, we can include a single report in
several kinds of reports.

Now, as we have progressed from knowing what report writing is and

then the kinds of reports. So, let’s see step-by-step how one
actually writes a report. Stay tuned to Toppr Guides.
Solved Example on Kinds of Reports
Question: We know that reports are a part of formal communication.
So, is there any kind of informal report? If yes, then explain?

Answer: Informal reports are usually short messages with free-flowing,

casual use of language. We generally describe the internal
report/memorandum as an informal report. For example, a report among
your peers, or a report for your small group of team, etc.

Steps in Report Writing: Report Writing

Format
Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The
tone of a report and report writing format is always formal. The
important section to focus on is the target audience. For example –
report writing about a school event, report writing about a business
case, etc.

Introduction
All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to
be bias-free, but they also have to be a 100% correct. Proof-reading and
fact-checking is always what you do as a thumb rule before submitting a
report.

One needs to write reports with much analysis. The purpose of report
writing is essential to inform the reader about a topic, minus one’s
opinion on the topic.
It’s simply a portrayal of facts, as it is. Even if one gives inferences,
solid analysis, charts, tables and data is provided. Mostly, it is specified
by the person who’s asked for the report whether they would like your
take or not if that is the case.

In many cases, you need to be clear about your own suggestions too for
a specific case after a factual report. That depends on why are you
writing the report and who you are writing it for in the first place.
Knowing your audience’s motive for asking for that report is very
important as it sets the course of the facts focused in your report.

These different kinds of reports are also covered in our previous chapter
in reports writing. We recommend you to read our chapter on kinds of
reports before diving into the report format. Now that we have some
idea about report-writing, let’s get straight into our report writing
format.

Report Writing Format

Following are the parts of a report format that is most common.

1. Executive summary – highlights of the main report

2. Table of Contents – index page
3. Introduction – origin, essentials of the main subject
4. Body – main report
5. Conclusion – inferences, measures taken, projections
6. Reference – sources of information
7. Appendix
Let us understand each one of them in detail.
Executive Summary
You summarize the main points of the report, such as the report topic,
the data obtained, the data analysis methods, and recommendations
based on the data. The summary could be as short as a paragraph or as
long as five pages, depending on the length of the full report.

Usually, the recipient of the report doesn’t always have the time to read
through the entire report. This summary gives the reader a gist of the
important points.

Remember that although attached as the first page, this summary is

always putting a perspective for the entire report, meaning that effort-
wise, the writer always needs to include it at the end.

Most importantly, the summary should contain:

 the purpose of the report

 what you did (analysis) and what you found (results)
 your recommendations; these recommendations should be short
and not go beyond a page
Table of Contents
The report should begin with a table of contents. This explains the
audience, author, and basic purpose of the attached report. It should be
short and to the point.

Introduction
This section is the beginning of your report. It highlights the major
topics that are covered and provides background information on why
the data in the report was collected. It also contains a top view of what’s
covered in the report.

Body
The body of the report describes the problem, the data that was
collected, sometimes in the form of table or charts, and discusses with
reasons. The body is usually broken into subsections,
with subheadings that highlight the further breakdown of a point.
Report writing format is very specific that way about clear and crisp
headings and subheadings.

This just structures out readers clarity in understanding and further

enhances the logical flow that can get hard to follow. Since a report has
no personal bias or opinions, you can imagine that reading through a
report can be a bit boring and people may find it hard to follow through.
In such a case, it’s always best to create pointers and lay out the points
in short and simple methods.

Note: Tables and figures must all be labeled

Conclusion
At the end of our main body lies the tying of ends together in the much-
awaited conclusion. The conclusion explains how the data described in
the body of the document may be interpreted or what conclusions may
be drawn. The conclusion often suggests how to use the data to improve
some aspect of the business or recommends additional research.

This solution then may be implemented to solve a given problem the

report was made for in the first place. Big consultancies or service
providers prepare reports in the form of Microsoft Powerpoint or the
Keynote in Mac to present to the stakeholders. At the end of which lies
the conclusive suggestion section.

Reference
If you used other sources of information to help write your report, such
as a government database, you would include that in the references.
The references section lists the resources used to research or collect the
data for the report. References provide proof for your points. Also, this
provides solid reasoning for the readers so that they can review the
original data sources themselves. Also, credit must be given where
credit is due.

Appendix
Lastly, comes the appendix. Although this one is not necessary, more
like an optional element. This may include additional technical
information that is not necessary to the explanation provided in the body
and conclusion but further supports the findings, such as tables or charts
or pictures, or additional research not cited in the body but relevant to
the discussion. Note: Tables and figures must all be labelled.

In case you want to closely look at report writing format example or

take a look at the report writing sample, our next chapter will have a
clear example of the same. Stay tuned.
Report Types: Top 8 Types of
Reports
This article throws light upon the top eight types of report.
The types are: 1. Formal or Informal Reports 2. Short or
Long Reports 3. Informational or Analytical
Reports 4. Proposal Report 5. Vertical or Lateral
Reports 6. Internal or External Reports 7. Periodic
Reports 8. Functional Reports.
Type # 1. Formal or Informal Reports:
Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and
organization, contain much detail, and are written in a style that tends
to eliminate such elements as personal pronouns. Informal reports are
usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The
internal memorandum can generally be described as an informal
report.

Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:

This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is
obviously short, and a twenty page report is clearly long. But where is
the dividing line? Bear in mind that as a report becomes longer (or
what you determine as long), it takes on more characteristics of formal
reports.

Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and

reports on personnel absenteeism) carry objective information from
one area of an organization to another. Analytical reports (scientific
research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals) present
attempts to solve problems.

Type # 4. Proposal Report:

The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a
document prepared to describe how one organization can meet the
needs of another. Most governmental agencies advertise their needs by
issuing “requests for proposal” or RFPs. The RFP specifies a need and
potential suppliers prepare proposal reports telling how they can meet
that need.

Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:

This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that
more upward or downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical
reports; such reports contribute to management control. Lateral
reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the organization.
A report traveling between units of the same organization level
(production and finance departments) is lateral.

Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:

Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such
as annual reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside
the organization.

Type # 7. Periodic Reports:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are

generally upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted
forms and computer-generated data contribute to uniformity of
periodic reports.

Type # 8. Functional Reports:

This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports,
financial reports, and a variety of other reports that take their
designation from the ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports
could be included in most of these categories. And a single report
could be included in several classifications.

Although authorities have not agreed on a universal report

classification, these report categories are in common use and provide a
nomenclature for the study (and use) of reports. Reports are also
classified on the basis of their format. As you read the classification
structure described below, bear in mind that it overlaps with the
classification pattern described above.

i. Preprinted Form:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Basically for “fill in the blank” reports. Most are relatively short
(five or fewer pages) and deal with routine information, mainly
numerical information. Use this format when it is requested by the
person authorizing the report.
ii. Letter:
Common for reports of five or fewer pages that are directed to
outsiders. These reports include all the normal parts of a letter, but
they may also have headings, footnotes, tables, and figures. Personal
pronouns are used in this type of report.

iii. Memo:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Common for short (fewer than ten pages) informal reports distributed
within an organization. The memo format of “Date,” “To,” “From,” and
“Subject” is used. Like longer reports, they often have internal
headings and sometimes have visual aids. Memos exceeding ten pages
are sometimes referred to as memo reports to distinguish them from
shorter ones.

iv. Manuscript:
Common for reports that run from a few pages to several hundred
pages and require a formal approach. As their length increases,
reports in manuscript format require more elements before and after
the text of the report. Now that we have surveyed the different types of
reports and become familiar with the nomenclature, let us move on to
the actual process of writing the report.
 How to Write Progress Reports:
Purpose, Structure & Content

You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about

progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time. The project can be
the design, construction, or repair of something, the study or research of a problem or
question, or the gathering of information on a technical subject. You write progress
reports when it takes several weeks or even months to complete a project.

Functions and Contents of Progress Reports

In the progress report, you explain any or all of the following:

 How much of the work is complete

 What part of the work is currently in progress
 What work remains to be done
 What problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen
 How the project is going in general

Progress reports have several important functions:

 Reassure recipients that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly,
and that it will be complete by the expected date.
 Provide recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of the work of the
project.
 Give recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to request changes.
 Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn recipients.
 Force you to establish a work schedule so that you’ll complete the project on time.
 Project a sense of professionalism to your work and your organization.

Timing and Format of Progress Reports

In a year-long project, there are customarily three progress reports, one after three,
six, and nine months. Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and
importance of the project, and the recipient, the progress report can take the following
forms:

 Memo—A short, informal report to someone within your organization

 Letter—A short, informal report sent to someone outside your organization
 Formal report—A formal report sent to someone outside your organization

In our course, you will write a progress report in the form of a thorough memo, and
you will attach an outline to that memo to give your recipient an idea of the content in
your final report. (See the chapter on Outlines for more information.)

Organizational Patterns or Sections for Progress

Reports
The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the
project, what you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the
project is going in general. In other words, the following three sections are key in any
progress memo or progress report:

 Work accomplished in the preceding period(s)

 Work currently being performed
 Work planned for the next period(s)

Other Parts of Progress Reports

In your progress memo or report, you also need to include the following sections: (a)
an introduction that reviews the purpose and scope of the project, (b) a detailed
description of your project and its history, and (c) an overall appraisal of the project to
date, which usually acts as the conclusion.
 Opening paragraph introducing the purpose of the memo and a reminder about the
project topic
 Summary of the project
 Specific objectives of the project
 Scope, or limits, of the project
 Research gathered
 Overall assessment or appraisal of the project at this time

Revision Checklist for Progress Reports

As you reread and revise your progress report, watch out for problems such as the
following:

 Make sure you use the right format. Remember that for our course, you will be
providing your progress in a memo.
 Write a clear opening paragraph reminding your recipient of the project you are
working on and that you are providing progress on that project
 Use headings to mark off the different parts of your progress report, particularly the
different parts of your summary of work done on the project.
 Use lists as appropriate.
 Provide specifics—avoid relying on vague, overly general statements about the work
you’ve done on the final report project.
 Be sure and address the progress report to the real or realistic audience—not your
instructor.

You will be including an outline of your report at the end of your progress memo
for this class, so now move to the chapter on creating outlines.
 Proposals
This chapter focuses on the proposal—the kind of document that gets you or your
organization approved or hired to do a project.

Some preliminaries
In a technical writing course, the proposal assignment is an opportunity for you to
present an idea to a specific, named audience about an idea you have to improve a
certain aspect of that company, organization, center, or other business. Whatever topic
you choose, you must be able to conduct thorough scholarly research that you will
integrate into your final report.

To begin planning a proposal, remember the basic definition: a proposal is an offer or

bid to complete a project for someone. Proposals may contain other elements—
technical background, recommendations, results of surveys, information about
feasibility, and so on. But what makes a proposal a proposal is that it asks the
audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do the proposed project.

A proposal should contain information that would enable the audience of that proposal
to decide whether to approve the project, to approve or hire you to do the work, or
both. To write a successful proposal, put yourself in the place of your audience—the
recipient of the proposal—and think about what sorts of information that person
would need in order to feel confident having you complete the project.

It is easy to get confused about proposals, or at least the type of proposal you will be
writing for this class. Imagine that you have a terrific idea for installing some new
technology where you work, and you write up a document explaining how it work,
showing the benefits, and then urging management to install it. Is that a proposal? All
by itself, this would not be a complete proposal. It would be more like a feasibility
report, which studies the merits of a project and then recommends for or against it.
However, all it would take to make this document a proposal would be to add
elements that ask management for approval for you to go ahead with the project.
Additionally, for this class, one of those elements is scholarly research. Certainly,
 some writers of proposals must sell the projects they propose, but in all cases,
proposals must sell the writer (or the writer’s organization) as the one to complete the
project.

Types of proposals
Consider the situations in which proposals occur. A company may send out a public
announcement requesting proposals for a specific project. This public
announcement—called a request for proposals (RFP)—could be issued through
websites, emails, social media, newspapers, or trade journals. Firms or individuals
interested in the project would then write proposals in which they summarize their
qualifications, project schedules and costs, and discuss their approach to the project.
The recipient of all these proposals would then evaluate them, select the best
candidate, and then work up a contract.

But proposals also come about much less formally. Imagine that you are interested in
doing a project at work (for example, investigating the merits of bringing in some new
technology to increase productivity). Imagine that you met with your supervisor and
tried to convince her of this. She might respond by saying, ―Write me a proposal and
I’ll present it to upper management.‖ This is more like the kind of proposal you will
write in a technical writing course.

Most proposals can be divided into several categories:

 Internal, external: A proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a

government agency, etc.) is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you may not
have to include certain sections (such as qualifications) or as much information in
them. An external proposal is one written from one separate, independent organization
or individual to another such entity. The typical example is the independent consultant
proposing to do a project for another firm. Chances are, you will write one of these
two kinds of proposals for this class, and it may be solicited or unsolicited, as
explained below.
 Solicited, unsolicited: A solicited proposal is one in which the recipient has requested
the proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs)
through the mail or publish them in some news source. But proposals can be solicited
on a very local level: for example, you could be explaining to your boss what a great
thing it would be to install a new technology in the office; your boss might get
interested and ask you to write up a proposal that offered to do a formal study of the
idea. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested
proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that
 a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal. Most of
the technical writing projects we have seen in this class have been unsolicited
proposals.

Typical scenarios for the proposal

Many of you may have never given much thought to producing a technical report
based on a viable proposal. Several sample topics are included on the assignment
sheet; here are some additional ideas:

 Imagine that a company has a problem or wants to make some sort of improvement.
The company sends out a request for proposals; you receive one and respond with a
proposal. You offer to come in, investigate, interview, make recommendations—and
present it all in the form of a report.
 An organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the
seminar—included in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people
attending the seminar will receive.
 An agency has just started using a new online data system, but the user’s manual is
technically complex and difficult to read. You receive a request for proposals from
this agency to write a simplified guide or startup guide.
 Imagine that a nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants an
consultant to write a handbook or guide for its membership. This document will
present information on the issue in a way that the members can understand.

Not all research topics are appropriate for technical writing. Topics that are based
on values and beliefs do not fall into the category of technical. Historical and literary
topics do not qualify. Always check with your instructor about any topic ideas you
have before starting on your project.

In addition, keep in mind you must integrate scholarly research into your final report,
choose a topic for which you can readily find such material. While interviews and
other first-hand sources are often valuable to a report, one that relies heavily on these
sources will not meet the outcomes of this course.

Common sections in proposals

The following provides a review of the sections you will commonly find in proposals,
submitted in this class in memo format. Do not assume that each one of them has to be
 in the actual proposal you write, nor that they have to be in the order they are
presented here. Refer to the assignment sheet and consider other kinds of information
unique to your topic that should be included in your particular proposal.

As you read this chapter on proposals, check out the sample proposal memo shared in
our current week’s unit folder. Again, keep in mind that not all of the sections
discussed here will show up in the examples, but most will.

Introduction. Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all
of the following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular
proposal:

 Indicate that the content of the memo is a proposal for a specific project.
 Develop at least one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient to
read on and to consider approving the project (especially if it is an unsolicited or
competitive proposal).
 Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Often occurring just after

the introduction, the background section discusses what has brought about the need
for the project—what problem, what opportunity exists for improving things, what the
basic situation is. For example, management of a chain of day care centers may need
to ensure that all employees know CPR because of new state mandates requiring it, or
an owner of pine timber land in eastern Oregon may want to get the land producing
saleable timber without destroying the environment.

While the named audience of the proposal may know the problem very well, writing
the background section is useful in demonstrating your particular view of the problem.
Also, if the the proposal is unsolicited, a background section is almost a
requirement—you will probably need to convince the audience that the problem or
opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.

Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals briefly discuss the
advantages or benefits of completing the proposed project. This acts as a type of
argument in favor of approving the project. Also, some proposals discuss the
likelihood of the project’s success. In an unsolicited proposal, this section is especially
important—you are trying to ―sell‖ the audience on the project.

Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals must
describe the finished product of the proposed project. In a technical writing course,
that means describing the written document you propose to write, its audience and
purpose; providing an outline; and discussing such things as its length, graphics,
binding, and so forth. In the scenario you define, there may be other work such as
conducting training seminars or providing an ongoing service. At this early stage, you
might not know all that it will take to complete your project, but you should at least
have an idea of some of the steps required.

Method, procedure, theory. In some proposals, you will need to explain how you
will go about completing the proposed work. This acts as an additional persuasive
element; it shows the audience you have a sound, thoughtful approach to the project.
Also, it serves to demonstrate that you have the knowledge of the field to complete the
project.

Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected
completion date but also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a large
project spreading over many months, the timeline would also show dates on which
you would deliver progress reports. If you cannot cite specific dates, cite amounts of
time for each phase of the project.

Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs
of the project, whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to
list your hourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth,
and then calculate the total cost of the complete project. Internal projects, of course,
are not free, so you should still list the project costs: hours you will need to complete
the project, equipment and supplies you will be using, assistance from other people in
the organization, and so on.

Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back
to a focus on the positive aspects of the project. In the final section, you can urge them
to contact you to work out the details of the project, remind them of the benefits of
doing the project, and maybe make one last argument for you or your organization as
the right choice for the project.

Special project-specific sections. Remember that the preceding sections are typical
or common in written proposals, not absolute requirements. Always ask yourself what
else might your audience need to understand the project, the need for it, the benefits
arising from it, your role in it, and your qualifications to do it. What else do they need
to see in order to approve the project and to approve you to do it?

Special assignment requirements

Depending on the writing situation, your proposal may need to include other
specialized elements as well. Some of these are described below. Note: some of these
elements will actually be required in your progress memo for this class; however, in a
real technical writing situation, your supervisor might ask you to include in your
proposal any of the following:

Audience: Describe the audience of the final report (which may be different than the
audience for the proposal). You may need to discuss for whom the report is designed,
their titles and jobs, their technical background, and their ability to understand the
report.

Information sources: List information sources; make sure you know that there is
adequate information for your topic; list citations for specific books, articles,
reference works, other kinds of sources that you think will contribute to your report.

Graphics: List the graphics you think your report will need according to their type
and their content. (If you cannot think of any your report would need, you may not
have a good topic—do some brainstorming with your instructor.) For this class, you
will be required to create and include graphics in your final report.

Outline: Include an outline of the topics and subtopics you think you will cover in
your report.

Proposals and audience

Remember that, in a technical writing course, the proposal assignment serves several
purposes: (1) it gives you some experience in writing a proposal; (2) it gets you
started planning your term report; (3) it gives your instructor a chance to work with
you on your project, to make sure you have a viable topic. For the second and third
reasons, you need to include specific elements in your proposal (as noted in your
assignment sheet) some of which may not seem appropriate in a real-world proposal.

In this technical writing course, the proposal is the beginning of a weeks-long research
and writing process that goes through many stages until it gets to the end point: the
technical report. You only submit the proposal once during this process. After that,
you will write and submit different types of documents: a progress report, an outline,
an annotated bibliography, a graphics draft, a report draft, and a final report. Be
careful to use the term ―proposal‖ only if you are specifically referring to the initial
stage of your project.

Another point to keep in mind relates to the audience for proposals versus the
audience for reports that come later in the writing process. The audience for your
proposal is the person who can approve, support, and possibly fund your research and
writing. The final report that you produce may be directed at a different audience.
 Consider the example of a proposal written to a supervisor at a solar power company
suggesting the creation of a policy manual for residential solar panel installers. The
proposal’s audience may be an executive, whose knowledge of the technicalities may
be very broad. On the other hand, the final report’s audience is the technicians, who
may have more specialized knowledge than the executive. The content and language
used for these two different audiences will need to be adjusted to fit the writing
situation. (For more on this, review the chapter on Audience Analysis.)

Revision checklist for proposals

As you review and revise your proposal, keep the following in mind:

 Use the right format. Remember, for this class, you are writing this proposal in memo
format.
 Write a clear summary of (or introduction to) your proposal topic.
 Identify exactly what you are proposing to do.
 Insure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the project you are
proposing to do. Remember that in this technical writing course we are both practicing
writing a proposal like those done in the real world and completing a college-level
research project.
 Insure that the sections of your proposal are in a logical, natural order and that you use
sub-headers and bullets (and any other formatting styles) correctly.
 Address the proposal to your named audience—not your instructor.
Reporting Of Workplace Accidents
If you are an employer, self-employed or in control of work premises you are
required under RIDDOR to report some types of work-related accidents, diseases and
dangerous occurrences.
Reporting accidents and ill health at work is a legal requirement under the Reporting
of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995. The information
gathered helps the Local Authority and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to
identify where and how risks arise and to prevent reoccurrence and prevent further
pain and suffering to employees.
You must report all of the following:

 A death
 A major injury
 An over-three-day injury (this is when an employee or self-employed person
has an accident at work and is unable to work for over three days, but does not
have a major injury);
 A work-related disease
 A dangerous occurrence
 Where a member of the public is taken directly to hospital

How Soon Do I Have To Report The Incident?

All time limits for reporting accidents vary depending on the severity and the guide
below should be followed.

 Where the accident has resulted in someone's death or a major injury we need
to be notified immediately (see time limits for reporting).
 Over 3-day injuries need to be reported within 10 days.
 As soon as possible after the doctor diagnosis a work related disease.
 Dangerous occurrences need to be reported immediately (see time limits for
reporting).

Written reports should be made using forms 2508 or 2508A.

How Do I Report an Accident?
There are three agencies that you can contact

1. The local Environmental Health Department

2. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
3. The Incident Contact Centre

Examples Of Major Injuries

 Fracture other than to fingers, thumbs or toes
 Amputation
 Dislocation of the shoulder, hip, knee or spine
 Loss of sight (temporary or permanent)
 Chemical or hot metal burn to the eye or any penetrating injury to the eye
 Injury resulting from electric shock or electrical burn leading to
unconsciousness or requiring resuscitation or admittance to hospital for more
than 24 hours
 Any other injury: leading to hypothermia, heat induced illness or unconscious;
or requiring resuscitation; or requiring admittance to hospital for more than 24
hours.
 Unconsciousness caused by asphyxia or exposure to a harmful substance or
biological agent
 Acute illness requiring medical treatment, or loss of consciousness arising from
absorption of any substance by inhalation, ingestion or through the skin
 Acute illness requiring medical treatment where there is reason to believe that
this resulted from exposure to a biological agent or its toxin or infected
material
 See the detailed Guide to the Regulations (ISBN 07176 2431 5) or contact the
HSE info line on 01787 881165 for further information.

Examples Of Work Related Disease

 Certain poisonings
  Some skin diseases such as occupational dermatitis, skin cancer, chrome ulcer,
oil folliculitis/acne
 Lung diseases including occupational asthma, farmers lung, pneumoconiosis,
asbestosis, mesothelioma
 Infections such as leptospirosis, hepatitis, tuberculosis, anthrax, Legionellosis
and tetanus
 Other conditions such as; occupation cancer, certain musculoskeletal disorders,
decompressions illness and hand-arm vibration syndrome
 See the detailed Guide to the Regulations (ISBN 07176 2431 5) or contact the
HSE info line on 01787 881165 for further information.

Examples Of Dangerous Occurrences

 Collapse, overturning or failure of load-bearing parts of lifts and lifting
equipment
 Explosion, collapse or bursting of any closed vessel or associated pipework
 Plant or equipment coming in to contact with overhead power lines
 Electrical short circuit or overload causing fire or explosion
 Accidental release of a biological agent likely to cause severe human illness
 Explosion or fire causing suspension of normal work for over 24 hours
 Unintended collapse of any building or structure under construction alteration
or demolition where over 5 tonnes of material falls; a wall or floor in a place of
work; any false work
 Accidental release of any substance which may damage health
 See the detailed Guide to the Regulations (ISBN 07176 2431 5) or contact the
HSE info line on 01787 881165 for further information
Time Limits for Reporting

Person Immediate Written

Casualty Injury /
Responsible for Report Report Within
Description Incident Type
Reporting Required? 10 Days?

Employee Fatality Employer Yes Yes

Employee Major injury Employer Yes Yes

Over 3 day
Employee Employer No Yes
injury

Member of Person in control

Fatality Yes Yes
the public of the premises

Member of Taken directly Person in control

Yes Yes
the public to hospital of the premises

Work related
Employee Employer No If possible
disease

Dangerous
Employer Yes Yes
occurrence

Incident Notification Form F2508/2508A

Download a form to Report,

 an Injury or Dangerous Occurrence (0.04MB)

  a Case of Disease (0.03MB)

Local Authority Contact Details

If your business falls into one of the categories described below and the accident has
occurred there then you should contact us the, local Environmental Health
Department

 Office-based
 Retail or wholesale
 Warehouse
 Hotel and catering
 Sports or leisure
 Residential accommodation, excluding nursing homes
 Concerned with places of worship
 Pre-school school care
 Mobile vending

We can be contacted using any of the methods outlined a the bottom of this page.
Alternatively you may prefer to contact the Incident Contact Centre

Health and Safety Executive Contact Details

If your business falls into one of the following categories described below and the
accident had occurred there you can contact the HSE.

 Construction sites
 Agricultural premises
 Motor vehicle repair premises
 Manufacturing premises
 Chemical plants
 Engineering works
 Nursing homes
 Hospitals, dentists etc
 Domestic premises
Please see their website www.hse.gov.uk
Alternatively you may prefer to use the Incident Contact Centre

Contact Details For The Incident Contact Centre

The Incident Contact Centre has been set up by the HSE to try and streamline the
accident reporting system. Once contacted they will pass the details that you have
given regarding the accident to the relevant enforcing authority.
 UNIT V
PARAGRAPH WRITING
AND PRECIS WRITING
 10 STEPS TO WRITE A BRILLIANT ESSAY

Planning is everything.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

We should all heed the words of the 34th President of the United States. If your academic skills
are not perfect, you have to plan all steps to writing an essay, and that is the first thing you
should do.

1. Choosing a topic for an essay

The fact that you need something to write about is obvious and undeniable. Everything becomes
much easier if your teacher has provided you with a topic. Anyway, you may check our article
―Original Essay Topics.‖ In the first place, your essay is more likely to be brilliant if you are
really interested in the subject you write about. Choose wisely!

2. Dig deep!

So, the next step is profound research. No matter what topic you choose, probably you’ll find
enough material provided by well-educated specialists, experienced journalists, and famous
writers. You should not choose some random sources; make sure that they are credible and
trustworthy.

3. Give yourself time

Good ideas do not always come first. Try to look at your theme from different angles, and then
look again, and again. Have a rest. And look again. Your mind needs some space to imagine all
possible variants of the argumentation and approaches. Organize your personal ―brainstorming‖
session with tea and cake!

4. Structure your thoughts

Creating the diagram or outline for your essay is one of the necessary steps to writing an essay.
The outline has to be detailed and well-organized. You should also include some keywords or
references for every point of your plan. If you are prone to creativity and imaginative thinking,
you may draw your diagram in the shape of a pyramid, sun, house, or any other appropriate
object.

5. The thesis statement is the root of everything

 On the internet, you can find specific lectures and guidelines about writing an A-level thesis. In
few words, it has to be understandable, narrow, and exhaustive. A thesis statement determines
the structure of your essay, so strive for the ideal.

6. Just do it

Now you should start writing. Begin with the introduction, then move to the main body, and,
finally, come to a conclusion.

7. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy

Have a rest. No joke. Take a nap or go for a walk. Remember that you are not a robot that can
just plug in a wall socket and be OK. You need a fresh mind to add the finishing touches.

8. Perfection

Read your essay one more time. If you feel that you can do it better, now is the right moment. If
you see unnecessary phrases – delete them. Tautologies? Use your dictionary, and find a
synonym. Spelling and grammar mistakes are also not allowed.

9. Fresh perspective

Getting feedback may also be considered as one of the steps to write an essay. Consult your
parents, friends, or teacher before writing a final draft. Two heads are better than one. Even the
greatest writers of all time shared their ideas with their wives, husbands, and close friends before
publishing their books.

10. End of the road

After you assure yourself that everything is done correctly, write a final draft for your essay. And
read it one more time. Just in case.

Formula of the Perfect Essay

Lots of educational sources compare essay writing with the process of cooking a burger. We
think that this is just not right. How dare they compare this amazing and delicious masterpiece
with homework? We are not saying that the essays should be your worst nightmare, absolutely
not. Anyway, you can’t create a brilliant essay without a proper recipe as well as a tasty burger,
soup, or lasagna. Now, let’s throw light on all the tiniest parts of the essay structure.
 HOW TO WRITE AN INTRODUCTION FOR AN ESSAY?

Firstly, let’s figure out the main task of the introduction. The first paragraph is aimed at grabbing
the reader’s attention and making him or her continue reading. What usually draws our attention?
Something interesting, mysterious, funny, and unusual. It’s a pity, but you can’t draw a beautiful
flower or fluffy kitty instead of your introduction paragraph. So, how to write an essay
introduction to ―wow‖ readers?

 Be funny

Laughing is one the easiest ways to comfort your readers and to prepare them for a further
perception of the text. Be careful with jokes! This method is not very appropriate for the essays
about serious social, economic, or political issues, like homelessness, hunger, and revolutions.
Moreover, make sure that your anecdote is funny not only for you, otherwise it may embarrass or
confuse an average person.

 Be mysterious

Professional magicians have a simple but really effective rule: diversion is half of the success.
Your topic is on gender inequality? Start your essay with a question about apples and oranges.
You wonder what’s the point? It means your readers will wonder too. That’s the point.

 Be interesting

Tell a story. Life is a collection of stories: fairy tales, cartoons, novels, comic books, etc. Why
won’t you offer another one for your reader? Of course, it shouldn’t be too long or complicated.
The main idea of the tale has to be relevant to your essay theme.

 Be unusual

Predictability is boring. An irregular approach is exactly what you need in order to amaze your
reader. Speak in a roundabout way, ask questions, and tell stories. Use your imagination and
creativity, because you have only one attempt to attract your reader. Don’t waste it!

Jokes and stories are not enough for a good introduction. You should also include a thesis
statement in the first paragraph. The thesis statement is one, perhaps two sentences at the
beginning of your essay that summarizes your ideas and sets a direction and steps for your
writing.

There are four major stages of writing a perfect thesis statement:

1. Answer the question.
 Example:

What function does an admissions essay have in the application process, and why is it
important?

An admissions essay allows the colleges to learn more about the candidate.

2. Answer the WHOLE question.

An admissions essay is the only way for the colleges to learn what kind of person the candidate
is.

3. Provide examples.

An admissions essay is the only way for the colleges to learn what kind of individual the
candidate is; it has to demonstrate his or her personal qualities, career aspirations, and life
goals.

4. Perfection: make sure your thesis statement is immaculate.

An admissions essay is the only way for a candidate to demonstrate his or her personal
qualities, career aspirations, and life goals; it is also an opportunity for colleges to hear the
candidate‟s personal voice.

We are sure that now you know exactly how to write a good introduction for an essay and grab
the attention of the pickiest reader. Go on to step three.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE MAIN BODY OF AN ESSAY?

A burger without meat is worth nothing. It is the same for an essay and the main body.

The body paragraphs are the part of your essay between the introduction and conclusion. Text
length depends on your word limit and your own writing energy. Every paragraph has to loosely
consist of a similar number of words. This should be obvious for every conscious mind, but we’ll
repeat a simple truth: one paragraph is NOT ENOUGH! Phew. It had to be done. Let’s move on
to less obvious statements.

All body paragraphs should include:

1. Topic sentence

2. Examples
3. Argument/evidence

4. Coherent structure

5. A clear connection with the thesis

6. Sub-conclusion (optional)

 Every paragraph represents only one sub-point in order to let your reader easily follow your
reasoning. The most important, or strongest, arguments you should place at the beginning of the
essay main body or save for the last paragraph because they will make a first impression and
form a fine aftertaste.
 All parts of the main body should be connected with proper transitions. A coherent text is more
convincing and readable than a range of random arguments. You should enforce all points with
one or more supporting details. Your statements will sound unreliable without facts, real-life
examples, quotes, statistics, etc.
 Remember that not only the general length of your writing matters. Every paragraph should be
about 5-7 sentences. It is impossible to make a statement and prove it in one sentence. On the
other hand, a reader loses his or her concentration while reading a long paragraph. That is why
there is no need to elongate your speech artificially. You’d better think about different
approaches to enhance your main idea.
 One of the most popular models of writing is the five-paragraph essay. It is not always
appropriate, but useful for beginners who have just started their way to academic success. The
structure of this draft is simple: introduction, three body paragraphs, and conclusion. There are
two different strategies of the disposition of the arguments. The first method suggests putting
your weakest point in the middle in order to circle it with stronger ones. The second approach is
like a downward staircase: the first paragraph includes the cleverest argument, and the last one –
the weakest argument.
 A good example is the best way to explain how to write a body paragraph correctly. We will
analyze a sample on ―Canterbury Tales‖ written by Geoffrey Chaucer. The task question is:
―What are the main reasons which make all the tales fantastic?‖

Essay Main Body Analyzed

Firstly,some stories involve supernatural characters.A good example is in The Friar’s Tale,
which tells a story of―a summoner... [who] expresses only mild surprise when he happens to
encounter a demon on his travels‖ (Hirsh 85). Since demons do not exist in reality, a story that
features a supernatural being should be seen as fantastic.

Secondly,several stories describe supernatural events.Consider an example from Franklin’s Tale:

Aurelius accosts a student magician and―asks him to remove the rocks that threaten the harbor‖
(Lerer 273). The magician removes all the rocks with secret magic, but it is obvious that this is a
fantastic element since magic does not exist.

Finally,liminality makes the stories fantastic.The scholars note that showing ―people who live in
a state of long-term liminality‖ is common for many texts and The Canterbury Tales is not an
 exception: the storytellers are pilgrims that gather together for a limited time, yet the story seems
to put emphasis on the ambiguous nature of their acquaintance (Oropeza 46).

Linking words help your readers to follow your reasoning.

Argument.
Example.
SUPPORTING DETAIL

Quotation.
SUPPORTING DETAIL

Evidence.
SUPPORTING DETAIL

Everything is clear now with the essay main body, and we can move on to the last stage of your
writing.

HOW TO WRITE A CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH FOR AN ESSAY?

The open-ended movie intrigues; the open-ended book makes you think; the open-ended essay
raises the question, ―So what?‖ Sounds uncertain, right?

In your conclusion, you have to remind your audience why they have read your essay and why it
was not a waste of time. The concluding paragraph is more likely to stick in your reader’s
memory than any other part of your paper. That is why it has to be the best part of your writing.
Here is a list of four good strategies to complete your conclusion properly:

Do’s

 As we mentioned above, a bad conclusion frequently raises the question, ―So what?‖ You won’t
believe, but the easiest way to avoid this question is to give an exhaustive answer in the last
paragraph. Restate the most significant points in the concluding paragraph and put a period.
Great job!
 The reader wants to have a feeling of completeness. Your conclusion may repeat your thesis
statement. Now the cycle is completed. Sure, you should not repeat it verbatim, just use
paraphrasing.
 Give your reader a hint about the further development of your topic or mention other aspects that
could be interesting to him or her. For example, if you analyze the influence of Impressionism on
European culture, in your concluding paragraph you may remark that it also had an effect on
American culture.
 You may quote or reference one of your sources. A quotation helps to specify and confirm your
final point. If your essay is dedicated to a book or movie, this strategy is perfect.
 Use the Socratic method – ask a question. It may motivate readers to think over your topic or
even to provide their own research. It is a brilliant strategy for those who want to stimulate
thinking of their readers.

Now it’s time for some bad strategies that you SHOULD NOT use for your conclusion:

Don’ts

 More data, more facts, more ideas. That’s enough! Your concluding paragraph is not a good
place for the information you’ve forgotten to mention in the main body. Just let it go!
 As a rule, a conclusion doesn’t exceed the limit of a few sentences. It has to be short and clear
without unnecessary details.
 No doubt, you can offer new ideas and perspectives in your essay, but don’t do this in the last
paragraph! If the moment of epiphany has come too late, you’d better write another body
paragraph than try to square the circle.
 A conclusion is not a summary of your paper but a synthesis of your main points. If you don’t
have more than one sentence to write, it is not bad. Don’t expatiate by adding the information
that your readers already know.
 Stay away from the phrases like ―to sum up,‖ ―in conclusion,‖ etc. Your readers understand
perfectly well that the last paragraph is a concluding one. Don’t irritate them!
 Don’t apologize! It is not your fault that the word limit doesn’t allow you to present all the
information you have found. Avoid phrases like ―this is just one side of the problem,‖ ―you can
find much more information,‖ etc. Don’t show that you are not sure about the quality of your
essay; your readers will think the same way.
 You should follow the same style through your essay. If your tone is serious and logical, don’t
try to surprise readers with an emotional or motivating phrase. It will be a more confusing than
entertaining move.

Now, you know enough to answer the question, ―How to write a conclusion for an essay?‖
Maybe now you will be able to explain it to your peers; don’t waste your chance to show off!

TYPES OF ESSAYS

Do you really think that reading and understanding your topic is enough? Ha. Think again. Do
you know how many types of essays exist? A gazillion. Let’s talk about them a little to figure out
what you have to do with different types of essays.

Argumentative Essay

As a rule, a topic for this kind of essay is a general question. Your task is to answer this question
and to persuade your reader that your opinion is the most immaculate and accurate. The
argumentative essay belongs to the essay types that are frequently asked as a writing assignment
in both schools and colleges.
Mention well-known sources and real-life examples for your arguments to be more
compelling.

Topic example:

“Can social networking replace real life communication?”

Find more argumentative essay topics for your papers.

Analytical Essay

The main goal of the analytical essay is – what a surprise – to analyze a tendency, behavior,
event, etc. This type of essay is all about logical reasoning and structure. A reader should follow
your thoughts naturally and easily.

Use linking words to give a reader the right direction of thinking.

Topic example:

“Why do teenagers often dye their hair?”

Problem Solution Essay

This type of essay is often asked in IELTS. You state a problem and offer your solution.
Mention also your expectations about the consequences that will follow.

Your personal problems are not always interesting for readers. This is not meant as an
offense, but only the truth.

Topic example:

“How to cope with apathy after a personal tragedy?”

Expository Essay

Using this essay, you explain an idea in a clear and simple way. You don’t prove anything: your
goal is to present all the sides of the topic for your audience.

NO emotions and NO opinions. Only facts and logic.

Topic example:

“Explain why music is used as a medicine by psychiatrists.”

Process Essay

In this type of essay, you provide your readers with a step-by-step guide. In short, you write an
exhaustive and detailed instruction.
Start a new paragraph for each step in order not to confuse your readers.

Topic example:

“How to choose a topic for a killer essay?”

Descriptive or Description Essay

You describe things, people, nature events, or your grandma’s perfect cake. You should not write
about your general impression. You have to describe all the aspects of your subject: how it looks,
how it smells, how it feels, etc.

Use your imagination skills in full force. Remember that you have five senses to describe
the object you’ve chosen!

Topic example:

“Describe the best circus performance you have ever seen.”

Persuasive Essay

After reading your essay, everyone has to agree with your viewpoint. Compelling arguments,
eloquence, and confidence are the fundamental tools for providing a brilliant persuasive essay.

Persuasive and argumentative essays are similar but not the same! You have to change
your reader’s opinion in a persuasive essay using your power of conviction.

Topic example:

“The death penalty must be replaced with organ donation.”

Definition Essay

This type of essay defines a certain term, concept, or phenomenon in a very detailed way. You
should investigate the origin, the usage, and the meanings.

The dictionary definition is not enough; provide deep and comprehensive research on your
topic.

Topic example:

“Define „hacktivism.”
Compare and Contrast Essay

You have to list the differences and similarities of two events, devices, tendencies, celebrities,
etc.

Push the boundaries! Compare unexpected objects: gadgets, brands, websites, etc.
Topic example:

“A marriage of love vs. a marriage of convenience.”

College Admissions Essay

This essay is a crucial part of the application process. The admission board wants to know more
about you through your writing. For certain, you wonder how to choose a college essay topic.
They are so various that it is difficult to explain in a few words. Anyway, you’d better stay away
from the worst essay topics for college.

Show the admissions officers that you are not merely a handful of accomplishments but a
perfect candidate for their college.

Topic example:

“How does my name define my destiny?”

Choose what to write about among our topics for admission essays.

Cause and Effect Essay

Your primary goal is to specify the reasons and consequences of a certain problem or event. You
may investigate the cause, suggest effects, or do both.

Don’t skip from one aspect to another without a proper connection.

Topic example:

“Social networking addiction: the causes and effects.”

Advantages and Disadvantages Essay

Unlike the argumentative essay, this type of essay doesn’t defend any point of view. In fact, it
represents opposite opinions on a particular topic.

Be careful with your task! Sometimes, you should also provide your own opinion as a
conclusion.

Topic example:

“Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the industrial revolution.”

Narrative Essay

In general, a narrative essay is a first-person story about a personal experience. However, it

should have some kind of point or purpose. In that case, your narrative essay is a compelling and
moving example to prove your main idea.
Include all necessary parts of the story (introduction, plot, characters, conclusion, etc.)

Topic example:

“BFF and other lies.”

Here is more narrative essay topics for your consideration.

Critical Essay

This paper is your verdict. You evaluate and criticize an art piece or a project in order to reveal
its weaknesses or underscore its strengths.

Write some general data about your essay’s subject, because your readers are not
necessarily well-informed.

Topic example:

“Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov and the concept of true love.”

Classification Essay

Your main goal is to separate objects, ideas, or things into particular groups. You have to explain
your classification in a proper way and provide examples.

Look for an unpredictable approach to the classification of usual concepts. Regular things
may shine in new splendor in the right hands!

Topic example:

“Five types of weekends.”

 The Importance of Communication
Skills in Business

SEPTEMBER 24, 2017 - GINI BEQIRI - 6 MIN READ

Developing communication skills can help many aspects of your life, from your
professional career, to social gatherings, to your family life.

In today's hectic world, we rely heavily on sharing information, resulting in greater

emphasis being placed on having good communication skills.
Good verbal and written communication skills are essential in order to deliver and
understand information quickly and accurately. Being able to communicate
effectively is a vital life skill and should not be overlooked.

In contrast, poor communication skills can have a negative impact - a poorly

delivered message may result in misunderstanding, frustration and in some cases
disaster.

Communication can be defined as the process of understanding and sharing

meaning. To communicate well is to understand, and be understood. This can be
achieved in the following ways:

 Verbally - your voice

 Visually - e.g. images, graphs, maps, infographics
 Non-verbally - e.g. body language, eye contact, gestures
 Written – e.g. books, websites, emails

Listening is an important part of communication

Being able to actively listen is an important communication skill. It’s easily
overlooked, as people tend to focus more on what they want to say, rather than
listening to what the other person is saying.

Knowing when to pause to allow the other person to talk is an important skill. It
conveys respect and a willingness to hear the other person’s point of view.
Active listening skills will help you and your colleagues have more open and useful
exchanges, where each contributor’s point of view is expressed and heard. This
should lead to a more positive working environment.

Active listening is an important part of communication skills.

Improve your communication skills in our VR public speaking course. Click

here to learn more.

Importance of communication skills

1. Valued in the workplace

If you are applying for jobs or looking for a promotion with your current employer, you
will almost certainly need to demonstrate good communication skills. Communication
skills are needed to speak appropriately with a wide variety of people whilst
maintaining good eye contact, demonstrate a varied vocabulary and tailor your
language to your audience, listen effectively, present your ideas appropriately, write
clearly and concisely, and work well in a group. Many of these are essential business
skills that employers seek.

Having the ability to listen carefully, speak clearly and put others at ease is valuable
in any organisation and can involve a wide range of skills:

 Listening to others and showing interest in what they say

 Dealing with telephone conversations appropriately
 Encouraging interest and interaction from others in your team
 Expressing an opinion or asking a question clearly
 Being able to persuade others

2. In demand by businesses
Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten
desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. Employees are often
encouraged to take online courses and in-person training to improve their
presentation and communication skills.

Skills potential employers seek:

  Communication (written and verbal)
 Organisation
 Teamwork
 Critical thinking
 Analytical skills

Communication skills are among the most in-demand skills for employers.
Source: LinkedIn research

3. Helps your career progression

You will need to request information, discuss problems, give instructions, work in
teams, interact with colleagues and clients. If you are to achieve co-operation and
effective teamwork, good human relations skills are essential. Also, as the workplace
is also becoming more global, there are many factors to consider if you are to
communicate well in such a diverse environment.

Being able to deliver messages clearly and understand other people means work
can be completed more effectively and to the benefit of the company as a whole.

Employers want staff who can think for themselves, use initiative and solve
problems, staff who are interested in the long-term success of the company. If you
are to be seen as a valued member of the organisation, it is important not just to be
able to do your job well, but also to communicate your thoughts on how the
processes and products or services can be improved.

4. Allows you to speak concisely

It is natural to feel some nerves when speaking to superiors or to
clients. Communication skills training will help you learn how best to communicate
effectively in a wide range of situations, and how to be direct in order to get the most
out of your dealings with others.

5. Builds better rapport with customers

Customers desire nothing more than to be understood by a company and they wish
to feel like they are being heard and listened to. This is a particularly important point
if your business involves a large amount of contact with customers, either face-to-
face or over the phone.
6. Influences how you learn
Communication skills have played an important part of your existing knowledge and
beliefs. You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering
questions and then by expressing your opinions. You learn to write by first learning to
read, then by writing and learning to think critically. Good communication skills help
you absorb information and express your ideas in a clear, concise and meaningful
way to other people.

7. Enhances your professional image

You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, instructors, and
employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In
your career, you will represent your business or company in spoken and written
form. Your professionalism and attention to detail will reflect positively on you and set
you up for success.

8. Other benefits of effective communication

The most successful organisations understand that if they are to be successful in
today’s business world, good communication at all levels is essential. Here is a
useful mnemonic to remember the benefits you and your organisation can achieve
from effective communication:

 Stronger decision-making and problem-solving

 Upturn in productivity
 Convincing and compelling corporate materials
 Clearer, more streamlined workflow
 Sound business relationships
 Successful response ensured

Read more about these benefits here: Why Are Communication Skills Important?

Improve your communication skills in our VR public speaking course. Click

here to learn more.

Methods of communication
 Verbal communication is delivered and received face to face, by phone, radio,
computer, television and other media.
  Non-verbal communication is delivered and received through body language,
eye contact, gestures, and how we dress or behave.
 Visual communication is delivered and received via charts, maps, images and
graphs.
 Written communication is delivered and received through printed or digital
media such as letters, e-mails, books, magazines, and the internet.

Verbal communication
When we communicate verbally, it involves not only speaking, but also requires non-
verbal communication skills – listening, eye contact and body language.
Mispronunciations, insufficient language skills, or struggling with the diction can
greatly hamper a person’s ability to get their message across.

Also, delivering too much information can be as counter-productive as delivering too

little. How we communicate is dependent on the context of the situation too. A
different approach is needed for different situations in order for the information to be
meaningful to the listener.

Non-verbal communication
Body language needs to be in line with the verbal content. When used effectively,
facial expressions, gestures and posture can greatly improve the listener’s
understanding of the verbal information being presented. It can also add interest, and
help to maintain the listener’s concentration.

Eye contact between speaker and listener is important too. If a speaker actively
seeks out eye contact when talking, he or she is judged to be more believable,
confident and competent. However, too much eye contact can make the listener feel
uncomfortable, or think the speaker rude, hostile and condescending; and too little
eye contact can make the listener think that the speaker is uneasy, unsure or
insincere.

How much eye contact is considered appropriate though will always depend on the
situation, the setting, cultural expectations, gender, and personality types.

Your body posture, hand gestures and eye contact all express a meaning, often
saying much more than the words you speak. For instance, standing or sitting with
your arms and legs relaxed and open will convey a friendly impression that will invite
others to interact with you.
Conclusion
The ability to communicate effectively with clients, colleagues and managers is
essential, whatever sector you work in. Good communication improves teams,
inspires high performance and enhances the workplace culture. Just remember,
communication is a two-way process, so take notice of other people's verbal and
nonverbal signals as well as your own.

By teaching yourself how to communicate more effectively, you’ll interact in a more

constructive and productive manner, making the workplace a positive and thriving
environment.

Summary of benefits

 Highly valued in the workplace

 Helps your career progression
 Allows you to speak concisely
 Build better rapport with customers
 Enhances your professional image
 Highly skilled communicators make more money
 Good communicators have higher self-esteem
 Most important skill For people entering the workforce
 Communication is among the top traits of successful entrepreneurs
 Effective communication skills aid in development of leadership skills
 Gives you the tools to participate in society
 Reading
Comprehension
Work on understanding how to pass reading comprehension tests with this article. Explore different
strategies and find the ones that work best for you as you get ready for your exam.

Scan the Entire Test

Before you spend too much time on one passage, make sure you look over the entire test. Find out
how many passages you're going to need to read and look at the number of questions associated
with each passage. These exams are usually timed, so you need to make sure you're allowing
yourself enough time to complete everything.

Focus on the Questions

It may seem counterintuitive, but you should be reading the questions before the passages they
relate to during reading comprehension tests. Checking out the questions will allow you to develop
an understanding of what you should be looking for in the passage. This makes it easier for you to
find the information you need to pick out the correct answer.
You should also ensure that you're looking at all of your potential answers, especially if the question
asks for the best solution. This sometimes means that there are several answers that are almost
right. Make sure you pick the solution that is the most correct.
You shouldn't be afraid to skip a question on your first time through the test, either. Go ahead and
answer the questions that you're confident about. Come back later and work on digging out the
solution to more difficult questions.

Use the Passage

Some reading comprehension questions will ask you to find the definition of a word in a passage.
Many times these terms are italicized, so check for that before you spend time reading the entire
passage. You can use context clues around the word to figure out the meaning if you don't know it
off the top of your head. Similarly, it's usually easy to find the main idea of a passage. Check the
beginning and the end of the passage and see if any ideas seem to repeat. This is probably the main
point of the piece.
You should also take the time to double-check all of your answers with the passage. If you're pretty
sure that one character said something, go ahead and look back to make sure. Don't lose points on
something that's easy to confirm.
Additionally, you shouldn't try to limit yourself to only reading the passage one time. Sometimes
you're going to need to read it twice, three times, or more to get the information you need. Go ahead
and take the extra time to make sure you understand what you're reading. It'll end up giving you a
better score in the long run.

Work with the Answers

There are some kinds of answers that are usually wrong and can be dismissed. You're not likely to
find the right answer in something humorous. Answers that include the terms always or never are
also unlikely to be correct. You may also find questions with multiple answers that seem almost the
same, only restated in different terms. These are probably wrong.
Finally, don't leave questions unanswered. Very few, if any, reading comprehension exams punish
you for wrong answers, so even if you're guessing you stand a chance of improving your grade. Try
to remove any options that are obviously wrong and then pick from the remaining answers if you just
don't know what the correct choice is.

Learning and Practicing Reading Comprehension Strategies

When it comes to reading comprehension tests, you need to have a solid understanding of
strategies you can use with this skill. Studying this lesson on reading comprehension strategies can
help you strengthen this language arts skill. You'll learn how to make connections, synthesize,
visualize, make inferences and determine importance. You can also check out this chapter
on analyzing and interpreting literature to learn more about analyzing a literary passage, how to find
the main idea and getting the gist of a passage, improving reading comprehension and applying
reading strategies.

COMPREHENSION Of Unseen Passages

Comprehension of an unseen passage means a complete and thorough understanding of
the passage. The main object of comprehension is to test one's ability to grasp the meaning
of a given passage properly and also one's ability to answer, in one's own words, the
questions based on the passage. A variety of questions like short answer type questions,
completion of incomplete sentences, filling the blanks with appropriate words and exercises
based on vocabulary are set forth for the purpose.

Before attempting to answer the questions on a passage, it is necessary to read the passage
again and again so that a general idea of the subject of the passage becomes clear. Once
the passage is clear, it is easy to answer the answers of the questions.

One should also keep the following points in mind before answering the questions set on a
given passage:

1. Read the passage quickly to have some general idea of the subject matter.
2. Read the passage again and underline the important points.
3. Read the questions and try to know what has been asked.
4. Read the passage again and underline the portions where the probable
answers may be available.
5. Use, as far as possible, your own words to answer the questions in a
precise and brief way.
6. Always use complete sentences while answering a question.
7. If you are asked to give the meaning of some words or phrases, try to
express your idea, in your own words, as clearly as possible.
8. Don't give your own opinions or comments about anything unless you are
asked to do so.

Sample Usage

Example1. Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions set below:

There is a story of a man who thought he had a right to do what he liked. One day, this
gentleman was walking along a busy road, spinning his walking-stick round and round in his
hand, and was trying to look important. A man walking behind him objected.
“You ought not to spin your walking-stick round and round like that!" he said.
“I am free to do what I like with my walking-stick," argued the gentleman.
‘Of course you are," said the other man, “but you ought to know that your freedom ends
where my nose begins."
The story tells us that we can enjoy our rights and our freedom only if they do not interfere
with other people's rights and freedom.

Questions
1. Why was the gentleman on the road moving his walking stick round and
round?
2. Who objected him?
3. What argument did the gentleman give?
4. Was the other satisfied with argument?
5. What did he say in reply?
6. Complete the following statements with the correct options:

A. The gentleman was walking along a……………………….

(i) lonely road.
(ii) busy road.
(iii) narrow road.
B. The gentleman was ……………………….
(i) running along the road.
(ii) disturbing others on the road.
(iii) spinning his walking-stick round and round.

C. The man who protested was a……………………….

(i) teacher.
(ii) passer-by.
(iii) policeman.
7. Write True or False against each of the following statements:
(a) The gentleman was spinning the walking-stick round and round in his
hand to drive away the dogs.
(b) The gentleman was walking along a busy road.
(c) The man walking behind praised his action.
(d) The gentleman thought that he had a right to do whatever he liked.
(e) We can enjoy our rights and freedom even if it interferes with other
people's rights and freedom.
8. Give synonyms of the following words:
(a) Spinning (b) Interfere

Answers:

1. The gentleman on the road was moving his walking stick round and round because he
wanted to look important.
2. A man walking behind him objected him.
3. The gentleman argued that he was free to do what liked with his walking-stick.
4. No, the other man was not satisfied with his argument.
5. The other man said that he ought to know that his (the gentleman's) freedom ends where
his (the passer-by's) nose begins.
6. A (ii), B. (iii), C (ii)
7. (a) false, (b) true, (c) false, (d) true, (e) false.
8. (a) Spinning—Moving (b) Interfere—Meddle
 Precis-writing

A precis is a summary. Precis writing is an exercise in compression. A precis is the gist

of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. A precis should give all essential
points so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the
original passage.

Note that precis writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should give
all the details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as long
and sometimes longer than the original. A precis, on the other hand, must always be
shorter than the original. It should express only the main theme that too as briefly as
possible.

How long should a precis be?

There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a precis. But as a general rule, it should
not contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage.

Uses of precis writing

Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage.
Precis writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write
a summary of a passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to
read with concentration.

Precis writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express
your thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively.You learn to choose your words carefully
and construct your sentences in a logical and concise manner.

What is a Precis ?

A precise is like a miniature portrait of the passage: it retains the absolute essential points accompanied
with the mood and tone of the author of the passage. The one aspect that needs to be taken care of is that
one should not add one’s subjective interpretation or comments to the précis and should try to retain the
original author’s voice and opinions. As far as the writing style is concerned, the writing should be clear
with effective sentences (no rambling) and diction should be flawless. Ultimately, it is the coherence of
the views presented in the précis that matters, and this can be achieved by making sure that one is concise
and to the point. Unnecessarily long sentences should be avoided and the transition from one point to
another should be smooth and consistent. Finally, the précis should make sense and be logical in its
content and presentation.

What a Precis is Not?

While keeping the above in mind, you need to keep in mind what a precis is not. The following are some
of things that should 'not' be a part of or a reflection of the precis:

 simply a summary of a passage.

 simply an abstract of a passage.
 an outline of a passage.
 a mere selection of a few important sentences from a passage.
 a collection of disconnected facts and statements.

Features of a Good Precis

 is marked by clarity, brevity and precision.

 is not just lifting of the sentences from the original. It should be written in the precis writer's own
words.
 is a miniature version of the original passage.
 must have a logical order and be well-knit and well connected.
 must have coherence.
 must use linking devices such as so, therefore, and, because further etc.
 must follow the order of ideas of the original extract.
 must have a title.
 is written in reported speech.
 must not contain any details not found in the original.

GDPI Essay Preparation Links:

 Decisive Interview, GD & Essay prep

 100 Most Important Essay Topics for 2020
  Essay Writing for B-schools
 Top 100 Abstract Topics in 2019
 Essay Writing: Stepwise Approach
 Essay Writing: Grammar and Style
 Common Mistakes in Essay Writing

 Precis Writing
 Actual Essay/ WAT topics of 2018-19
 Top Factual Essay Topics for 2019
 Essay Writing: Brainstorming Techniques
 Essay Writing: Sentence Structure
 Essay Writing: Do’s and Don’ts

Do's and Dont's of Précis Writing=g

 Do's in a précis:
 Start your précis by highlighting the main idea of the passage and you should create
contextual environment where you can place the necessary points.
 Once the main idea is established in the précis, you can present the methods, points, facts
etc. used by the author of the passage.
 Compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining important
concepts, key words, and important data.
 Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the work.
 Always remember that mentions about history should be advisably done in the past tense.
 State the purpose of the research or piece of writing (why was it important to conduct this
research or write on this topic?)

 Don'ts in a précis:
 Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.
 Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be expressed
by a statement.
 Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
  Do not be shaky. This suggests that most probably, you have not understood the sense of
the passage properly.

Get to know what really helps to clear a GD

Precis in the making

When one is writing a précis, he/she should take care of a few essential points. The first thing is that one
needs to convey the general idea of the argument with absolute clarity. The second thing that you need to
do is to make sure that all the important points of the original passage are included in the precis. Lastly,
make sure that the language of the précis is clear, crisp and concise, and follows the rule for correct
diction.

The following rules are general guidelines you should follow while writing a précis:

 Closely read the passage, and identify the central idea of the passage. It is vital to identify the
general idea of the passage and incorporate it in one’s précis.
 Look-out for the total number of words. If the number is not provided, quickly calculate the
number using approximations.
 In order to understand the passage clearly, make sure that you read the passage closely, and give
it a couple of reads before you start writing the précis.
 Highlight the most important points in the passage, and make notes. Leave out all non-essential
information from the précis.
 Provide an apt heading to your précis.
 Note making is an essential task for writing précis. You should try to arrange the points in most
logical order, and ensure the order of thought is the same as the original.
 The three grammatical rules you need to follow while writing a précis are: write it in third person,
indirect form and appropriate past tense.
 It is advisable to provide designations of officials rather than names and titles. In case the official
designation is not provided, you can use the personal name. Kindly be consistent with the pattern
you adopt.
 Make sure you review your rough draft, remove the chinks and ensure that you have made no
language related errors.
  Before writing your précis, make sure you have a glance over the original to make sure you have
not missed anything.
 Finally, a wise policy would be to count the words of your precis and put them down in a bracket
at the end.

Writing a Precis of a given passage.

Sample Passage:

There is an enemy beneath our feet - an enemy more deadly for his complete impartiality. He recognizes
no national boundaries, no political parties. Everyone in the world is threatened by him. The enemy is the
earth itself. When an earthquake strikes, the world trembles. The power of a quake is greater than
anything man himself can produce. But today scientists are directing a great deal of their effort into
finding some way of combating earthquakes, and it is possible that at some time in the near future
mankind will have discovered a means of protecting itself from earthquakes.An earthquake strikes
without warning. When it does, its power is immense. If it strikes a modern city, the damage it causes is
as great as if it has struck a primitive village. Gas mains burst, explosions are caused and fires are started.
Underground railways are wrecked. Buildings collapse, bridges fall, dams burst, gaping crevices appear
in busy streets.If the quake strikes at sea, huge tidal waves sweep inland. If it strikes in mountain regions,
avalanches roar down into the valley. Consider the terrifying statistics from the past 1755: Lisbon, capital
of Portugal - the city destroyed entirely and 450 killed. 1970: Peru: 50,000 killed.In 1968 an earthquake
struck Alaska. As this is a relatively underpopulated part, only a few people were killed. But it is likely
that this was one of the most powerful quakes ever to have hit the world. Geologists estimate that during
the tremors, the whole of the state moved over 80 feet farther west into the Pacific Ocean. Imagine the
power of something that can move an entire subcontinent! This is the problem that the scientists face.
They are dealing with forces so immense that man cannot hope to resist them. All that can be done is to
try to pinpoint just where the earthquake will strike and work from there. At least some precautionary
measures can then be taken to save lives and some of the property. (330 Words)'
Based on the above paragraph, we-arrive at the following theme sentences for the four
paragraphs:

 Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in general.
  Damage caused by an earthquake-in particular,
 What can the scientists do?

The above four theme sentences can be developed into the following outline:

 Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.

 Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of national boundary or political affiliation.
 The power of a quake is greater than that of a man-made weapon of destruction.
 Scientists are trying to find out means to combat earthquakes; they will find some way to
protect themselves from earthquakes.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in general:

 Strikes without warning.
 Modern city when struck reduced to a primitive village.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in particular.

 Quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round destruction.
 In 1755, Lisbon destroyed, 450 killed.
 In 1970, Peru struck, 50,000 killed.

 What can the scientists do?

 In 1968, Alaska hit, subcontinent moved 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean.
 Scientists cannot resist the powerful earthquake.
 They can predict the place of origin of the quake so that precaution can be taken to save
man & property.

Based on the above outline, we can make the following rough draft:

 Earthquake- The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the deadly enemy of mankind. Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of nationality or
political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of any man-made weapon of destruction. An
earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A modern city when struck is reduced to a rubble. A
quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755
killing 450; Peru in 1970 killing 50,000; Alaska in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean.
Scientists are trying to find out means to combat earthquakes and they are able to predict at least where
the earthquake will hit so that precaution can be taken to save man and property from destruction. As the
number of words in the rough draft is more than required we shall have to reduce it further without
reducing the ideas.
The final draft would look as follows:

 Earthquake - The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the mankind's deadly enemy. Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of nationality or
political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of any man-made weapon of destruction. An
earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A modern city when struck is reduced -to a nibble. A
quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755
killing 450; Peru in 1970 killing 50,000; Alaska in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean.
Scientists are trying to find out means to combat earthquakes, to predict the origin of the quake so that
precaution can be taken to save man and property from destruction.(115 words)