Sake

Sake, also spelled saké (/ˈsɑːki,

ˈsækeɪ/ SAH-kee, SAK-ay,[1][2]
also referred to as Japanese rice
wine),[3] is an alcoholic beverage
made by fermenting rice that has
been polished to remove the bran.
Despite the name Japanese rice
wine, sake, and indeed any East
Asian rice wine (such as huangjiu
and cheongju), is produced by a
brewing process more akin to that
of beer, where starch is converted
into sugars which ferment into
alcohol, whereas in wine, alcohol
is produced by fermenting sugar
that is naturally present in fruit,
typically grapes.
 Sake

Sake served in a clear glass

Type Alcoholic
beverage

Country of Japan
origin

Alcohol by 18–20%
volume

Ingredients Rice, water, kōji-

kin
Sake bottle, Japan, c. 1740

Sake barrel offerings at the Shinto shrine

Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura
The brewing process for sake
differs from the process for beer,
where the conversion from starch
to sugar and then from sugar to
alcohol occurs in two distinct
steps. Like other rice wines, when
sake is brewed, these conversions
occur simultaneously. The alcohol
content differs between sake,
wine, and beer; while most beer
contains 3–9% ABV, wine
generally contains 9–16% ABV,[4]
and undiluted sake contains 18–
20% ABV (although this is often
lowered to about 15% by diluting
with water prior to bottling).

In Japanese, the character sake

(kanji: , Japanese
pronunciation: [sake]) can refer to
any alcoholic drink, while the
beverage called "sake" in English
is usually termed nihonshu (日本
酒; meaning 'Japanese wine').
Under Japanese liquor laws, sake
is labeled with the word "seishu"
(清酒; 'clear wine'), a synonym not
commonly used in conversation.

In Japan, where it is the national

beverage, sake is often served
with special ceremony, where it is
gently warmed in a small
earthenware or porcelain bottle
and sipped from a small porcelain
cup called a sakazuki. As with
wine, the recommended serving
temperature of sake varies greatly
by type.

History …

The origin of sake is unclear. The

earliest reference to the use of
alcohol in Japan is recorded in the
Book of Wei in the Records of the
Three Kingdoms. This 3rd-
century Chinese text speaks of
the Japanese drinking and
dancing.[5] Alcoholic beverages
(Japanese: 酒, romanized: sake)
are mentioned several times in the
Kojiki, Japan's first written history,
which was compiled in 712.
Bamforth (2005) places the
probable origin of true sake
(which is made from rice, water,
and kōji mold (麹, Aspergillus
oryzae) in the Nara period (710–
794). In the Heian period, sake
was used for religious
ceremonies, court festivals, and
drinking games.[6] Sake
production was a government
monopoly for a long time, but in
the 10th century, temples and
shrines began to brew sake, and
they became the main centers of
production for the next 500 years.
The Tamon-in Diary, written by
abbots of Tamon-in (temple) from
1478 to 1618, records many
details of brewing in the temple.
The diary shows that
pasteurization and the process of
adding ingredients to the main
fermentation mash in three stages
were established practices by
that time. In the 16th century, the
technique of distillation was
introduced into the Kyushu
district from Ryukyu.[5] The
brewing of shōchū, called "Imo–
sake" started, and was sold at the
central market in Kyoto.
Title page of Bereiding van Sacki, by
Isaac Titsingh: earliest explanation of the
sake brewing process in a European
language. Published in 1781, in Batavia,
Dutch East Indies.

In the 18th century, Engelbert

Kaempfer[7] and Isaac Titsingh[8]
published accounts identifying
sake as a popular alcoholic
beverage in Japan; but Titsingh
was the first to try to explain and
describe the process of sake
brewing. The work of both writers
was widely disseminated
throughout Europe at the
beginning of the 19th century.[9]

During the Meiji Restoration, laws

were written that allowed
anybody with the money and
know-how to construct and
operate their own sake breweries.
Around 30,000 breweries sprang
up around the country within a
year. As time passed, the
government levied increasing
taxes on the sake industry and the
number of breweries dwindled to
8,000.

Most of the breweries that grew

and survived this period were
established by wealthy
landowners. Landowners who
grew rice crops would have
surplus rice at the end of the
season. Rather than letting these
leftovers go to waste, they
shipped it to their breweries. The
most successful of these family
breweries still operate today.

During the 20th century, sake-

brewing technology advanced.
The government opened the
sake-brewing research institute in
1904, and in 1907 the first
government-run sake-tasting
competition was held. Yeast
strains specifically selected for
their brewing properties were
isolated and enamel-coated steel
tanks arrived. The government
started hailing the use of enamel
tanks as easy to clean, lasting
forever, and being devoid of
bacterial problems. (The
government considered wooden
barrels to be unhygienic because
of the potential bacteria living in
the wood.) Although these things
are true, the government also
wanted more tax money from
breweries, as using wooden
barrels means that a significant
amount of sake is lost to
evaporation (approximately 3%),
which could have otherwise been
taxed. This was the end of the
wooden-barrel age of sake and
the use of wooden barrels in
brewing was completely
eliminated.

In Japan, sake has long been

taxed by the national government.
In 1898, this tax brought in about
¥5 million out of a total of about
¥120 million, about 4.6% of the
government's total direct tax
income.[10]

During the Russo-Japanese War

in 1904–1905, the government
banned the home brewing of
sake. At the time, sake comprised
30% of Japan's tax revenue.
Since home-brewed sake is tax-
free, the logic was that by banning
the home brewing of sake, sales
would increase, and more tax
revenue would be collected. This
was the end of home-brewed
sake, and the law remains in
effect today even though sake
sales now contribute only 2% of
government income.

When World War II brought rice

shortages, the sake-brewing
industry was hampered as the
government discouraged the use
of rice for brewing. As early as the
late 17th century, it had been
discovered that small amounts of
alcohol could be added to sake
before pressing to extract aromas
and flavors from the rice solids.
During the war, pure alcohol and
glucose were added to small
quantities of rice mash, increasing
the yield by as much as four
times. 75% of today's sake is
made using this technique. There
were a few breweries producing
"sake" that contained no rice at
all. The quality of sake during this
time varied greatly.

Postwar, breweries slowly

recovered, and the quality of sake
gradually increased. New players
on the scene—beer, wine, and
spirits—became popular in
Japan, and in the 1960s beer
consumption surpassed sake for
the first time. Sake consumption
continued to decrease while the
quality of sake steadily improved.
Today, sake has become a world
beverage with a few breweries in
China, Southeast Asia, South
America, North America, and
Australia.[11] More breweries are
also turning to older methods of
production.

While the rest of the world may be

drinking more sake and the
quality of sake has been
increasing, sake production in
Japan has been declining since
the mid-1970s. [12] The number of
sake breweries is also declining.
While there were 3,229 breweries
nationwide in fiscal 1975, the
number had fallen to 1,845 in
2007.[13]

Oldest sake brewery …

The oldest known sake brewery is

from the 15th century near an
area that was owned by Tenryū-ji,
in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto. Unrefined sake
was squeezed out at the brewery
and there are about 180 holes
(60 cm wide, 20 cm deep) for
holding storage jars. A hollow (1.8
meter wide, 1 meter deep) for a
pot to collect drops of pressed
sake and 14th-century Bizen ware
jars were also found. It is
estimated to be utilized until the
Onin War (1467–1477). Sake was
brewed at Tenryū-ji during the
Muromachi Period (1336–
1573).[14]

Production …
Sake brewery, Takayama, with a
sugitama ( ) globe of cedar leaves
indicating sake.

Rice …
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The rice used for brewing sake is

called saka mai 酒米 (sake rice),
or officially shuzō kōtekimai 酒造
好適米 (sake-brewing suitable
rice). There are at least 80 types
of sake rice in Japan. Among
these, Yamadanishiki,
Gohyakumangoku, Miyamanishiki
and Omachi rice are popular. The
grain is larger, stronger (if a grain
is small or weak, it will break in the
process of polishing), and
contains less protein and lipid
than ordinary table rice. Sake rice
is used only for making sake,
because some say it is
unpalatable for eating.

Sake rice is usually polished to a

much higher degree than rice that
is used as food. The reason for
polishing is a result of the
composition and structure of the
rice grain itself. The core of the
rice grain is rich in starch, while
the outer layers of the grain
contain higher concentrations of
fats, vitamins and proteins. Since
higher concentration of fat and
protein in the sake would lead to
off-flavors and contribute rough
elements to the sake, the outer
layers of the sake rice grain is
milled away in a polishing
process, leaving only the starchy
part of the grain (some sake
brewers remove over 60% of the
rice grain in the polishing
process). That desirable pocket of
starch in the center of the grain is
called the shinpaku ( ). It
usually takes two to three days to
polish rice down to less than half
its original size. The rice powder
by-product of polishing is often
used for making rice crackers, or
Japanese sweets (i.e. Dango),
and other food stuffs.

If the sake is made with rice that

has a higher percentage of its
husk and outer portion of the core
milled off, then more rice will be
required to make that particular
sake, and it will take longer to
produce. Thus, sake made with
rice that has been highly milled is
usually more expensive than a
sake that has been made with
less-polished rice. This does not
always mean that sake made with
highly-milled rice is of better
quality than sake made by rice
that has been milled less.

Rice polishing ratio, called

Seimai-buai 精米歩合 (see
Glossary of sake terms) measures
the degree of rice polishing. For
example, rice polishing ratio of
60% means that the 60% of the
original rice grain remains and the
40% has been polished away.

Water …

Water is one of the important

ingredients for making sake. It is
involved in almost every major
process of sake brewing, from
washing the rice to dilution of the
final product before bottling. The
mineral content of the water can
be important in the final product.
Iron will bond with an amino acid
produced by the kōji to produce
off flavors and a yellowish color.
Manganese, when exposed to
ultraviolet light, will also
contribute to discoloration.
Conversely potassium,
magnesium, and phosphoric acid
serve as nutrients for yeast during
fermentation and are considered
desirable.[15] The yeast will use
those nutrients to work faster and
multiply resulting in more sugar
being converted into alcohol.
While soft water will typically yield
sweeter sake, hard water with a
higher nutrient content is known
for producing drier-style sake.

The first region known for having

great water was the Nada-Gogō
in Hyōgo Prefecture. A particular
water source called "Miyamizu"
was found to produce high quality
sake and attracted many
producers to the region. Today
Hyōgo has the most sake brewers
of any prefecture.[15]
Typically breweries obtain water
from wells, though surface water
can be used. Breweries may use
tap water and filter and adjust
components.[15]

Kōji-kin …

Kōji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae)

spores are another important
component of sake. Kōji-kin is an
enzyme-secreting fungus.[16] In
Japan, kōji-kin is used to make
various fermented foods,
including miso (a paste made
from soybeans) and shoyu (soy
sauce).[16] It is also used to make
alcoholic beverages, notably
sake.[16] During sake brewing,
spores of kōji-kin are scattered
over steamed rice to produce kōji
(rice in which kōji-kin spores are
cultivated).[17] Under warm and
moist conditions, the kōji-kin
spores germinate and release
enzymes called amylases that
convert the rice starches into
glucose. This process of starch
conversion into simpler sugars
(e.g. glucose or maltose) is called
saccharification. Yeast then turns
this glucose into alcohol via
fermentation.[17] Saccharification
also occurs in beer brewing,
where malt is used to convert
starches from barley into
maltose.[17] However, whereas
fermentation occurs after
saccharification in beer brewing,
saccharification (via kōji-kin) and
fermentation (via yeast) occur
simultaneously in sake brewing
(see "Fermentation" below).[17]

As kōji-kin is a microorganism
used to manufacture food, its
safety profile with respect to
humans and the environment in
sake brewing and other food-
making processes must be
considered. Various health
authorities, including Health
Canada and the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA),
consider kōji-kin (A. oryzae)
generally safe for use in food
fermentation, including sake
brewing.[16] When assessing its
safety, it is important to note that
A. oryzae lacks the ability to
produce toxins, unlike the closely
related Aspergillus flavus.[16] To
date, there have been several
reported cases of animals (e.g.
parrots, a horse) being infected
with A. oryzae.[18] In these cases
the animals infected with A.
oryzae were already weakened
due to predisposing conditions
such as recent injury, illness or
stress, hence were susceptible to
infections in general.[18] Aside
from these cases, there is no
evidence to indicate A. oryzae is a
harmful pathogen to either plants
or animals in the scientific
literature.[18] Therefore, Health
Canada considers A. oryzae
“unlikely to be a serious hazard to
livestock or to other organisms,”
including "healthy or debilitated
humans."[18] Given its safety
record in the scientific literature
and extensive history of safe use
(spanning several hundred years)
in the Japanese food industry, the
FDA and World Health
Organization (WHO) also support
the safety of A. oryzae for use in
the production of foods like
sake.[16] In the US, the FDA
classifies A.oryzae as a Generally
Recognized as Safe (GRAS)
organism.[16]

Fermentation …

Moromi (the main fermenting mash)

undergoing fermentation

Sake fermentation is a 3-step

process called sandan
shikomi.[19] The first step, called
hatsuzoe, involves steamed rice,
water, and kōji-kin being added to
the yeast starter called shubo: a
mixture of steamed rice, water,
kōji, and yeast.[19] This mixture
becomes known as the moromi
(the main mash during sake
fermentation).[19] The high yeast
content of the shubo promotes
the fermentation of the
moromi.[19]

On the second day, the mixture is

allowed to stand for a day to allow
the yeast to multiply.[19]

The second step (the third day of

the process), called nakazoe,
involves the addition of a second
batch of kōji, steamed rice, and
water to the mixture.[19] On the
fourth day of the fermentation, the
third step of the process, called
tomezoe, takes place.[19] Here,
the third and final batch of kōji,
steamed rice, and water is added
to the mixture to complete the 3-
step process.[19]

The fermentation process of sake

is a multiple parallel fermentation,
which is unique to sake.[19]
Multiple parallel fermentation is
the conversion of starch into
glucose followed by immediate
conversion into alcohol.[20] This
process distinguishes sake from
other liquors like beer because it
occurs in a single vat, whereas
with beer, for instance, starch to
glucose conversion and glucose
to alcohol conversion occur in
separate vats.[20] The breakdown
of starch into glucose is caused
by the kōji-kin fungus, while the
conversion of glucose into alcohol
is caused by yeast.[20] Due to the
yeast being available as soon as
the glucose is produced, the
conversion of glucose to alcohol
is very efficient in sake
brewing.[20] This results in sake
having a generally higher alcohol
content than other types of
liquor.[20]

After the fermentation process is

complete, the fermented moromi
is pressed to remove the sake
lees and then pasteurized and
filtered for color.[19] The sake is
then stored in bottles under cold
conditions (see "Maturation"
below).[19]

The entire process of making

sake can range from 60–90 days
(2–3 months), while the
fermentation alone can take two
weeks.[21]

Maturation …

Like other brewed beverages,

sake tends to benefit from a
period of storage. Nine to twelve
months are required for sake to
mature. Maturation is caused by
physical and chemical factors
such as oxygen supply, the broad
application of external heat,
nitrogen oxides, aldehydes and
amino acids, among other
unknown factors.[22]

Tōji …

Tōji (杜氏) is the job title of the

sake brewer, named after Du
Kang. It is a highly respected job
in the Japanese society, with tōji
being regarded like musicians or
painters. The title of tōji was
historically passed from father to
son. Today new tōji are either
veteran brewery workers or are
trained at universities. While
modern breweries with cooling
tanks operate year-round, most
old-fashioned sake breweries are
seasonal, operating only in the
cool winter months. During the
summer and fall most tōji work
elsewhere, commonly on farms,
only periodically returning to the
brewery to supervise storage
conditions or bottling
operations.[23]

Varieties …

Special-designation sake …

There are two basic types of sake:

Futsū-shu (普通酒, ordinary
sake) and Tokutei meishō-shu
(特定名称酒, special-designation
sake). Futsū-shu is the equivalent
of table wine and accounts for the
majority of sake produced.
Tokutei meishō-shu refers to
premium sake distinguished by
the degree to which the rice has
been polished and the added
percentage of brewer's alcohol or
the absence of such additives.
There are eight varieties of
special-designation sake.[24]

The four main grades of sake are

junmai, honjozo, ginjo and
daiginjo. Generally junmai (純米)
is a term used for sake that is
made of pure rice wine without
any additional alcohol.[25] The
listing below has the highest
quality at the top:
 Rice Polishing
Percentage
Special Designation Ingredients Ratio (percent
of Kōji rice
rice remaining)

Junmai Daiginjō-shu
(純米大吟醸酒, Pure
Rice, Kōji rice 50% or less At least 15%
rice, Very Special
brew)

Rice, Kōji
Daiginjō-shu (大吟醸
rice, Distilled 50% or less At least 15%
酒, Very Special brew)
alcohol[note 1]

Junmai Ginjō-shu (純
米吟醸酒, Pure rice, Rice, Kōji rice 60% or less At least 15%
Special brew)

Rice, Kōji
Ginjō-shu (吟醸酒,
rice, Distilled 60% or less At least 15%
Special brew)
alcohol[note 1]

60% or less, or
Tokubetsu Junmai-
produced by
shu (特別純米酒, Rice, Kōji rice At least 15%
special brewing
Special Pure rice)
method

70% or less, or
Tokubetsu Honjōzō- Rice, Kōji
produced by
shu (特別本醸造酒, rice, Distilled At least 15%
special brewing
Special Genuine brew) alcohol[note 1]
method

Regulations do not
Junmai-shu (純米酒,
Rice, Kōji rice stipulate a rice At least 15%
Pure rice)
polishing ratio[26]

Rice, Kōji
Honjōzō-shu (本醸造
rice, Distilled 70% or less At least 15%
酒, Genuine brew)
alcohol[note 1]
 1. The weight of added
alcohol must be below 10%
of the weight of the rice
(after polishing) used in the
brewing process.

Ways to make the starter

mash
…

Kimoto (生酛) is the traditional

orthodox method for preparing
the starter mash, which
includes the laborious process
of using poles to mix it into a
paste, known as yama-oroshi.
This method was the standard
for 300 years, but it is rare
today.
Yamahai (山廃) is a simplified
version of the kimoto method,
introduced in the early 1900s.
Yamahai skips the step of
making a paste out of the
starter mash. That step of the
kimoto method is known as
yama-oroshi, and the full name
for yamahai is “yama-oroshi
haishi” (山卸廃止), meaning
“discontinuation of yama-
oroshi.” While the yamahai
method was originally
developed to speed production
time compared to the kimoto
method, it is slower than the
modern method and is now
used only in specialty brews for
the earthy flavors it produces.
Sokujō (速醸), "quick
fermentation", is the modern
method of preparing the starter
mash. Lactic acid, produced
naturally in the two slower
traditional methods, is added to
the starter to inhibit unwanted
bacteria. Sokujō sake tends to
have a lighter flavor than
 kimoto or yamahai.

Different handling after

fermentation
…

Nigori, or unfiltered sake

Namazake (生酒) is sake that

has not been pasteurized. It
requires refrigerated storage
and has a shorter shelf-life than
pasteurized sake.
Genshu (原酒) is undiluted
sake. Most sake is diluted with
water after brewing to lower the
alcohol content from 18–20%
down to 14–16%, but genshu is
not.
Muroka (無濾過) means
unfiltered. It refers to sake that
has not been carbon filtered,
but which has been pressed
and separated from the lees,
and thus is clear, not cloudy.
Carbon filtration can remove
desirable flavors and odors as
well as bad ones, thus muroka
sake has stronger flavors than
filtered varieties.
Nigorizake (濁り酒) is cloudy
sake. The sake is passed
through a loose mesh to
separate it from the mash. It is
not filtered thereafter and there
is much rice sediment in the
bottle. Before serving, the
bottle is shaken to mix the
sediment and turn the sake
white or cloudy.
Seishu (清酒), "clear/clean
sake", is the Japanese legal
definition of sake and refers to
sake in which the solids have
been strained out, leaving clear
liquid. Thus nigorizake and
doburoku (see below) are not
seishu and therefore are not
actually sake under Japanese
law. Nigorizake can receive the
seishu status by being strained
clear and having the lees put
back in afterward.
Koshu (古酒) is "aged sake".
Most sake does not age well,
but this specially made type
can age for decades, turning
yellow and acquiring a honeyed
flavor.
Taruzake ( 酒) is sake aged in
wooden barrels or bottled in
wooden casks. The wood used
is Cryptomeria (杉, sugi), which
is also known as Japanese
cedar. Sake casks are often
tapped ceremonially for the
opening of buildings,
businesses, parties, etc.
Because the wood imparts a
strong flavor, premium sake is
rarely used for this type.
Shiboritate (搾立て), "freshly
pressed", refers to sake that
has been shipped without the
traditional six-month
aging/maturation period. The
result is usually a more acidic,
"greener" sake.
Fukurozuri (袋吊り) is a
method of separating sake from
the lees without external
pressure by hanging the mash
in bags and allowing the liquid
to drip out under its own
weight. Sake produced this way
is sometimes called
shizukuzake (雫酒), meaning
"drip sake".
 Tobingakoi (斗瓶囲い) is sake
pressed into 18-litre
(4.0 imp gal; 4.8 US gal)
bottles ("tobin") with the
brewer selecting the best sake
of the batch for shipping.

Others …

Amazake (甘酒) is a traditional

sweet, low-alcoholic Japanese
drink made from fermented
rice.
Doburoku (濁酒) is the classic
home-brew style of sake
(although home brewing is
illegal in Japan). It is created by
simply adding kōji mold to
steamed rice and water and
letting the mixture ferment. The
resulting sake is somewhat like
a chunkier version of
nigorizake.
Jizake (地酒) is locally brewed
sake, the equivalent of
microbrewing beer.
Kuroshu (黒酒) is sake made
from unpolished rice (i.e.,
brown rice), and is more like
huangjiu.
 Teiseihaku-shu (低精白酒) is
sake with a deliberately high
rice-polishing ratio. It is
generally held that the lower
the rice polishing ratio (the
percent weight after polishing),
the better the potential of the
sake. Circa 2005, teiseihaku-
shu has been produced as a
specialty sake made with high
rice-polishing ratios, usually
around 80%, to produce sake
with the characteristic flavor of
rice itself.

Some other terms commonly

used in connection with sake:

Nihonshu-do (日本酒度), also

called the Sake Meter Value, or
SMV

Specific gravity is measured on

a scale weighing the same
volume of water at 4 °C (39 °F)
and sake at 15 °C (59 °F). The
sweeter the sake, the lower the
number (or more negative) and
the drier the sake, the higher
the number. When the SMV
was first used, 0 was
designated the point between
sweet sake and dry sake. Now
+3 is considered neutral.
Seimai-buai (精米歩合) is the
rice polishing ratio (or milling
rate), the percentage of weight
remaining after polishing.
Generally, the lower the
number, the higher the sake's
complexity. A lower percentage
usually results in a fruitier and
more complex sake, whereas a
higher percentage will taste
more like rice.
Kasu (粕) are pressed sake lees,
 the solids left after pressing
and filtering. These are used for
making pickles, livestock feed,
and shōchū, and as an
ingredient in dishes like kasu
soup.

Taste and flavor …

The label on a bottle of sake gives

a rough indication of its taste.
Terms found on the label may
include nihonshu-do (日本酒度),
san-do (酸度), and aminosan-do
(アミノ酸度).[27]
Nihonshu-do (日本酒度) or Sake
Meter Value (SMV) is calculated
from the specific gravity of the
sake and indicates the sugar and
alcohol content of the sake on an
arbitrary scale. Typical values are
between −3 (sweet) and +10
(dry), equivalent to specific
gravities ranging between 1.007
and 0.998, though the maximum
range of Nihonshu-do can go
much beyond that. The
Nihonshu-do must be considered
together with San-do to
determine the overall perception
of dryness-sweetness, richness-
lightness characteristics of a sake
(for example, a higher level of
acidity can make a sweet sake
taste drier than it actually
is).[28][29]

San-do (酸度) indicates the

concentration of acid, which is
determined by titration with
sodium hydroxide solution. This
number is equal to the milliliters of
titrant required to neutralize the
acid in 10 ml (0.35 imp fl oz;
0.34 US fl oz) of sake.
Aminosan-do (アミノ酸度)
indicates a taste of umami or
savoriness. As the proportion of
amino acids rises, the sake tastes
more savory. This number is
determined by titration of the sake
with a mixture of sodium
hydroxide solution and
formaldehyde, and is equal to the
milliliters of titrant required to
neutralize the amino acids in
10 ml of sake.

Sake can have many flavor notes,

such as fruits, flowers, herbs, and
spices. Many types of sake have
notes of apple from ethyl
caproate, and banana from
isoamyl acetate, particularly
ginjōshu (吟醸酒).

Serving sake …

Sake can be served in a wide variety of

cups; here is a sakazuki (a flat, saucer-
like cup), an ochoko (a small, cylindrical
cup), and a masu (a wooden, box-like
cup).
"Sake Ewer from a Portable Picnic Set",
Japan, c. 1830–1839.

In Japan, sake is served chilled

(reishu 冷酒), at room temperature
(jōon 常温), or heated (atsukan 熱
燗), depending on the preference
of the drinker, the characteristics
of the sake, and the season.
Typically, hot sake is a winter
drink, and high-grade sake is not
usually drunk hot, because the
flavors and aromas may be lost.
Most lower-quality sake is served
hot because that is the traditional
way and it often tastes better that
way, not so that flaws are covered
up. There are gradations of
temperature both for chilling and
heating, about every 5 °C
(9.0 °F), with hot sake generally
served around 50 °C (122 °F),
and chilled sake around 10 °C
(50 °F), like white wine. Hot sake
that has cooled (kanzamashi 燗冷
まし) may be reheated.

Sake is traditionally drunk from

small cups called choko or o-
choko (お猪口) and poured into
the choko from ceramic flasks
called tokkuri. This is very
common for hot sake, where the
flask is heated in hot water and
the small cups ensure that the
sake does not get cold in the cup,
but may also be used for chilled
sake. Traditionally one does not
pour one's own drink, which is
known as tejaku (手酌), but
instead members of a party pour
for each other, which is known as
shaku (酌). This has relaxed in
recent years, but is generally
observed on more formal
occasions, such as business
meals, and is still often observed
for the first drink.

Another traditional cup is the

masu, a box usually made of
hinoki or sugi, which was
originally used for measuring rice.
The masu holds exactly 180 ml
(6.3 imp fl oz; 6.1 US fl oz), so the
sake is served by filling the masu
to the brim; this is done for chilled
or room temperature sake. In
some Japanese restaurants, as a
show of generosity, the server
may put a glass inside the masu
or put the masu on a saucer and
pour until sake overflows and fills
both containers.

Saucer-like cups called sakazuki

are also used, most commonly at
weddings and other ceremonial
occasions, such as the start of the
year or at the beginning of a
kaiseki meal. In cheap bars, sake
is often served room temperature
in glass tumblers and called
koppu-zake (コップ酒). In more
modern restaurants wine glasses
are also used, and recently footed
glasses made specifically for
premium sake have also come
into use.

Sake is traditionally served in

units of 180 ml (6.3 imp fl oz;
6.1 US fl oz) (one gō), and this is
still common, but other sizes are
sometimes also available.
Traditionally sake is heated
immediately before serving, but
today restaurants may buy sake in
boxes which can be heated in a
specialized hot sake dispenser,
thus allowing hot sake to be
served immediately, though this is
detrimental to the flavor. There
are also a variety of devices for
heating sake and keeping it warm,
beyond the traditional tokkuri.

Aside from being served straight,

sake can be used as a mixer for
cocktails, such as tamagozake,
saketinis or nogasake.[30] Outside
of Japan, the sake bomb, the
origins of which are unclear,[31]
has become a popular drink in
bars and Asia-themed karaoke
clubs.

The Japanese Sake Association

encourages people to drink
chaser water for their health, and
the water is called Yawaragi-
mizu.[32]

Seasonality …
Sugitama (杉玉), globes of cedar leaves,
at a brewery

Traditionally sake was brewed

only in the winter. While it can
now be brewed year-round, there
is still seasonality associated with
sake, particularly artisanal ones.
The most visible symbol of this is
the sugitama (杉玉), a globe of
cedar leaves traditionally hung
outside a brewery when the new
sake is brewed. The leaves start
green, but turn brown over time,
reflecting the maturation of the
sake. These are now hung outside
many restaurants serving sake.
The new year's sake is called
shinshu 新酒 ("new sake"), and
when initially released in late
winter or early spring, many
brewers have a celebration,
known as kurabiraki 蔵開き
(warehouse opening).
Traditionally sake was best
transported in the cool spring, to
avoid spoilage in the summer
heat, with a secondary transport
in autumn, once the weather had
cooled, known as hiyaoroshi 冷卸
し ("cold wholesale distribution")
—this autumn sake has matured
over the summer.

There is not traditionally a notion

of vintage of sake—it is generally
drunk within the year, and if aged,
it does not vary significantly from
year to year. Today, with influence
from wine vintages, some
breweries label sake intended for
aging with a vintage, but this is
otherwise rare.

Storage …

Sake is sold in volume units

divisible by 180 ml (6.3 imp fl oz;
6.1 US fl oz) (a gō), the traditional
Japanese unit for cup size: sake is
traditionally sold by the gō-sized
cup, or in a 1.8 l (63 imp fl oz;
61 US fl oz) (one shō, ten gō)
sized flask. Today sake is also
often sold in 720 ml (25 imp fl oz;
24 US fl oz) (four gō) bottles –
note that this is almost the same
as the 750 ml (26 imp fl oz;
25 US fl oz) standard for wine
bottles, but is divisible into 4 gō.
Particularly in convenience stores,
sake may be sold in a 180 ml
(6.3 imp fl oz; 6.1 US fl oz) single
serving glass with a pull-off top
(カップ酒 kappu-zake) – this is
generally cheap sake – or in a
small 360 ml (13 imp fl oz;
12 US fl oz) bottle.
In general, it is best to keep sake
refrigerated in a cool or dark room,
as prolonged exposure to heat or
direct light will lead to spoilage.
Sake stored at relatively high
temperature can lead to formation
of dicetopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-
Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages
[33] Sake has high microbiological
stability due to its high content of
ethanol, but incidences of
spoilage have occurred. One of
the microorganisms implicated in
this spoilage is lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) that has grown tolerant to
ethanol and is referred to as
hiochi-bacteria.[34] Sake stored at
room temperature is best
consumed within a few months
after purchase.

After opening a bottle of sake, it is

best consumed within two or
three hours. It is possible to store
sake in the refrigerator, but it is
recommended to consume it
within two days. When premium
sake is opened it begins to
oxidize, which affects the taste. If
the sake is kept in the refrigerator
more than three days, it will lose
its "best" flavor. This does not
mean it should be disposed of if
not consumed. Generally, sake
can keep very well and taste good
after weeks in the refrigerator.
How long a sake will remain
drinkable depends on the quality
of the product, and whether it is
sealed with a vacuum top to
decrease oxidation.

Ceremonial use …

Sake is often consumed as part of

Shinto purification rituals. Sake
served to gods as offerings prior
to drinking are called o-miki (御神
酒) or miki (神酒).

In a ceremony called kagami

biraki, wooden casks of sake are
opened with mallets during Shinto
festivals, weddings, store
openings, sports and election
victories, and other celebrations.
This sake, called iwai-zake
("celebration sake"), is served
freely to all to spread good
fortune.
At the New Year many Japanese
people drink a special sake called
toso. Toso is a sort of iwai-zake
made by soaking tososan, a
Chinese powdered medicine,
overnight in sake. Even children
sip a portion. In some regions, the
first sips of toso are taken in order
of age, from the youngest to the
eldest.
A cask of sake before the kagami
biraki
 Decorative sake containers in a
Nakatsugawa shop

Events …

October 1 is the official "Sake

Day" (日本酒の日, "Nihonshu
no Hi") of Japan.[35] It is also
called "World Sake Day". It was
 designated by the Japan Sake
and Shochu Makers
Association in 1978.

See also …

Amylolytic process
Awamori, a distilled rice liquor
produced in Okinawa
The Birth of Saké
Cheongju, a Korean equivalent
Chuak, a Tripuri rice beer
Glossary of sake terms
Habushu, awamori liquor
containing a snake
 Kohama style, a method of
sake brewing
Mijiu, a Chinese equivalent
Mirin, an essential condiment
used in Japanese cuisine,
which has been drunk as a
sweet sake
Toso, spiced medicinal sake
Handia-an Indian equivalent.

References …

1. The American Heritage

Dictionary of the English
Language. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
2011. p. 1546. ISBN 978-0-
547-04101-8.
2. The Oxford Dictionary of
Foreign Words and
Phrases . Oxford: Oxford
University Press. 1997.
p. 375 . ISBN 0-19-
860236-7.
3. "alcohol consumption" .
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Retrieved March 9, 2017.
4. Robinson, Jancis (2006).
The Oxford Companion to
Wine (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. p. 10 .
 University Press. p. 10 .
5. "sake | alcoholic
beverage" . Encyclopedia
Britannica. Retrieved March
9, 2017.
6. Morris, Ivan (1964). The
World of the Shining Prince:
Court Life in Ancient
Japan . New York: Knopf.
7. Kaempfer, Engelbert
(1906). The History of
Japan . I. p. 187.
8. Titsingh, Isaac. (1781).
"Bereiding van de Sacki"
("Production of Sake"),
Verhandelingen van het
 Verhandelingen van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap
(Transactions of the
Batavian Academy). Vol. III.
OCLC 9752305
9. Morewood, Samuel (1824).
An Essay on the Inventions
and Customs of Both
Ancients and Moderns in
the Use of Inebriating
Liquors . Books on
Demand. p. 136 . "japan
sacki."
10. Casal, U. A. (1939). "Some
notes on the Sakazuki and
the Role of Drinking Sake in
 the Role of Drinking Sake in
Japan". Transactions of the
Asiatic Society of Japan:
73.
11. Hirano, Ko (May 4, 2019).
"American-based breweries
are creating their own brand
of sake" . The Japan Times
Online. ISSN 0447-5763 .
Retrieved December 4,
2019.
12. Gauntner, John (2002).
The Sake Handbook . p. 78.
ISBN 9780804834254.
13. Omura, Mika (November 6,
2009). "Weekend: Sake
 2009). "Weekend: Sake
breweries go with the flow
to survive" . Retrieved
December 29, 2009.
14. "Oldest sake brewery found
at former temple site in
Kyoto" . The Asahi
Shimbun. Retrieved January
20, 2020.
15. Gauntner, John. "How Sake
Is Made" . Sake World.
Retrieved January 1, 2016.
16. Machida, Masayuki;
Yamada, Osamu; Gomi,
Katsuya (August 2008).
"Genomics of Aspergillus
 "Genomics of Aspergillus
oryzae: Learning from the
History of Koji Mold and
Exploration of Its Future" .
DNA Research. 15 (4): 173–
183.
doi:10.1093/dnares/dsn02
0 . ISSN 1340-2838 .
PMC 2575883 .
PMID 18820080 .
17. "How sake is made" . Tengu
Sake. Retrieved August 8,
2019.
18. Government of Canada,
Public Services and
Procurement Canada.
 Procurement Canada.
"Information archivée dans
le Web" (PDF).
publications.gc.ca. Archived
from the original (PDF) on
June 27, 2018. Retrieved
August 8, 2019.
19. "Brewing Process | How to |
Japan Sake and Shochu
Makers Association" .
www.japansake.or.jp.
Retrieved August 8, 2019.
20. "Multiple parallel
fermentation: Japanese
Sake" . en-tradition.com.
Archived from the original
 Archived from the original
on August 8, 2019.
Retrieved August 8, 2019.
21. Gauntner, John. "Sake
brewing process" . Sake
World. Retrieved August 8,
2019.
22. National Research Institute
of Brewing (March 2017).
"Sake Brewing: The
Integration of Science and
Technology" (PDF). The
Story of Sake.
23. "The People" . eSake.
24. "「清酒の製法品質表示基
 準」の概要" [Summary of
Sake brewing quality
labeling standard] (in
Japanese). National Tax
Agency Japan.
25. Jennings, Holly (2012).
Asian Cocktails: Creative
Drinks Inspired by the East .
ISBN 9781462905256.
26. WSET Level 3 Award in
Sake Study Guide
27. Gauntner, John (March 1,
2002). "The Nihonshu-do;
Acidity in Sake" . Sake
World. Archived from the
 original on March 25,
2014. Retrieved February
27, 2014.
28. "What's Sake Meter Value
(SMV)?" . Ozeki Sake.
Retrieved May 27, 2020.
29. "Sake Taste and Sake
Scale" . sakeexpert.com.
Retrieved May 27, 2020.
30. Ume Cocktail Menu.
Tucson, AZ: Ume Casino
Del Sol, 2015. Print.
31. "An Ode to the Sake
Bomb" . Los Angeles
Magazine. April 22, 2013.
 Magazine. April 22, 2013.
Retrieved March 9, 2017.
32. "Yawaragi" .
japansake.or.jp.
33. (Lecture Note, Oct. 2011).
34. (Suzuki et al., 2008).
35. "10 1
".
Sake Service Institute.
Archived from the original
on January 16, 2013.
Retrieved December 16,
2012.

General sources …
Bamforth CW. (2005) "Sake".
Food, Fermentation and Micro-
organisms. Blackwell Science:
Oxford, UK: 143–153.
Kobayashi T, Abe K, Asai K,
Gomi K, Uvvadi PR, Kato M,
Kitamoto K, Takeuchi M,
Machida M. (2007). "Genomics
of Aspergillus oryzae". Biosci
Biotechnol. Biochem.
71(3):646–670.
Suzuki K, Asano S, Iijima K,
Kitamoto K. (2008). "Sake and
Beer Spoilage Lactic Acid
Bacteria – A review". The Inst of
 Brew & Distilling; 114(3):209–
223.
Uno T, Itoh A, Miyamoto T,
Kubo M, Kanamaru K,
Yamagata H, Yasufuku Y,
Imaishi H. (2009). "Ferulic Acid
Production in the Brewing of
Rice Wine (Sake)". J Inst Brew.
115(2):116–121.

Further reading …

Aoki, Rocky, Nobu Mitsuhisa

and Pierre A. Lehu (2003).
Sake: Water from Heaven .
New York: Universe Publishing.
ISBN 0-7893-0847-9, 978-0-
7893-0847-4
Bunting, Chris (2011). Drinking
Japan. Singapore: Tuttle
Publishing. ISBN 978-4-8053-
1054-0.
Eckhardt, Fred (1993). Sake
(U.S.A.): A Complete Guide to
American Sake, Sake
Breweries and Homebrewed
Sake . Portland, Oregon: Fred
Eckhardt Communications.
ISBN 0-9606302-8-7, 978-0-
9606302-8-8.
Gauntner, John (2002). The
Sake Handbook . Tokyo: Tuttle
Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-
3425-3, 978-0-8048-3425-
4.
Harper, Philip; Haruo
Matsuzaki; Mizuho Kuwata;
Chris Pearce (2006). The Book
of Sake: A Connoisseurs
Guide . Tokyo: Kodansha
International. ISBN 4-7700-
2998-5, 978-4-7700-2998-0
Kaempfer, Engelbert (1906).
The History of Japan: Together
with a Description of the
Kingdom of Siam, 1690–92,
Vol I. Vol II. Vol III . London: J.
MacLehose and Sons.
OCLC 5174460 .
Morewood, Samuel (1824). An
Essay on the Inventions and
Customs of Both Ancients and
Moderns in the Use of
Inebriating Liquors:
Interspersed with Interesting
Anecdotes, Illustrative of the
Manners and Habits of the
Principal Nations of the World,
with an Historical View of the
Extent and Practice of
 Distillation. London: Longman,
Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and
Green. OCLC 213677222 .
Titsingh, Issac (1781).
"Bereiding van de Sacki "
("Producing Sake"),
Verhandelingen van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap
(Transactions of the Batavian
Academy) , Vol. III.
OCLC 9752305 .

External links …

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Sake.
Look up sake in Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.

Sake Service Institute

Sake Education Council
Sake Sommelier Association
An Indispensable Guide to Sake
and Japanese Culture
What Does Sake Taste Like?

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title=Sake&oldid=980506155"
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