Marianaarc Sedvolctectprocesses MarianaTroughformation

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Sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic processes of the central Mariana Arc:

Mariana Trough back-arc basin formation and the West Mariana Ridge
Article in Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · August 2009

DOI: 10.1029/2008GC002312
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Volume 10, Number 8
Geophysics 5 August 2009
Q08X07, doi:10.1029/2008GC002312
Geosystems
AN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF THE EARTH SCIENCES ISSN: 1525-2027
Published by AGU and the Geochemical Society
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Sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic processes of the central

Mariana Arc: Mariana Trough back-arc basin formation
and the West Mariana Ridge
A. J. Oakley, B. Taylor, and G. F. Moore
-
Department of Geology and Geophysics, SOEST, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA
(aoakley@hawaii.edu; taylorb@hawaii.edu; gmoore@hawaii.edu)
A. Goodliffe
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487, USA (amg@ua.edu)
[1] We present new multichannel seismic profiles and bathymetric data from the central Marianas that
image the West Mariana Ridge (WMR) remnant arc, both margins of the Mariana Trough back-arc basin,
the modern arc, and Eocene frontal-arc high. These data reveal structure and stratigraphy related to three
periods of arc volcanism and two periods of arc rifting. We interpret the boundary between accreted back-
arc basin and rifted arc crust along the Mariana Trough and support these findings with drilling results and
recent seismic refraction and gravity studies. We show that with the exception of a few volcanoes behind
the volcanic front that straddle the boundary between crustal types, the modern Mariana Arc is built
entirely on rifted arc crust between 14 and 19°N. Our data indicate that there is more accreted back-arc
seafloor to the west of the Mariana Trough spreading axis than to the east, confirming previous evidence
for an asymmetric basin. The rifted margin of the WMR remnant arc forms a stepped pattern along the
western boundary of the Mariana Trough, between 15°300 and 19°N. In this region, linear volcanic cross
chains behind the WMR are aligned with the trend of Mariana Trough spreading segments, and the WMR
ridges extend into the back-arc basin along the same strike. These ridges are magmatic accommodation
zones which, to the north along the Izu-Bonin Arc, punctuate tectonic extension. For the WMR we
hypothesize that rift basins are more commonly the sites where spreading segment offsets nucleate,
whereas magmatic centers of spreading segments are sites where magmatism continues from arc
volcanism, through rifting to back-arc spreading. The Mariana Trough is opening nonrigidly and is
characterized by two predominant abyssal hill trends, NNW–SSE in the north and N–S in the south.
Between the only two basin-crossing fracture zones at 15.5 and 17.5°, N–S axes propagated north at the
expense of NNW axes.
Components: 15,891 words, 11 figures.

Keywords: Mariana convergent margin; arc rifting; Mariana Trough.
Index Terms: 3001 Marine Geology and Geophysics: Back-arc basin processes; 3025 Marine Geology and Geophysics:
Marine seismics (0935, 7294); 3045 Marine Geology and Geophysics: Seafloor morphology, geology, and geophysics.
Received 6 November 2008; Revised 8 April 2009; Accepted 15 April 2009; Published 5 August 2009.
Copyright 2009 by the American Geophysical Union 1 of 29

Geochemistry 3
Geophysics
Geosystems G oakley et al.: mariana trough and the west mariana ridge 10.1029/2008GC002312
Oakley, A. J., B. Taylor, G. F. Moore, and A. Goodliffe (2009), Sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic processes of the central
Mariana Arc: Mariana Trough back-arc basin formation and the West Mariana Ridge, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 10,
Q08X07, doi:10.1029/2008GC002312.
————————————
Theme: Izu-Bonin-Mariana Subduction System: A Comprehensive Overview
Guest Editors: S. Kodaira, S. Pozgay, and J. Ryan
1. Introduction 1971; Karig et al., 1978]. The IBM arc began with
Middle Eocene suprasubduction zone magmatism
[2] One of the enigmas of convergent margin evo- (boninites and island arc tholeiites), similar to that
lution is the existence of periodic phases of exten- observed in many ophiolites [Stern and Bloomer,
sion that result in arc rifting and back-arc basin 1992; Taylor, 1992; Bloomer et al., 1995]. The IBM
formation. The processes associated with the rifting island arc volcanic front was fully developed by the
and subsequent separation of continental litho- Late Middle Eocene (44 Ma) [Ishizuka et al., 2006].
sphere have been a major research focus and drilling Since then, the arc was episodically rifted, and
objective [e.g., Ruppel, 1995; Peron-Pinvidic and successive back-arc spreading in the Parece Vela
Manatschal, 2009]. Similar processes and questions Basin and Mariana Trough isolated the remnant arcs
are involved in the rifting of arc lithosphere prior to (Kyushu-Palau Ridge and West Mariana Ridge
back-arc spreading (e.g., the extent and nature of (WMR)) up to 1,300 km from the present IBM
crustal stretching, the duration of rifting, and the trench (Figure 1). Although the 50 Ma tectonic
interaction between vertical tectonics, rift sedimen- and magmatic history of the IBM arc is well known,
tation, and volcanism). Studies of lithospheric rhe- the nature of the rifting and spreading that formed
ology suggest that the thick crust and high heat flow the Mariana Trough and the boundaries between
of the volcanic line constitute a rheological weak rifted arc and accreted back-arc basin crust are
zone that focuses rifting in its vicinity [Molnar and poorly constrained. Thick volcaniclastic sediments
Atwater, 1978; Kusznir and Park, 1987]. However, shed from the active arc mask basement topography
the exact location of arc rupture can vary with respect on the eastern margin of the Mariana Trough, and
to this line. Rifting of the arc can occur along, in front there are no published detailed magnetic surveys
of, or behind the volcanic front and continues until from the central back-arc basin (14–19°N), making
the lithosphere is sufficiently thinned for seafloor a determination of spreading history difficult.
spreading to occur [Hawkins et al., 1984; Taylor, [5] Multichannel seismic (MCS) profiles collected in
1992; Martinez and Taylor, 2006]. 2002 offer the best and most complete seismic
[3] The boundary between rifted arc and accreted reflection images of the central Mariana convergent
back-arc basin crust in island arc settings is poorly margin, previously surveyed in 1976 [Mrozowski and
constrained, partially because of the lack of well Hayes, 1980]. In this paper we present the results of
studied examples, and also because of the presence recent surveys over the central Mariana Arc, frontal-
of thick volcaniclastic sediments that conceal base- arc high, back-arc basin, and remnant arc from 13° to
ment topography. Knowing this boundary allows us to 19°150N (Figure 2). We use MCS reflection and
evaluate the symmetry of oceanic accretion in back-arc swath bathymetry data, combined with the results
basins and determine the substrate upon which modern of previous drilling, seismic reflection and refraction
arc volcanoes are built. It is necessary to know what studies to define the boundary between rifted arc and
underlies arc volcanoes in order to understand the accreted back-arc basin crust on both sides of the
outputs of the so-called ‘‘subduction factory’’ and, Mariana Trough and determine the substrate upon
ultimately, the formation of felsic continental crust. which the modern arc volcanoes are built. In addition,
we present new, high-resolution bathymetry over the
[4] The Mariana system, at the southern end of the WMR, Mariana Trough and Mariana Arc that reveal
Izu-Bonin-Mariana (IBM) subduction system, is an the morphology and active deformation of the mod-
intraoceanic convergent margin undergoing exten- ern and remnant arc volcanoes along with back-arc
sion (Figure 1). The basic tectonic framework for basin fabric. Using swath bathymetry data, combined
the history of the Mariana system has been in place with MCS profiles, we propose a spreading history
since the early work of Karig [e.g., Karig, 1970,
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Figure 1. (a) Regional bathymetric location map. PSP, Philippine Sea Plate; PP, Pacific Plate; I, B, and M, Izu, Bonin,
and Mariana Trenches; MT, Mariana Trough; WMR, West Mariana Ridge; PVB, Parece Vela Basin; KPR, Kyushu-Palau
Ridge; WPB, West Philippine Basin. (b) Bathymetry of the Mariana arc system. M, Mariana Trench; C, Challenger Deep;
M/E, Modern Arc and Eocene Frontal-Arc High. Red line indicates MT spreading axis. Orange line indicates Mariana
Trench. Box locates study area shown in Figure 2. Contour interval is 1 km. (c) Approximate locations of bathymetry data
sets in Figure 2. Orange indicates Center for Coastal and Ocean Mapping, University of New Hampshire (UNH). Blue
indicates JAMSTEC. Green indicates EW0202/03. Yellow indicates HAWAII MR-1. Red indicates NOAA. The maps
presented in this paper are illuminated from the east to highlight relief. Lineations subparallel to ship tracks are data
artifacts at the edges of bathymetry swaths resulting from slightly different sound speed profiles used for adjacent data.
for the Mariana Trough near 17°N. Our data reveal 1995; Cosca et al., 1998]. Three stages of arc
fundamental attributes of this archetypal intraoceanic growth and two episodes of arc rifting are known
arc system that allow for improved comparisons with from studies of island outcrops and drill cores from
other extensional margins. the Mariana subduction zone (DSDP and ODP
legs: 59, 60,125, 126). Initial suprasubduction zone
2. Background magmatism generated a broad zone of boninitic
crust 300 km wide before the onset of focused,
2.1. Tectonics, Volcanism, and calc-alkaline volcanism [Meijer, 1980; Taylor,
Sedimentation 1992; Bloomer et al., 1995]. A volcanic island
arc formed by the Late Middle Eocene (44 Ma)
[6] Subduction began in the Mariana convergent at the location of the present-day frontal-arc high
margin 50 Ma [Taylor, 1992; Bloomer et al.,
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Figure 2. Bathymetric map of the central Mariana arc –back-arc region from combined surveys, sunlit from the
east, showing EW0202/3 and Conrad seismic lines. Interpreted lines are shown in purple. The arc – back-arc boundary
on either side of the Mariana Trough is shown in black. Sense of motion along faults was determined on the basis of
seafloor offset in seismic data and fault scarp geometry in the bathymetry. Contour interval is 1 km. Location is
shown on Figure 1. Regions with interpreted MCS lines are enlarged in Figure 3.
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(FAH) [Ishizuka et al., 2006]. The Eocene arc dence, and thinning of the crust. Active faulting
rifted in the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene prior provides conduits for the emplacement of dikes,
to seafloor spreading in the Parece Vela back-arc sills, and lava flows of both arc and back-arc basin
basin, which separated the FAH from the Kyushu- basalt composition. Over time the active zone of
Palau Ridge remnant arc (Figure 1). Drill cores extension shifts laterally away from the arc. Even-
from DSDP Legs 59 and 60 show that explosive tually, true seafloor spreading begins and newly
Oligocene volcanism on the FAH continued during accreted oceanic crust is produced [Martinez et al.,
rifting until 29 – 31 Ma [Shipboard Scientific 2000].
Party, 1980a, 1980b; Scott et al., 1980]. This
rifting and subsequent spreading, from 29 Ma to 2.2. Mariana Trough
15 Ma, propagated north and south creating the
[11] The Mariana Trough is an active back-arc basin
characteristic bow shape of the Mariana subduction
which, south of 23.5°N, separates the modern
zone [Mrozowski and Hayes, 1979; Taylor, 1992;
Mariana volcanic arc from the remnant WMR [Karig,
Okino et al., 1998].
1971] (Figure 1). The Mariana Trough is a geolog-
[7] Volcanism may have slowed or ceased until ically young feature formed since 8 Ma [Seama and
20 Ma, when the Mio-Pliocene volcanic arc built Fujiwara, 1993]. The spreading axis, like the WMR
up west of the rifted Eo-Oligocene arc [Hussong and modern arc, has a bow shape with ridge segments
and Uyeda, 1982; Meijer et al., 1983; Taylor, of varying length (20–50 km), which are separated
1992]. DSDP Leg 60 drilling in the Mariana fore by both right- and left-lateral nontransform offsets
arc shows an increase in volcanism until 9 Ma and transform faults [Sinton and Hussong, 1983;
[Shipboard Scientific Party, 1982a, 1982b]. The Stüben et al., 1998] (Figure 1). The Pagan Fracture
Mio-Pliocene arc was then rifted, and seafloor Zone (PFZ) [Fryer and Hussong, 1982] and another
spreading in the Mariana Trough back-arc basin, near 15.5°N are the only ridge offsets that cross the
beginning at 5 Ma, rafted away the WMR entire basin (Figure 2).
remnant arc [Hussong and Uyeda, 1982; Seama
and Fujiwara, 1993]. Rifting and spreading prop- [12] In the northern and central portions of the
basin, the spreading axis has a morphology similar
agated north, further increasing the curvature of the
to a slow spreading mid-oceanic ridge with spread-
Mariana island arc system [Martinez et al., 1995].
ing rates of 30– 40 mm/a [Bibee et al., 1980;
[8] A third period of explosive volcanism is ongo- Hussong and Uyeda, 1982; Honsho et al., 1997;
ing along the modern Mariana Arc, which is Kato et al., 2003]. However, some characteristics
building west of the Eocene FAH [Hilton et al., differ from typical mid-ocean ridge spreading.
2005]. From 16–20.5°N most of the active arc First, axial and flank depths of the Mariana Trough
volcanoes are subaerial; south of 16°N they are all are deeper than most mid-ocean ridges of compa-
submarine [Stern et al., 1984] (Figures 1 and 2). rable age; second, the relief of the seafloor flanking
the axis is typically 1 km greater; and third,
[9] Arc volcanoes, because of their thicker crust abyssal hill fabric trends are more variable [Karig
and higher heat flow than surrounding oceanic et al., 1978; Martinez et al., 2000].
crust, create a linear zone of lithospheric weakness
that controls the location of arc rifting, but the [ 13 ] The southern Mariana Trough (south of
location of volcanic centers and rift boundaries 14°N) is morphologically different from the
may vary both along strike of an arc and over central and northern portions of the basin, and
time. Along the Izu-Bonin Arc, Taylor [1992] more closely resembles fast spreading or magmati-
found that the large relict Oligocene rift structures cally robust (e.g., hot spot) ridges [Martinez et al.,
do not control the Quaternary rifts. In addition, rifts 2000]. It is characterized by an axial high, rather
are wider and deeper between, rather than adjacent than a trough and is spreading at a rate of 45 mm/a
to, arc volcanoes suggesting that arc magmatism near Guam [Kato et al., 2003]. The southward
accommodates some of the extension with intru- increasing Mariana back-arc spreading rates are
sions rather than faulting taking up the strain near associated with subduction rates along the Mariana
the arc volcanoes [Taylor et al., 1991]. Trench that increase from 40±5 mm/a at 19°N to
65±10 mm/a at 13.5°N [Kato et al., 2003].
[10] Rifted volcanic margins evolve by a combina-
tion of extrusive volcanism, intrusive magmatism, [14] Arc rifting and back-arc basin formation are
extension, uplift, and erosion [e.g., Menzies et al., commonly thought to be caused by extension in-
2002]. Extension results in normal faulting, subsi- duced by the seaward migration of the trench,
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termed ‘‘trench rollback’’ [Elsasser, 1971; Moberly, along segments of the central Mariana Trough
1972; Dewey, 1980]. However, this is disputed axis near 18°N were 2–3 times higher on the
along the central Mariana margin where the near western side of the basin than the eastern during
vertical subducting plate [Katsumata and Sykes, the Brunhes-Matuyama period. Asymmetric
1969; Isacks and Barazangi, 1977; Chiu et al., spreading (though less extreme) is common along
1991; Engdahl et al., 1998] acts as a ‘‘sea anchor’’ the axis of slow spreading ridges such as the Mid
resisting lateral motion [Scholz and Campos, 1995; Atlantic Ridge; and asymmetric back-arc basin
Stern et al., 2003]. Back-arc basin spreading along formation is also seen in the northern and south-
this region of the Mariana system may be caused by ern Mariana Trough, Okinawa Trough and Lau-
the combined effects of the sea anchor force and Havre-Taupo basin [Tucholke and Lin, 1994;
convergence of the Philippine Sea and Eurasian Martinez et al., 1995; Baker et al., 1996; Parson
Plates. In contrast, the increase in spreading rate of and Wright, 1996; Yamazaki and Murakami,
the southern Mariana Trough may be affected by 1998; Martinez and Taylor, 2002]. In their recent
trench rollback along the Challenger Deep segment work, Asada et al. [2007] suggest that the asym-
of the Mariana Trench [Martinez et al., 2000; Fryer metry of the Mariana Trough is caused by repet-
et al., 2003; Gvirtzman and Stern, 2004]. Martinez itive, small-scale ridge jumps to the east. In this
et al. [2000] propose that the region between the model, seafloor accretion along individual spread-
trench and the back-arc spreading center or ‘‘inter- ing segments would primarily be symmetric, but
plate zone’’ undergoes intense deformation in the ridge jumps would result in an overall asym-
response to the changing morphology of the trench metric basin.
and the increase in curvature of the Mariana Arc.
[15] Rifting of the Mariana Arc is suggested to have 3. Description
evolved through a two stage process: (1) stretching
of the arc to produce a block-faulted terrain and 3.1. Bathymetry
(2) transition to seafloor spreading [Fryer and [16] The bathymetric maps used in this study in-
Hussong, 1982; Baker et al., 1996]. On the basis clude swath multibeam data from the EW0202/03
of early bathymetric and magnetic surveys at 18°N, cruises, data over the Mariana Arc and FAH pro-
DSDP Leg 60 scientists proposed that back-arc vided by NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science
spreading was essentially symmetric in the Mariana Center and NOAA Vents Program, Pacific Marine
Trough, implying that oceanic crust and abyssal hill Environmental Laboratory, 2006–2007 data over
fabric to the east of the axis were buried under thick the WMR courtesy of James Gardner at the Center
volcaniclastic sediments derived from the active arc for Coastal and Ocean Mapping, University of New
[Bibee et al., 1980; Hussong and Uyeda, 1982]. Hampshire, data from a composite of regional studies
However, the extent of accreted back-arc basin conducted on ships from the Japan Center for
crust on the eastern margin of the basin, proximal Marine Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
to the active volcanic arc, and the locations of supplied by Nobu Seama [Kitada et al., 2006], as
paleospreading axes are unknown. With the refine- well as 1997 HAWAII MR-1 data (Figure 1c). We
ment of the location of the modern spreading axis interpreted the bathymetry on the basis of maps
based on higher-resolution bathymetric mapping with several different illuminations to minimize
and side-scan sonar imaging [e.g., Deschamps artifacts. Sense of motion along faults was deter-
and Fujiwara, 2003; Yamazaki et al., 2003; mined on the basis of seafloor offset in seismic data
Deschamps et al., 2005; Kitada et al., 2006] and and fault scarp geometry in the bathymetry.
its proximity to the eastern edge of the 200-km-
wide trough, the basin appears to have opened in a [17] New multibeam bathymetry data over the
highly asymmetric manner. In general, the spread- WMR show numerous well-developed canyons
ing center is 40–50 km closer to the Mariana Arc and dendritic drainage patterns emptying into the
than the WMR [Fryer, 1995] (Figures 1 and 2), Parece Vela Basin that have formed large deposi-
suggesting asymmetrical crustal accretion or alter- tional aprons (Figures 2 and 3) (J. V. Gardner et al.,
natively, that the active arc is constructed primarily manuscript in preparation, 2009). There are many
on accreted lithosphere [Hussong and Uyeda, inactive volcanoes bordering the Parece Vela Basin.
1982]. Some studies, interpret magmatic accretion North of 16°N, these volcanoes form linear cross
to be asymmetric [Fryer, 1995; Stüben et al., 1998; chains (45–60° to the ridge) that appear to align
Deschamps and Fujiwara, 2003]. Deschamps and with the centers of Mariana Trough spreading seg-
Fujiwara [2003] found that half spreading rates ments, suggesting magmatic segmentation. North of
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3
Figure 3. Enlarged bathymetry maps with shot numbers along interpreted MCS lines. Representative morphological
features (channels, ridges, and dendritic drainage) are labeled. (a) WMR lines. Triangles indicate OBS locations. Every
tenth OBS is numbered. (b) Eastern margin and spreading axis of the Mariana Trough. The NNW trending abyssal hill
oakley et al.: mariana trough and the west mariana ridge 10.1029/2008GC002312
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referred to in the text is labeled. (c) Line 87– 88 across the eastern margin of the Mariana Trough. Contour interval is 1 km.
Geochemistry 3
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15.5°N, WMR ridges extend eastward into the back [20] The modern arc along the central Mariana con-
arc along these same NE –SW trends. Although vergent margin consists of large, individual volca-
individual peaks reach nearly to sea level, the major- noes (e.g., Pagan, Agrigan) to the north and smaller,
ity of the WMR remnant arc is at depths of 2–3 km submarine volcanoes to the south (Figures 2–4)
below sea level (Figure 2). In general, the eastern [Stern et al., 1984]. The relief of the frontal-arc high
slopes of the WMR are steeper than the western (FAH) is roughly the inverse of this: subariel from
slopes, because of normal faulting (as shown later 13–16°N, submarine from 16–18°N and apparently
in the MCS data). This is especially true south of absent between 18 and 19°N. The size of the WMR
15°N where the remnant arc is narrower. complements that of the FAH: wide north of 15.5°N
and narrow to the south (Figure 4).
[18] The average depth of the central Mariana
Trough (14–19°N) is 4 km (Figure 2). The basin [21] Several volcanoes are located behind the modern
floor consists of a series of NNW–SSE to N–S Mariana Arc [Hussong and Fryer, 1983] (Figures 2
trending, linear ridges and valleys, which are and 4). We imaged numerous volcanic intrusions
characteristic of abyssal hill fabric found at a slow along and across the active arc (Figure 4). Some are
spreading mid-ocean ridge [Fryer and Hussong, located within intra-arc basins and some on the Eocene
1982]. The spreading ridge segmentation bound- platform. Many of these intrusions are associated with
aries and spreading axis in the Mariana Trough normal faults that offset the seafloor. West of Guguan
were interpreted on the basis of bathymetry, acous- Volcano at 17°200N, a small volcano is located be-
tic imagery and MCS data, and differ somewhat tween two N–NNW trending lineations interpreted to
from previously published locations [e.g., Kitada et be abyssal hills (Figures 3b and 4). Not knowing the
al., 2006] (Figure 2). Several MCS lines cross the composition (arc versus back arc) of this volcano, we
axial ridge and rift valley of the spreading axis have colored it green on Figure 4.
[Hawkins et al., 1990], allowing us to refine its
location, and, using the new bathymetry, we based 3.2. Seismic Interpretation
our segmentation boundaries on spreading ridge
offsets and abyssal hill fabric (e.g., changes in 3.2.1. West Mariana Ridge
fabric trends, inside corner highs, etc.). The seg- [22] MCS Lines 124 – 125, 119– 121, 113– 116,
mentation boundaries indicate transform and non- 130–131 and Conrad Line 55 cross the WMR
transform offsets, including ridge propagation. remnant arc and western margin of the Mariana
[19] The trend of the abyssal hill fabric varies Trough back-arc basin between 17°100 and 18.5°N
across the basin and along strike (Figure 2). North (Figures 3a, 5, and 6). These lines show the thick
of the Pagan Fracture Zone (PFZ) the trend is volcaniclastic cover of the western flank and sum-
primarily NNW–SSE. South to 15.5°N, the fabric mit of the WMR, the variable morphology of its
changes across the basin, rotating from NNW–SSE eastern flank, and the boundary between rifted arc
to nearly N–S near 144°150E. The different trends and accreted back-arc basin crust.
are separated by a pseudofault and the eastern [23] The western flank of the WMR is characterized
portion of the PFZ (solid, green line Figure 4). by numerous cross-chain volcanoes and submarine
South of the PFZ, a NNW trending, large-relief channels and canyons (Figures 3a and 5). MCS Line
abyssal hill on the eastern margin of the basin 113–116, which crosses E–W over the WMR at
(crossed by MCS Line 50), is discordant with the 17°540N (Figure 5c), reveals an apron of volcani-
abyssal fabric and the trend of the spreading center clastic sediments that thickens westward to 2 s
in this region (Figure 3b); however, it conforms to TWTT into the Parece Vela back-arc basin. The
the trend of the abyssal hills on the western margin seafloor is marked by large distributary channels
of the Mariana Trough (Figure 2). Few other and dendritic drainage pathways (Figure 3a). The
abyssal hills rise above the volcaniclastic sediment cross-chain volcano on the western flank of the
apron that covers the eastern basin north of 15°N. WMR imaged on both Lines 113–116 (SP 6400)
Submarine channels/canyons cross the apron from and 119–121 (SP 1000) appears to be undeformed
the western flanks of the modern arc volcanoes into by the rifting of the Miocene arc (Figures 5b and 5c).
the back arc (Figure 3b). South of 15°N, the
spreading axis trends NNE and the off-axis fabric [24] The morphology of the summit and eastern
generally parallels it, except near 14.5°N where it flank of the WMR varies along strike. In the north,
trends slightly west of north. along Line 124–125 (Figure 5a), the eastern flank
of the WMR consists of numerous down-dropped
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Figure 4. Interpreted boundaries of the Mariana Trough, basin segmentation, and volcanic constructs of the WMR,
Modern arc, and frontal-arc high. Bathymetry contours (every 1 km) are from Figure 2.
9 of 29
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Figure 5
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and west tilted fault blocks bounded by east east dipping normal faults, into the Mariana
dipping normal faults. These blocks are covered Trough along a flow line, revealing a zone of
by a uniform layer of nearly flat-lying sediments. rifting up to 70 km in width (Figures 2 and 5b).
The flank of the WMR basement deepens eastward Here, rifted fault blocks and abyssal hills have
from 3.5–6 s TWTT. At the base of the flank, a similar strike and morphology.
basin (SP 375–600) is filled with flat-lying, sedi-
mentary layers that onlap the edges, suggesting that [27] Near 18°N, Line 55 from an R/V Robert
they were formed by the deposition of turbidites. Conrad seismic reflection survey in 1976 crosses
E–W over DSDP drill Site 451 (Figures 2, 3a, and
[25] To the south, between Lines 55 and 130–131, 6a). The rollover morphology of the WMR summit
the summit of the WMR forms an elongate, thickly and eastern flank is similar to what is described for
(1.5 to > 2 s TWTT) sedimented ridge, roughly Lines 119–121 above and 113–116 below. Near
40 km long by 15 km wide (Figure 3a). Sediment SP 3650 fault dips switch from west to east
thickness increases north along the ridge, thicken- dipping. A large rifted fault block near SP 3400
ing into the basin formed between Lines 119–121 forms a prominent ridge in the bathymetry.
and 124–125 (Figures 2 and 3a, Line 126–127 not
shown). MCS Line 119–121 crosses the northern [28] Line 113–116 crosses over the summit of the
tip of this ridge (Figure 5b). The summit of the elongate ridge which is faulted and flexed down
WMR is eroded by dendritic drainage channels from 2 to 6 s TWTT (Figure 5c). As along
(Figure 3a). Between SP 1050 and 1400 the seafloor Line 119–121, the faults on top of the bathymetric
is hummocky, likely because of erosion from nu- high dip to the west offsetting sediment horizons
merous channels (Figure 5b). East and west dipping that dip to the east; however we do not image a
normal faults deform sediments probably shed from comparable package of seafloor conformable hori-
the surrounding volcanoes, forming a rift basin zons overlying the east dipping sediments. In
infilled by younger sediments (SP 1080–1200). addition, there are no down-dropped fault blocks
Near DSDP Site 451 (SP 1580) there is a package on the eastern flank like those seen on MCS
of east dipping, parallel volcaniclastic sediment profiles to the north and south. Near SP 5500
horizons offset by normal faults that dip west at and 5300, flat-lying sediments are deposited in
60–65° (assuming average sediment velocity of basins bounded by rifted fault blocks.
2 km/s) (Figures 5b and 5d). This thick package of [29] MCS Line 130–131 (Figure 6b) parallels Line
sediments is separated from more recent, seafloor 119–121, 60 km to the south. Here, the WMR is
subparallel reflections by an unconformity (black deformed by west and east dipping normal faults,
line on Figure 5b). These upper sediments are many of which reach the seafloor. Thick packages
primarily deposited in a basin between SP 1430 of sediments dip west and east on either side of the
and 1900. East dipping normal faults that offset the WMR. A dashed, blue line separates two distinct
seafloor deform the upper sediment package be- sediment packages. The lower sediment package
tween SP 1650–1700. Near SP 1800, the deeper represents prerift deposition along the WMR. The
sediment horizons change dip from east to west and upper section includes synrift to recent sedimenta-
are offset by east dipping normal faults. The blue, tion and correlates with the package of dipping
dashed line roughly marks the base of the dipping horizons seen to the north on Line 119 – 121
volcaniclastic sediments. The sediment package is (Figure 5b). On Line 130–131 west dipping sedi-
thickest in the basin near SP 1700. ments in the upper package thicken to the SW
[26] To the east, Line 119–121 images a robust and are eroded by a large channel at SP 300
magmatic section of the WMR trending NE (Figure 6b). Near SP 750, sediments switch from
(Figures 3a and 5b). This portion of the WMR west dipping to east dipping. On top of the package
extends a linear ridge, deformed by both west and of east dipping reflections, between SP 1000–1200,
a series of blocks are back tilted on east dipping
Figure 5. (a– c) MCS profiles in time over the West Mariana Ridge (WMR) and western margin of the Mariana
Trough. These lines show the thick volcaniclastic cover of the summit and western flank of the WMR, the variable
morphology of the eastern flank, and the boundary between rifted arc and accreted back-arc basin crust. The WMR is
deformed by active and inactive normal faults, both west and east dipping, and channels. MCS data over the eastern
flank of the WMR show rollover to the west and rifted fault blocks to the east. Dashed boxes locate enlarged time
sections and (d and e) DSDP drill sites. The arc –back-arc boundary is shown in map view on Figure 2. To the east of
the boundary, abyssal hill fabric with a moderate relief of 0.5 s TWTT is draped by thin sediments. Beneath the
sediments, back-arc basin crust is generally nonreflective. Locations on Figure 3.
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Figure 6. Time sections of (a) Conrad Line 55 and (b) MCS Line 130 – 131 over the summit and eastern flank of the
WMR. Line 55 images east dipping horizons offset by west dipping normal faults on the rolled over eastern flank. On Line
130 –131 the lower sediment package represents prerift deposition along the WMR. The upper section, underlain by a blue,
dashed line, includes synrift to recent sedimentation. At the base of the eastern flank on Line 130– 131, a low-angle normal
fault (17– 20°) marks the boundary between the rifted WMR crust and accreted back-arc basin crust. A similar feature is
imaged within a sedimented basin on Conrad Line 55. East of the low-angle faults, higher-angle, east dipping normal faults
12 of 29
offset seafloor. Locations on Figure 3.
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Geophysics
normal faults, forming small half-graben infilled by hills buried beneath the thick volcaniclastic sedi-
seafloor-parallel reflections. Beneath these blocks, ment apron, and rifted fault blocks that indicate the
near SP 1120, clear reflections from the east dipping western extent of arc crust. The data are presented
sediment horizons terminate abruptly. here from north to south (Figures 3b and 7–9).
[30] To the east, Line 130 –131 images an east 3.2.2.1. Line 113–116
dipping, low-angle normal fault which reaches the
seafloor near SP 1270. The eastern extent of the [34] The eastern portion of MCS Line 113–116
fault marks the boundary between rifted WMR crust runs ENE across the modern arc between Agrigan
and accreted back-arc basin crust (Figure 6b). Depth and Pagan Volcanoes (Figures 3b and 7a). Along
conversions using crustal velocities of 4.4–5.0 km/s this line, the Mariana Trough spreading axis (indi-
below the sediments, determined from the range of cated by a red arrow on Figure 7) is bounded on
velocities in the refraction model of Takahashi et al. both sides by NNW – SSE trending symmetric
[2008], result in angles for the lower segment of the abyssal hills with high relief. Alvin submersible
fault of 17 –20°. The low-angle fault forms the dives in the Mariana Trough in 1987 showed that
western boundary of a NNW trending basin visible the spreading axis between 17°400N and 18°300N is
in the bathymetry (Figures 2 and 3a). A normal fault an axial ridge within a 10–15 km wide rift valley
near SP 1355 offsets flat-lying sediments and sea- [e.g., Craig et al., 1987; Hawkins et al., 1990].
floor within the basin. East of the basin, near SP There is little sediment within the valley and we do
1480 there is a change in reflectivity of the seismic not image any coherent reflections within the back-
section beneath basement. There are few coherent arc basin crust. East of the axis, sediments fill a
reflections within the back-arc basin crust to the east basement low (SP 2050) (Figure 7a). Seafloor,
(Figure 6b). corrugated by channels and possible sediment
waves, shoals to the east between the arc volcanoes
[31] To the north, along Conrad Line 55, a low- (Figure 3b). East of SP 2100, relatively flat-lying
angle normal fault bounds a bathymetric low with a sediments are underlain by unreflective basement
similar trend to that seen along Line 130–131 (SP (dashed blue and black lines). The character of the
3030) (Figure 6a). Again, there is normal faulting sediments changes east of SP 1300 with horizons
within the basin above the low-angle fault (SP becoming increasingly chaotic and variably tilted.
3055). We interpret the eastern side of the low- The seismic character of the basement changes
angle fault, where it abuts basement with abyssal from unreflective to reflective near SP 1200 and
hill fabric, to be the arc–back-arc boundary. there are strong, discontinuous horizons deeper in
the section (6.5–7 s TWTT) (Figure 7a). There
[32] On the basis of the low-angle faults visible on
are two ridges within the region of nonreflective
Lines 130–131 and 55, drilling results from DSDP
basement near SP 1550 and 2000 that are onlapped
drill Site 453 (discussed below) and abyssal hill
by and buried beneath volcaniclastic sediments
fabric revealed in the swath bathymetry, we inter-
shed from the active arc. These ridges are well east
pret the rifted arc-accreted back-arc basin crust
of the active arc and are in line with abyssal hills
boundary to be within NNW trending graben at
visible in the bathymetry to the south (Figure 2). We
the eastern edge of the WMR on all of the MCS
interpret these features to be buried abyssal hills
profiles (Figures 2, 5, and 6). East of these graben,
indicating that back-arc basin crust (dashed blue
the seafloor topography is characterized by rough,
line) extends at least this far east. We interpret the
moderate-relief (0.5 s TWTT) abyssal hill fabric
change in seismic character near SP 1200 to mark
draped by thin sediments that are likely hemi-
the transition from back-arc basin accreted crust to
pelagic in origin. Back-arc basin crust is mostly
rifted and sedimented arc crust.
unreflective beneath basement and lacks the deeper
structures seen along the WMR (e.g., Figures 5a 3.2.2.2. Line 10–13
and 6b).
[35] MCS Line 10–13 crosses a spreading segment
3.2.2. Spreading Axis and Eastern Margin of the Mariana Trough and images the modern arc
of the Mariana Trough south of Pagan Volcano (Figures 3b and 7b). The
axis along 10–13 is located within an 15-km-
[33] Several MCS lines cross the eastern margin wide rift valley, bounded by NNW–SSE trending
and abyssal hills of the Mariana Trough and extend abyssal hills. The back-arc basin sediments are
across the spreading axis. These lines image the primarily flat-lying and increase in thickness to-
variable morphology of the spreading axis, abyssal ward the active arc. A buried abyssal hill at SP
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Figure 7
14 of 29
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3900 is interpreted to be an extension of the ridge deformed by normal faults that are probably active.
visible in the bathymetry just south of Line 10–13 Sediments between SP 8320 and 8400 are back
(Figures 2 and 3b) and imaged on Line 16–19 tilted to the west indicating present-day motion on
(Figure 7c) and indicates that back-arc basin crust east dipping normal faults (Figure 7c).
extends at least this far to the east. We interpret
strong, flat-lying reflections in the sediment basin to 3.2.2.4. Line 53–54
the west of West Pagan Seamount to be sills on the [37] MCS Line 53–54 trends ESE–WNW across
basis of their seismic character, high amplitude, and the inflated center of an ‘‘hourglass’’ segment of
abrupt lateral termination. These reflections absorb a the Mariana Trough spreading axis [Deschamps et
significant amount of seismic energy and make al., 2005] and images the arc north of Sarigan
identification of the underlying basement difficult. Volcano at 16°500 N (Figures 3b and 8). Along
Strong sediment and basement horizons extend from Line 53–54, the spreading axis is shallower than to
the back-arc basin to beneath the seamount (Figure 7b). the north, 4.5 s TWTT (<4 km) and has subdued
Beneath basement (dashed blue line) there are few abyssal hill relief (0.5 s TWTT). Abyssal hill
coherent reflections. A package of recent sediments fabric is sigmoidal trending roughly N–S at the
from Pagan Volcano onlaps onto the eastern flank of segment ends (Figure 3b). Primarily flat-lying
West Pagan Seamount. Sediments horizons to the sediments infill valleys between the abyssal hills
east of the seamount are offset by normal faults and which extend east to SP 1050. Arcward of this, a
truncated by piercement structures. Piercement relatively flat, strong, continuous horizon underlies
structures, representing volcanic intrusions, occur a coherent sediment package; however, there are
near SP 3150, 3300 and on the SE flank of West prominent reflections further down in the section
Pagan Seamount at 3400 (Figures 4 and 7b). that suggest that true basement is deeper (dashed
blue line, Figure 8). Further north, along Line 10–
3.2.2.3. Line 16–19
13, sills obscure basement and form flat-lying
[36] MCS Line 16 – 19 trends E – W across the reflections. There, we interpret basement to be
faulted northern flank of Alamagan Volcano at beneath the sills and reverberations near 6 s TWTT
17°450N (Figures 3b and 7c). The spreading axis (Figure 7b). Velocities between our basement pick
imaged on Line 16–19 lies within an asymmetric, and the upper sediment package are 3–4 km/s
11-km-wide axial valley with a depth of 5.4 s [Takahashi et al., 2008]; which suggests interbed-
TWTT (4170 m). The ridges to the east and west ding of sediments and basaltic intrusions, support-
of the axis reach shoals of 4.25 s and 3.5 s TWTT, ing our interpretation. At SP 1600, a rifted fault
respectively and trend NNW–SSE. Abyssal hill block on the western flank of the modern arc is
relief decreases to the east and there is a buried onlapped by back-arc basin sediments and down-
ridge near SP 7200, also imaged on Line 10–13. lapped by volcaniclastics from the active arc. The
This abyssal hill is onlapped by a package of west dipping normal fault that bounds the block
sediments that thins to the west, away from Ala- forms a sloping boundary between rifted arc and
magan Volcano. Low-relief basement (dashed blue accreted back-arc basin crust (Figure 8). Where the
line, Figure 7c) deepens toward the arc. Back-arc fault intersects the basement horizon, material to
basin crust extends at least as far as SP 7200; the east of the fault is rifted arc crust, and material
however, the rifted arc–back-arc boundary cannot to the west is back-arc basin crust.
be further constrained by structures in the MCS
data. At SP 7400, Line 16–19 crosses a narrow 3.2.2.5. Line 87–88
portion of the large channel in the back-arc basin [38] MCS Line 87–88 crosses the broad FAH plat-
visible in the bathymetry (Figure 3b). Sediment form between the islands of Saipan and Tinian and
horizons to the west of Alamagan are offset by extends over the smooth seafloor of the eastern
normal faults (SP 7850–7980). On the northern Mariana Trough (Figures 3c and 9). In this region,
flank of the volcano, sediments and seafloor are the arc volcanoes and FAH trend NNE–SSW, and
Figure 7. MCS profiles in time over the spreading axis and eastern margin of the Mariana Trough. These lines
image the axial ridge (red arrow) and rift valley of the spreading axis and surrounding abyssal hill fabric. Abyssal
hills are onlapped by flat-lying sediments and are buried within 40 km of the spreading axis. Onlap is indicated by
black arrows. The top of oceanic crust is shown by dashed blue lines. (a) The blue arrow on Line 113– 116 marks the
transition from unreflective basement to reflective basement. (b) Several strong horizons are interpreted to be formed
by sills on Line 10– 13. (c) Along MCS Line 16– 19, seismic data below the seafloor multiple have been cut out.
Locations on Figure 3.
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Figure 8. (a) Time section of MCS Line 53– 54 which is coincident with the refraction line of Takahashi et al. [2007].
Abyssal hill fabric is subdued across this segment of the Mariana Trough spreading axis. Sediments onlap an abyssal hill
near SP 1050. East of the abyssal hill, the top of back-arc basin crust is located near 6 s TWTT (blue dashed line). There is a
rifted fault block centered near SP 1650 which separates arc crust from accreted back-arc basin crust. The top of the block is
indicated by a black, dashed line. (b) Three-dimensional refraction model extracted along Line 53 –54, modified from
Calvert et al. [2008, Figure 10]. Dashed black lines represent the base of middle crust and Moho determined from the 2-D
model of Takahashi et al. [2007]. The 3-D Moho is represented by the dark black line representing the 7.4 km/s isovelocity
contour. OBS locations from Takahashi et al. [2007] are indicated by green circles, and velocities are in km/s. The arc –
back-arc boundary at depth determined by recent 2-D and 3-D refraction studies is shown near SP 1400. Red arrows
16 of 29
indicate the point where the sloping boundary intersects the top of back-arc basin crust. Location on Figure 3.
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3
Figure 9. Time section of MCS Line 87– 88. Back-arc basin crust (dashed blue) shoals to the east and terminates at a west
dipping normal fault bounding a basement block (SP 400). East of the block, the purple dashed horizon separates a
younger chaotic sediment package from older, likely prerift, sediments. The high near SP 1050 is a rifted fault block,
onlapped by sediment shed from the modern arc. Location on Figure 3.
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abyssal hill fabric trends N–S (Figure 2). Seafloor West Mariana Ridge (WMR) (Figure 1). Compar-
between the arc volcanoes is hummocky and the flanks ison of the two shows that the location of arc
of the volcanoes are deformed by concentric ridges rupture and the nature of rifting can vary over time
and channels (Figure 3b). A large volcaniclastic sed- within one subduction system.
iment apron thins arcward and is eroded by channels
(Figure 9). The dashed blue horizon separates coher- [40] Detailed, recent swath bathymetry and MCS
ent, seafloor parallel horizons (>1 s TWTT thick) from surveys show that most of the KPR south of 25°N
relatively nonreflective basement. Beneath basement, is a flexed West Philippine Basin rift flank bounded
an east dipping reflection (SP 40) is possibly a thrust by faults on the east and with a few cross-chain
fault which resulted in an asymmetric fold in the volcanoes to the west [Okino et al., 1998, 1999;
sediments above. Although it is surprising to see a Nishizawa et al., 2005]. This is significant because
compressional feature in an extension-dominated it implies that the split of the Eocene arc occurred
environment, Chapp et al. [2008] show other evidence on the back-arc side, leaving the Eo-Oligocene arc
for compression in the central Marianas east of the (FAH) and fore arc to the east of the Parece Vela
frontal-arc high in the inner fore arc. The deformation Basin (Figure 1). In addition, a recent refraction
in the sediments could also be caused by a west study across the KPR imaged an igneous crustal
dipping, high-angle normal fault, although this inter- thickness of 20 km at 20.5°N [Nishizawa et al.,
pretation does not explain the east dipping reflection 2007], similar to the FAH. However, Nishizawa et
beneath basement. In either case, the faulting is no al. [2007] did not image a thick middle crust with a
longer active. Near SP 400, a west dipping normal velocity of 6–6.5 km/s or a strong discontinuity
fault bounds a basement block onlapped by sediments. at the mid/lower crust boundary, both of which also
The basement block may indicate the western extent of characterize the Eocene arc [Takahashi et al., 2007;
rifted arc crust. To the east, near SP 1050 a high which Calvert et al., 2008]. Nishizawa et al. [2007]
is probably a rifted fault block is onlapped by recent hypothesize that the thinner KPR middle crust
sediments shed from the active arc. The presence of may be a result of its rifting from the edge of the
rifted arc material on the western flank of the FAH, in volcanic arc where the arc crust was not particu-
line with the modern volcanoes, suggests that arc crust larly thick.
extends at least this far west. Between the basement [41] In contrast, the split of the Miocene Mariana
block and the fault block (SP 400–1050), the MCS arc north of 14°400N appears to have occurred
data is highly reflective and chaotic down to the primarily on the fore-arc side, with the majority
seafloor multiple, differing from the relatively non- of the Miocene volcanic front now located in the
reflective back-arc basin crust imaged along the east- WMR. The WMR forms a broad bathymetric high
ern margin of the Mariana Trough (Figures 7–9). consisting of discrete arc volcanoes and numerous
Coherence in the upper section of the profile increases back-arc cross-chain volcanoes (Figure 2). The
to the east. On top of the basement block and to the summit is deformed by both east and west dipping
east, we draw a purple dashed line at the base of a normal faults, and a thick, prerift sediment package
package of chaotic and discontinuous sediment hori- paralleling the flanks of the WMR along Line
zons. Sediments dip primarily east and are offset by 130–131 (Figures 3a and 6b) may represent vol-
west dipping normal faults. Beneath the purple hori- caniclastic deposition on both sides of the Miocene
zon, between 5 and 6 s TWTT, there is a strong arc. North of 14°400N there is no distinct, bathy-
reflection (SP 600–700) that may represent base- metric scarp separating the WMR from the
ment beneath or sills within prerift sediments that are Mariana Trough, in contrast to that which is seen
west tilted and offset by east dipping normal faults. between the KPR and Parece-Vela Basin [Okino et
East of the fault block near SP 1050, the purple horizon al., 1999; Nishizawa et al., 2005, 2007], suggesting
separates a package of coherent, west dipping horizons that the breakup of the Eocene arc was more
from older, deeper sediments that parallel the flank of localized.
the FAH. Both packages are offset by normal faults.
[42] The structural evolution of the WMR during
rifting may be similar to that proposed for the
4. Discussion Sumisu Rift in the Izu-Bonin Arc to the north
[Taylor et al., 1991]. During early rifting, a half
4.1. Remnant Arcs and the Location of graben formed with synthetically faulted structural
Arc Rupture rollovers on the hanging wall of a west dipping
[39] The IBM back-arc system includes two rem- fault [see Taylor et al., 1991, Figure 13]. This stage
nant arcs, the Kyushu-Palau Ridge (KPR) and the is indicated in the seismic data by east dipping
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sediment horizons offset by west dipping normal basement morphology combined with results from
faults (Figures 5 and 6). As rifting progressed, the drilling, seismic refraction, and bathymetry surveys
basin became more symmetric forming a full graben allow us to determine the nature of rifting and
including antithetic (east dipping) normal faults. spreading in the central Mariana system.
MCS data over the eastern flank of the WMR show
rollover to the west and rifted fault blocks to the east. 4.2.1. Results From DSDP Drilling Across
Along Line 130–131, late stage faulting reverses the Central Mariana System
stratigraphic tilting (SP 1050 – 1200). In some
[45] DSDP Site 451, located on the eastern side of
regions, such as along Line 119–121 (Figure 5b),
the West Mariana Ridge, penetrated 930.5 m of
the secondary rifting stage forms ridges that extend
primarily volcaniclastic sediments and sedimentary
into the Mariana Trough, suggesting protracted ex-
rocks [Kroenke et al., 1980]. The hole likely
tension prior to breakup. South of 14°400N however,
terminated in a basalt flow or sill, and did not
the edge of the WMR is sharper and the overall ridge
reach ‘‘true’’ basement. Hole 451 is located at SP
is narrower (Figure 2).
1580 on Line 119–121 and penetrates a series of
[43] The Miocene arc cannot be simply recon- east dipping, faulted horizons (Figure 5d). On the
structed. The trace of the Pagan Fracture Zone basis of the ages of the deepest sediment (Upper
(PFZ), the abyssal hill fabric in the basin, and the Miocene, 11–13 Ma), Leg 59 scientists deter-
residual GPS vectors shown by Kato et al. [2003] mined that arc volcanic basement was constructed
are not consistent with opening of the back-arc basin by 11 Ma. Following this, 850 m of volcaniclastic
as a rigid plate with a single Euler pole (Figure 4). debris accumulated rapidly (400 m/Ma) during a
Therefore, any rotation around a single pole results period of intense volcanism [Kroenke et al., 1980].
in unreasonable reconstructions. The block of rifted Faulting and tilting of the sediments occurred,
arc crust along Line 53–54 (Figure 8) provides one followed by a decrease in accumulation rate of
constraint on the eastern boundary of the WMR for volcanic ash. The most recent sediments are bio-
basin reconstruction, and suggests that the arc line genic oozes that drape the seafloor.
during the Miocene was west of the modern arc near
[46] DSDP Site 453, on the western edge of the
17°N.
Mariana Trough, drilled 605 m into a sedimented
basin near SP 4975 on Line 113–116 (Figure 5c).
4.2. Boundary Between Rifted Arc and Leg 60 scientists determined that Site 453 sampled
Back-Arc Basin Crust crust from the WMR, and not back-arc basin crust,
[44] The Mariana Trough is composed of two providing a constraint on the extent of rifted arc
distinct crustal types: (1) rifted arc crust and material on the western margin of the Mariana
(2) accreted back-arc basin crust. The arc crust on Trough (Figures 2 and 4) [Hussong and Uyeda,
both conjugate margins was created since the 1981]. The site is located on the southern edge of a
Eocene by active arc volcanism. It was subse- ridge that extends NE from the WMR into the
quently faulted and rifted resulting in extension Mariana Trough (Figure 2). The gabbros retrieved
and subsidence. The accreted back-arc basin crust at the drill site belong to a group that characteris-
in the study area is characterized by a series of tically occurs in calc-alkaline island arcs and the
linear ridges and valleys forming abyssal hills with metabasalts are chemically related to rocks drilled
large relief typical of slow spreading. On the on the WMR at Site 451 [Kroenke et al., 1980;
western margin of the Mariana Trough, we have Natland, 1982]. On the basis of hydrothermal
shown that it is difficult to distinguish between the alteration of the breccias at temperatures of 200–
two crustal types on the basis of seafloor morphol- 350°C, Natland [1982] determined that magmas
ogy alone and on the eastern margin abyssal hill were likely extruded or intruded near Site 453
fabric is buried beneath sediments derived from the during the initial stages of rifting of the Mariana
active arc. MCS profiles across the eastern and Trough. Site 453 falls within a small, sedimented
western margins of the Mariana Trough reveal basin imaged on Line 113–116, thereby constrain-
subsurface basement topography and provide struc- ing the arc–back-arc boundary on the seismic data
tural constraints on the extent of rifted arc crust (Figure 5e). On the basis of the seismic velocities
versus back-arc basin crust. Although determina- reported for the recovered sections of core, we
tion of the boundary between rifted arc crust and created a drill section in time that is overlain on the
accreted back-arc basin crust is ambiguous on the MCS data. Unit 1, consisting of muds, silts and
basis of seismic data alone, our interpretation of sands, corresponds to primarily flat-lying horizons
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within the basin. The fill is derived from pelagic and 4.2.2. Rifted Boundaries of the WMR
hemipelagic sediments, including air fall tephra Remnant Arc
[Draut and Clift, 2006]. Compared with other drill
sites in the Mariana Trough, Hole 453 is char- [48] Along Line 130–131 and Conrad Line 55 we
acterized by a decreased volcanic component likely see low-angle normal faults at the boundary be-
because of its increase in distance from the active arc tween the remnant arc and the Mariana Trough
with the opening of the back-arc basin [Hussong (Figure 6). To the north and south of MCS Line
and Uyeda, 1981]. Beneath Unit 1, 114 m of breccia 130 – 131, between 17°240N and 17°450N, the
were encountered. Leg 60 scientists determined that rifting-to-spreading transition along the western
this unit was derived from mass wasting from the margin of the Mariana Trough is marked in the
surrounding ridges. The placement of the drill hole bathymetry by a NNW trending low (black, solid
on the new, higher-resolution MCS data suggests line, Figure 2). Near 18°N, the low-angle normal
that Hole 453 did encounter the top of basement, as fault on Line 55 bounds a bathymetric low with a
also shown by Günther et al. [2006]. The pres- similar trend. At 17°550N, the western extent of
ence of exposed arc gabbros beneath the sedi- accreted back-arc basin crust is known from dril-
ments is consistent with the removal of formerly ling at Site 453. In regions where the boundary is
overlying upper crustal rocks by normal faulting well constrained by seismic and drilling results,
during rifting. back-arc basin crust is never shallower than 3 km
(Figure 2). Using this knowledge, along with
[47] DSDP Drill Site 454, 20 km west of the remnant arc morphology and structure visible in
Mariana Trough spreading axis (10 km south of the MCS data, abyssal hill fabric and ridge seg-
SP 3200 on Line 113–116), sampled fresh pillow mentation, we drew the boundary between WMR
basalts [Hussong and Uyeda, 1981] (Figures 2 and rifted arc and accreted back-arc basin crust (see
3b). Site 456, 30 km east of the axis near SP Figures 2 and 4). The width of the zone between
4160 on Line 10–13, was drilled into a small the dashed black lines indicates our uncertainty in
sediment pond perched on a bathymetric high the position of this boundary. Where the line is solid,
(Figures 3b and 7b). It penetrated hemipelagic it is pinned by MCS data or drilling results. The
and biogenic sediment (i.e., vitric mudstone, tuff, boundary forms an overall, right-stepping en eche-
nannofossil ooze and ash) overlying basement lon pattern and extends furthest east into the basin
composed of hydrothermally altered pillow basalts between 15°200 and 18°150N (Figures 2 and 4).
interbedded with sediments. To the east, Site 455
recovered 100 m of volcanic muds, sand and ash [49] Near 17°200N, rifted arc crust on the WMR is
as well as gravel, mudstone and tuff. It collapsed constrained by the refraction model of Takahashi et
and was abandoned before basement was reached, al. [2007]. A low-fold reflection profile collected
therefore drilling results at this site cannot be used during their OBS refraction survey crosses the
to constrain the arc–back-arc boundary. However, entire central basin (Figures 2 and 10) [Takahashi
Conrad MCS Lines 47 and 52 (not shown) image a et al., 2008]. The eastern portion of the line is
NNW trending abyssal ridge at 17°500N, 145°200E coincident with MCS Line 53–54. This profile
(Figure 2) (profiles 5 and 6 in the work by allows us to tie the refraction model directly to
Mrozowski et al. [1982]). Site 455 was drilled on the reflection data. Given the seafloor fabric visible
the NE edge of this feature suggesting that it does in plan view, segmentation along the PFZ, and
lie on accreted back-arc basin crust. Drilling at Site crustal structure, we determined that the most
457 on the northern flank of Alamagan volcano likely location for the eastern rifted arc–back-arc
was unable to penetrate recent pyroclastic sand boundary is between OBS 41 and 42 where the
and ash, and failed to sample the arc substrate PFZ intersects the WMR (Figures 2 and 10). This
[Hussong and Uyeda, 1981]. is west of the pick by Takahashi et al. [2007]
Figure 10. (a) Two-dimensional refraction model from Takahashi et al. [2008] across the central Mariana system.
(b) Refection profile collected during the refraction survey [from Takahashi et al., 2008]. The eastern portion of this
line is coincident with MCS Line 53– 54. To the west, the profile crosses the West Mariana Ridge at 17°10N. The
arc – back-arc boundaries are shown in red. The black arrow indicates the boundary between predominately NNW-
SSE trending abyssal hill fabric to the west and N– S trending fabric to the east. (c) Profile of abyssal hill fabric and
interpreted bathymetry showing a possible spreading history for the basin along the seismic line (see text for details).
Red triangles indicate OBS locations, red line indicates spreading axis, dashed white lines indicate segment
boundaries, dashed black lines indicate age boundaries, and dashed orange line indicates paleospreading axis.
Location on Figure 2.
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Figure 10
21 of 29
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which falls near OBS 45. We draw our boundary separate rifted arc crust from accreted back-arc
where the upper crust layer pinches out, whereas basin crust is also shown in dark blue.
Takahashi et al. [2007] place it at the distal edge of
a thin wedge of middle crust. The arc–back-arc [53] Overall, the rifted arc–back-arc boundary on
boundary may be an east dipping interface within the eastern margin of the Mariana Trough is less
the crust, thus accounting for some of the discrep- well constrained than on the western margin and is
ancy between the picks. The boundary between the only clearly defined in one location, just south of
WMR and the Parece Vela Basin occurs between 17°N, from Line 53–54 MCS data and 2- and 3-D
OBS 19 and 20, resulting in an 118 km wide refraction models [Takahashi et al., 2007; Calvert
Miocene arc massif along the WNW line of the et al., 2008] (Figures 8 and 10). Along MCS Line
refraction section. 53–54 (Figures 3b and 8), a west dipping normal
fault (SP 1550) separates shallow accreted back-arc
[50] The WMR narrows to the south and its eastern basin crust and sediments from rifted arc material.
flank, south of 14°400N, is steeper and more abrupt Although there is 30 km between the easternmost
than seen to the north, thus more closely resembles abyssal hill and the fault block on Line 53–54,
the morphology of the KPR between 17 and 19°N refraction data suggests that the material directly
(Figure 1). The lack of high-resolution bathymetry west of the block is accreted back-arc basin crust
and MCS data across the western margin of the (Figures 8 and 10). On the basis of the refraction
basin south of 14°400N adds uncertainty in deter- models, we interpret the boundary at depth (red,
mining the arc–back-arc boundary (Figure 2). The dashed line on Figure 8) to be near OBS 70 which
boundary may hug the 4 km contour at the base of falls just east of SP 1400. The red arrows on
the slope; however, it is possible that poorly Figure 8 indicate the point where the fault plane
resolved bathymetric highs south of 14°N are part that forms the sloping boundary between crustal
of the rifted remnant arc. These highs may also types intersects the top of back-arc basin crust.
represent rafted pieces of arc material within back-
arc basin crust. We have extended our zone of [54] Between 16 and 18°N, Calvert et al. [2008]
uncertainty to include the trough to the east of the estimated the 7.4 km/s isovelocity contour that
bathymetric highs. It may be that the arc–back-arc approximates Moho using both the 2-D refraction
boundary south of 14°200N falls within graben as it model of Takahashi et al. [2007] and their 3-D
does to the north. East of the trough, we are refraction model (Figure 8). The locations of Moho
confident that the seafloor morphology is represen- at 10 km below sea level (bsl) and 12.5 km bsl are
tative of abyssal hill fabric (Figure 2). shown on Figure 4. Moho is resolved at 12.5 km
along the entire 3-D survey region; however, it is
[51] The zero mGal contour of the mantle Bouguer only defined at 10 km beneath the crustal block on
anomaly for the Mariana Trough [Kitada et al., Line 53–54 [Calvert et al., 2008]. On the basis of
2006], representing a significant change in crustal this position, we drew a dashed line parallel to the
thickness, is consistently west of our interpreted 12.5 km Moho to approximate a 10-km-depth Moho
WMR–back-arc basin boundary where it is best (Figure 4). On the basis of the location of Moho in
determined between 17 and 18°N (purple lines, the 3-D model, crustal thickness (Moho depth minus
Figure 4). This suggests that in other areas the water depth and sediment thickness) increases rap-
boundary is more likely toward the east of the idly arcward from 6 km at the western edge of the
dashed band. fault block to > 11 km (Figure 8). Typical back-arc
basin crust across the Mariana Trough is 5–6 km
4.2.3. Eastern Margin of the Mariana thick and only increases to 7 km thick beneath the
Trough spreading axis (Figure 10). The rapid increase in
crustal thickness beneath the fault block supports
[52] MCS and bathymetry data provide some con-
our interpretation that the western edge of the block
straints on the boundary between rifted arc and
forms the arc–back-arc boundary.
accreted back-arc basin crust on the eastern margin
of the Mariana Trough. The eastern extent of [55] The contours representing the zero mGal man-
abyssal hills imaged in the bathymetry and MCS tle Bouguer anomaly on either side of the Mariana
data is indicated by light blue lines in Figure 4. Trough are shown in purple on Figure 4 [Kitada et
Dark blue lines denote the western extent of rifted al., 2006]. On the basis of structural constraints
arc crust where identified in the MCS and/or from the MCS data, the work of Stern et al. [2008],
refraction data. West of West Rota Volcano, the gravity and refraction data, we extrapolated the
normal fault interpreted by Stern et al. [2008] to eastern boundary between arc crust and accreted
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back-arc basin crust along strike of the central 1998; Martinez et al., 2000] (Figure 4). Several
Mariana margin (black, dashed line on Figure 4). volcanoes located behind the volcanic front (e.g.,
All of the data converge at the rifted fault block West Pagan, West Guguan) also lie near or along the
along Line 53–54 allowing us to precisely define boundary between the two crustal types (Figure 4).
the arc–back-arc boundary at this location. The The westernmost volcano imaged in the MCS data
gravity data is affected by local crustal thickening (17°200N, 145°200E) is located between two linear
caused by volcanic edifices and thick volcaniclastic ridges interpreted to be abyssal hills and is built
aprons; therefore the zero mGal contour is some- entirely on accreted back-arc basin crust (Figures 2
times further west than our interpretation. We and 4). This seamount, visible on MCS Line 50 (not
interpret the step in basement near SP 400 on shown), does not show the large volcaniclastic
Line 87–88 (Figure 9), which also corresponds to aprons on its flanks that are common to the arc
the location of the zero mGal contour, to be the volcanoes in this region (Figure 7), suggesting that it
boundary between accreted back-arc and rifted arc may be a small back-arc volcano not formed by arc
crust. The rifted fault block imaged on Line 87–88 volcanism. Our data show that the main volcanoes
is 30 km to the east, however, there is no of the modern Mariana Arc, north of 14°N, are
additional data that would justify moving the underlain by rifted arc crust, and do not lie on
boundary so far arcward. accreted back-arc basin material, implying asym-
metry of central Mariana Trough spreading.
4.2.4. Substrate of the Mariana Arc
[56] Our data allow us to determine if the active 4.3. Mariana Trough Asymmetry
volcanoes of the central Mariana Arc are built on/ [58] Our data show that there is more accreted
through rifted arc crust or accreted back-arc basin back-arc seafloor to the west of the Mariana
crust. North of the central Mariana margin, the Trough spreading axis than to the east resulting
Miocene arc volcanoes of the Izu-Bonin margin are in an asymmetric basin (Figure 4). Although the
built on stretched Eo-Oligocene arc crust [Taylor, overall basin is asymmetric, MCS profiles across
1992]. Bloomer et al. [1989] postulated that modern different segments of the Mariana Trough spread-
Mariana Arc volcanoes are situated on or near the ing axis show relatively symmetric axial walls and
easternmost bounding faults of the back-arc basin. A fault distribution; with the exception of the axis
recent study determined that this is the case for West along Line 16–19 (Figure 7c). This is inconsistent
Rota Volcano (WRV) located in the southern Mariana with the model of asymmetric spreading deter-
system at 14°200N (Figure 2) [Stern et al., 2008]. mined for the slow spreading Mid Atlantic Ridge
WRV was formed along a NNE trending normal [Allerton et al., 2000]. Back-arc basins are thought
fault, to the east of a large boundary fault [see Stern et to evolve from highly asymmetric rifting to more
al., 2008, Figure 3]. Stern et al. [2008] interpret these symmetric spreading [e.g., Barker and Hill, 1980;
faults to separate rifted frontal arc crust to the east Martinez et al., 1995]. Asada et al. [2007] propose
from thin, accreted back-arc basin crust to the west. a model for Mariana Trough asymmetry where
They hypothesize that the felsic magmas erupted seafloor accretion along individual spreading seg-
from WRV are sourced from the midcrustal felsic ments is primarily symmetric, but repetitive, small-
layer beneath the modern arc and FAH (Figure 10), scale ridge jumps to the east results in an overall
implying that the volcano is built on rifted arc crust, asymmetric basin. Our data is consistent with
along or just east of the arc–back-arc boundary. progressive ridge jumps to the east.
[57] In some regions, such as along Line 53–54
(Figure 8), we have strong evidence that the 4.4. Mariana Trough Spreading and
modern arc is built on rifted arc crust. In contrast, Segmentation
Tracey Seamount, a submarine arc volcano west of [59] MCS profiles across the spreading axis of the
Guam [Dixon and Stern, 1983], straddles the arc– Mariana Trough show the variations in spreading
back-arc boundary (Figure 4). On the basis of the center morphology and abyssal hill relief along
gravity data and bounding faults to the north, we strike of the basin (Figures 7 and 8). The depth of
hypothesize that the arc volcano is built at least the spreading center shallows south of 14.5°N, and
partially on accreted back-arc basin crust; however, abyssal hill fabric overall becomes less symmetric
we have no MCS data in this region to further and more subdued. There is very little sediment
support this claim. Arc volcanoes south of 13.5°N within 20–30 km of the axis. Spreading segments
lie very close to the spreading axis and are likely and abyssal hill fabrics along the Mariana Trough
built on accreted back-arc basin crust [Fryer et al.,
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are roughly perpendicular to the residual plate [61] In support of this model, a NNW trending
motion vectors determined by Kato et al. [2003] abyssal hill imaged on Line 50 (not shown) on the
(black arrows on Figure 4), however, there is some eastern margin of the Mariana Trough is discordant
degree of obliquity. Abyssal hill fabric is not with the strike of the modern spreading axis and
uniform along strike of the Mariana Trough, sug- conforms to the trend of the fabric near the WMR
gesting changes in spreading center orientation (Figures 2 and 3b). The presence of this hill
and/or spreading direction. Our interpretation of suggests that the conjugate of the NNW trending
basin segmentation provides further evidence for back-arc basin crust along the WMR (e.g., 1W and
noncopolar opening of the Mariana Trough. Be- 2W, Figure 10) lies along the modern arc in this
tween 15.5°N and 17.5°N, we divide the basin into region. Our interpretation suggests that between
two regions dominated by NNW–SSE and N–S the fracture zones at 15.5°N and 17.5°N the
trending abyssal hill fabric (solid green line on modern spreading center propagated approximately
Figure 4). The two predominant abyssal hill trends N through preexisting back-arc basin crust trending
are separated by what we interpret to be a pseudo- NNW–SSE. Currently, the N–S axis near 17°N
fault to the south and the PFZ to the north. appears to be propagating to the south.
[60] The Takahashi reflection line crosses the entire [62] Abyssal hill relief in the Mariana Trough
back-arc basin and images abyssal hill fabric across decreases rapidly, within 40 km east of the axis
the boundary at 144°150N that separates the two (Figures 7 and 8). This decrease is more than can
trends (black arrow on Figure 10b). On the basis of be accounted for by subsidence caused by increase
the spreading fabric visible in the bathymetry in in seafloor age and sediment loading. The relative-
this region of the basin and the abyssal hill topog- ly smooth, deep basement visible in the MCS data
raphy visible in the seismic data, we have inter- on the eastern margin of the Mariana Trough may
preted a possible spreading history for the Mariana represent early back-arc basin crust formed during
Trough along the Takahashi profile (Figure 10c). stage 1, as interpreted for Line 53–54 (Figure 10).
Since the magnetic ages in this region are not well
known, we use the numbers 1 – 3 to indicate [63] Many linear volcanic cross chains, striking
relative crustal ages, oldest to youngest, and E 45–60° to the WMR, appear to be aligned with
and W refer to seafloor created to the east and the trends of Mariana Trough spreading segments
west of the spreading axis. The boundaries between suggesting magmatic segmentation (Figure 2). Be-
crustal types/ages 1–3 were determined on the tween 15°200 and 18°N, WMR ridges extend into
basis of basement morphology visible in the seis- the back-arc basin. These ridges, such as the one
mic data and the locations of paleospreading axes imaged on Line 119–121 (Figure 5b), represent a
and pseudofaults interpreted from the bathymetry. zone of extended and intruded arc crust that is
Spreading during time 1 created deep, smooth indistinguishable from abyssal hill fabric on the basis
basement on the edges of the basin and during of seafloor morphology alone (Figures 2 and 3a).
time 2, spreading created NNW –SSE trending By analogy to the Izu-Bonin Arc and rifts [Taylor et
abyssal hill fabric. A possible paleospreading axis al., 1991] we infer that along these ridges, extension
during time 2 was characterized by relatively is accommodated by arc magmatism rather than
symmetric spreading that propagated into existing back-arc spreading. Hydrothermal alteration at
time 1 crust and rafted 1E east toward the modern DSDP Site 453, at the southern edge of NE trending
arc. Subsequently the spreading center moved ridge (Figure 2), is attributed to the extrusion or
(jumped?) arcward and reoriented. Spreading then intrusion of magmas near the drill site during rifting
began along the modern axis creating N–S trend- [Natland, 1982].
ing fabric (time 3). Accretion along this segment [64] The western arc–back-arc boundary forms an
further isolated 1E, and possibly a portion of 2E, en echelon pattern, stepping to the right across
from their conjugates 1W and 2W along the WMR segment boundaries (Figure 2). To the north, along
(Figure 10c). The Takahashi profile crosses the Izu-Bonin Arc, a zigzag pattern of half-graben
obliquely over two different spreading segments characterizes the Oligocene and Quaternary rifts
of the Mariana Trough. Although the overall pat- [Taylor, 1992]. The Izu-Bonin back-arc region has
tern of younger N–S trending seafloor in between not yet progressed to seafloor spreading, and may
older NNW – SSE trending abyssal hills would serve as a model for initial arc rifting along the
remain the same, spreading along individual seg- Mariana Arc (Figure 11). In the Izu-Bonin Arc, the
ments would appear more symmetric if the profile spacing of the arc volcanoes influences rift basin
was perpendicular to the fabric. segmentation by punctuating tectonic extension
24 of 29
Geochemistry 3
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Figure 11. (a) Stages I and II: rifting along the Izu-Bonin Arc [Taylor et al., 1991; Taylor, 1992]. Arc rifting begins
on the back-arc side of the volcanoes and forms a zigzag pattern of border faults. Rift basins develop between arc
volcanoes. Along strike, adjacent to arc volcanoes, tectonic extension is punctuated by magmatism (magmatic
accommodation zones (MAZs)) (stage II). Stage III: back-arc basin spreading along the Kyushu-Palau Ridge (26°N)
and the Northern WMR (20°N) [Yamazaki et al., 2003]. Spreading occurs between MAZs. (b) Oblique rifting/
spreading along the central West Mariana Ridge (WMR). Rifting occurs on the fore-arc side of the WMR volcanoes
(stage II). MAZs transition into the magmatic centers of spreading segments during back-arc basin spreading.
Spreading segment offsets nucleate in rift basins (stage III). (c) Rotated bathymetry along the WMR showing the
relationship between linear volcanic ridges and Mariana Trough segmentation. Solid black lines indicate the arc –
back-arc boundary (Figure 2).
along strike by magmatic accommodation zones ment centers are sites where magmatism continues
(MAZs) [Taylor et al., 1991] (Figure 11a). Along from arc volcanism, through rifting to back-arc
the northern WMR and the KPR, back-arc basin spreading. This correlation is likely dependent on
spreading initiated between MAZs (Figure 11a, where, along strike, the arc rifts, which was just on
stage III). In contrast, it appears from the central the fore-arc side of the volcanic front in the case of
WMR that MAZs transitioned into the magmatic the WMR. The relationship between MAZs and
centers of spreading segments (Figure 11b). In this, spreading segment centers is not evident in regions
perhaps counterintuitive interpretation, rift basins where arcs are less oblique (e.g., 18°S Lau, North-
are more commonly the sites where spreading ern Mariana, Parece-Vela Basin). In the northern
segment offsets nucleate, whereas spreading seg- Marianas, not all linear cross chains along the
25 of 29
Geochemistry 3
Geophysics
WMR extend into the back-arc basin; however, Mariana Ridge (WMR) where remnant arc crust
near 20°N a v-shaped wedge of arc crust protrudes bounds accreted back-arc basin crust. The western
into the basin [see Yamazaki et al., 2003, Figure 2]. extent of back-arc basin crust is also constrained by
the presence of arc affinity basement at DSDP drill
4.5. Active Deformation Along the Margins Site 453 and a recent seismic refraction study
of the Mariana Trough across the central Mariana system [Takahashi et
al., 2007] (Figure 2). Our interpretation suggests
[65] The flanks and summits of many of the arc that the WMR is 118 km wide along the refrac-
volcanoes are deformed by normal faults (e.g., tion line near 17°150N.
Figures 2 and 7). This deformation may be caused
by flank instability and caldera collapse as well as [68] The rifted arc–back-arc basin boundary forms
ongoing extension. Between the volcanic front and an en echelon pattern along the western margin of
the FAH, normal faults trend subparallel to the arc the Mariana Trough, particularly between 15°300
(essentially N–S north of 16°N) indicating stretch- and 19°N. In this region, linear volcanic cross
ing perpendicular to the arc (Figure 2). Active chains behind the WMR are aligned with the trend
deformation contemporaneous with the buildup of of Mariana Trough segments and remnant arc
the modern arc is seen as west dipping normal ridges extend into the back-arc basin. These ridges,
faults that offset the seafloor on the western flank such as the one at 18–18°150N imaged on Line
of both the active volcanic front and the FAH 119 – 121 (Figures 3 and 5b, SP 1600 – 2600),
(Figure 2). Extension provides pathways for vol- represent a zone of extended and intruded arc crust.
canic intrusions (dikes, sills, piercement struc- Along the Izu-Bonin Arc to the north, magmatic
tures). Indeed, several piercement structures accommodation zones punctuate tectonic extension
visible in the MCS data along the active arc and [Taylor et al., 1991]. The morphology of the WMR
FAH are associated with seafloor offsets (Figures 2 suggests that rift basins are more commonly the
and 4); and sills intrude sediment basins on the sites where spreading segment offsets nucleate,
eastern margin of Mariana Trough (Figure 7). whereas spreading segment centers are sites where
Intrusive volcanism (piercement structures and magmatism continues from arc volcanism, through
sills) occurs in a 60-km-wide zone between the rifting to back-arc spreading (Figure 11).
back arc and FAH along Line 10–13 (Figures 4
[69] The summit and eastern flank of the WMR are
and 7).
deformed by both east and west dipping normal
[66] There are also active faults within sedimented faults, many of which reach the seafloor. Thick,
graben along the western margin of the Mariana prerift sediment packages paralleling the flanks of
Trough and the eastern flank of the WMR is the remnant arc along Line 130–131 (Figure 6b)
deformed by east and west dipping normal faults may represent volcaniclastic deposition on both
that reach the seafloor (Figures 5 and 6). Active sides of the Miocene arc. Our data suggest that
normal faulting on both margins of the central the Miocene arc rifted slightly on its fore-arc side.
Mariana back-arc basin suggests that extensional The structural evolution of the WMR during rifting
deformation is continuing despite the ongoing is similar to what is proposed for the Sumisu Rift in
accretion at the spreading center, however the the Izu-Bonin Arc to the north [Taylor et al., 1991].
amount of strain accommodated by these faults is
[70] MCS Line 53–54 (Figure 8) and recent re-
small compared with other marginal basins such as
fraction studies image a rifted fault block that
Woodlark [e.g., Taylor et al., 1995].
marks the extent of accreted back-arc basin crust
on the eastern margin of the Mariana Trough. Our
5. Conclusions interpretation of the arc–back-arc boundary along
strike of the central Mariana margin is constrained
[67] MCS reflection and swath bathymetry data, by MCS, gravity and refraction data (Figure 4). All
combined with DSDP drilling and seismic refrac- of the data converge at the rifted block on Line 53–
tion studies define the boundary between rifted arc 54, allowing us to accurately define the boundary
and accreted back-arc basin crust on both sides of between rifted arc and accreted back-arc crust near
the Mariana Trough (Figure 4). The boundary is 17°N. We show that although some volcanoes
structurally well constrained on MCS Lines 130– located behind the modern arc straddle the bound-
131, 55 and 53–54 (Figures 6 and 8). On Lines ary between the two crustal types, all of the
130–131 and 55, low-angle (17–20°) normal volcanoes along the volcanic front from 14 to
faults form on the eastern margin of the West 19°N are built on rifted arc crust, implying asym-
26 of 29
Geochemistry 3
Geophysics
metry of the Mariana Trough (Figure 4). South of by B. Taylor and J. Natland, pp. 1 – 30, AGU, Washington,
14°N, Tracey Seamount, an arc volcano west of D. C.
Calvert, A. J., S. L. Klemperer, N. Takahashi, and B. Kerr
Guam, may be at least partially built on accreted (2008), Three-dimensional crustal structure of the Mariana
back-arc basin crust, as is suggested for the arc island arc from seismic tomography, J. Geophys. Res., 113,
volcanoes of the southern Mariana Trough [e.g., B01406, doi:10.1029/2007JB004939.
Martinez et al., 2000]. Chapp, E. L., B. Taylor, A. J. Oakley, and G. F. Moore (2008),
A seismic stratigraphic analysis of Mariana forearc basin
[71] The Mariana Trough is opening nonrigidly evolution, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q10X02,
and is characterized by two predominant abyssal doi:10.1029/2008GC001998.
Chiu, J.-M., B. L. Isacks, and R. K. Cardwell (1991), 3-D
hill trends (NNW–SSE and N–S) separated by a configuration of subducted lithosphere in the western Pacific,
pseudofault and the eastern portion of the Pagan Geophys. J. Int., 106, 99 – 111, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.
Fracture Zone. Our interpretation of NNW–SSE 1991.tb04604.x.
trending fabric on both margins of the Mariana Cosca, M. A., R. J. Arculus, J. A. Pearce, and J. G. Mirchell
Trough with N–S striking abyssal hills sandwiched (1998), 40Ar/39Ar and K-Ar age constraints for the inception
and early evolution of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc system, Isl.
in between, suggests that a spreading center prop- Arc, 7, 579 – 595, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1998.00211.x.
agated approximately north through preexisting Craig, H., Y. Horibe, and K. A. Farley (1987), Hydrothermal
back-arc basin crust between 15.5 and 17.5°N. vents in the Mariana Trough: Results of the first Alvin dives,
Eos Trans. AGU, 68, 1531.
Acknowledgments Deschamps, A., and T. Fujiwara (2003), Asymmetric accretion
along the slow-spreading Mariana Ridge, Geochem. Geo-
phys. Geosyst., 4(10), 8622, doi:10.1029/2003GC000537.
[72] Barrie Taylor of Landmark Inc. provided MCS process- Deschamps, A., T. Fujiwara, M. Asada, L. Montesi, and
ing assistance that was essential to this project. We would like P. Gente (2005), Faulting and volcanism in the axial valley
to thank the captain and crew of the R/V Maurice Ewing as of the slow-spreading center of the Mariana back arc basin
well as the other EW0202/03 cruise participants. We are from Wadatsumi side-scan sonar images, Geochem. Geo-
grateful to the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, phys. Geosyst., 6, Q05006, doi:10.1029/2004GC000881.
J. Gardner, and N. Seama for providing multibeam bathymetry Dewey, J. F. (1980), Episodicity, sequence, and style at con-
data. We also wish to thank Daniel Barker and an anonymous vergent plate boundaries, in The Continental Crust and Its
reviewer for their helpful comments which greatly improved Mineral Deposits, edited by D. W. Strangway, pp. 554 – 573,
Geol. Assoc. of Can., Waterloo, Ont., Canada.
this manuscript. This research was supported by NSF grant
Dixon, T. H., and R. J. Stern (1983), Petrology, chemistry, and
OCE-0001978 as part of the U.S. MARGINS Program. This is isotopic composition of submarine volcanoes in the southern
SOEST contribution 7664. Mariana arc, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94, 1159 – 1172,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<1159:PCAICO>2.0.CO;2.
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Sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic processes of the central Mariana Arc:

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