-GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2MODULE 1: Intermolecular There are four con major intermolecular forces of

Forces of Liquids and Solids attraction. These are: dipole-dipole interaction, London
dispersion force, ion-dipole force, and hydrogen
• LEARNING COMPETENCIES: bonding.
• Use the kinetic molecular model to explain Types of intermolecular forces
properties of liquids and solids
1. Dipole-dipole force of attraction
• D e s c r i b e a n d d i ff e r e n t i a t e t h e t y p e s o f
This is an attraction between two polar molecules. We
intermolecular forces
learn from the previous Chemistry class that polar
• Describe the following properties of liquids, and molecules are those molecules that can form temporary
explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these charges on both sides of the dipole; partially positive
properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapour (8+) and partially negative (8-) charges. Dipole is a type
pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of of covalent molecule that can form partial positive and
vaporization negative charges. As we all know, only ionic compounds
can form permanent charges. But in this case, covalent
• Explain the properties of water with its molecular molecule can still experience charges but just a
structure and intermolecular forces temporary dipole.
• Describe the difference in structure of crystalline For a molecule to become polar, one element must
and amorphous solids Interpret the phase diagram have a higher electronegativity value, which is highly
of water and carbon dioxide. attractive, making the element to have the partial
• Determine and explain the heating and cooling negative charge. One of the examples of this type of
curve of a substance force is the attraction between hydrochloride molecules.
Since both HCl molecules are polar, they form a dipole-
dipole interaction.
LESSON 1: KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF
MATTER Notes:
• How are the differences in the shape and volume
of solids, AT liquids, and gases explained by the
KMT? 2. London dispersion force
• Here's a short explanation on how they differ London dispersion force is a weakest interaction among
from each other. all the types of intermolecular forces. This exists in both
polar and nonpolar molecules. Every molecule can
experience LDF. As we learn from the previous
Kinetic Molecular Theory Chemistry class, nonpolar molecules are those having
• Solid -Rigid Has fixed shape and volume Vibrational identical atoms. Examples of nonpolar molecules are
motion the diatomic molecules existing in nature (O2, N2. I2,
• Liquid-Not rigid No fixed shape Fixed volume, Can Bra, Cl2, H2, F2). In a chemical reaction, these
slide past one another. molecules cannot be useful unless they combine to their
identical atom.
• Gas- Not rigid No fixed shape No fixed volume
Rapid movement London dispersion force is considered as the weakest
attraction due to its ability to experience a temporary
We can recall the concepts that matter in the solid dipole.It means that polar or nonpolar molecules can
phase has a definite volume and shape. Because experience positive and negative charges but only in a
particles are held by strong intermolecular forces, they short period of time. Meaning to say, the dipole is just
are highly attracted to each other, making them so temporary. So, this temporary positive and negative
intact. They can still have motion but in vibrational charges is called induced dipole. What happens during
motion only. In liquid phase, matter has a fixed volume an induced dipole is that a molecule forms a dipole but
but no fixed shape. It only assumes the shape of the eventually goes back to its original form in a brief
container. Compared to solids, liquid molecules can period, having no charges at all.
able to slide past one another. Whereas, in gas phase,
molecules have freedom of motion. Because they are
so far from each other, they can easily diffuse and 3. Ion-dipole Force
evaporate from the container.
This is a force that exists when polar molecules (a
dipole) are attracted to ions. As the charges of ions
Kinetic molecular theory states that matter is increases, the attraction becomes stronger. Knowing
composed of tiny n particles called atoms. These that ions can perform a strong bond compared to an
particles are in constant motion. A certain amount of attraction of both covalent bonds, this is stronger than
motion is proportionate to the amount of heat or the those mentioned above. lon-dipole force is commonly
temperature. When you increase the temperature, the found in solutions, such as saline. When salt dissolved
movement of the molecules of solids, liquids, and gases in water, Na+ and Cl-ions will be attracted to water
will also increase, As stated above, the three states of molecule, and the latter is a polar molecule or dipole.
matter differ from their freedom of motion due to their Therefore, the said solution exhibits an ion-dipole force.
ability to interact with neighboring molecules
As mentioned above, solids have strongest 4. Hydrogen Bonds
intermolecular forces of attraction among all the states
of matter. But, what do you think are the forces of This is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that
attraction acting on each state of matter? results from the attraction of hydrogen atom to a very
electronegative atom such as an N, O, or F atom.
Intermolecular forces Because hydrogen atom is attached to the highly
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction between electronegative atoms, the attraction is considered as
neighboring molecules. It is the force that holds two the strongest among all the types of intermolecular
water molecules, for instance.We can visualize an forces. Second to that is the ion-dipole interaction since
intermolecular force by imagining the game 10 "thug of it consists of ions or the permanent charges. If
war". In this game, the rope serves the force holding the compared to a dipole-dipole force, hydrogen is stronger
two molecules (persons on both ends of the rope). since it specifically involves atoms with higher
electronegativity. Electronegativity, as we recall, refers
to the ability of an atom to attract neighboring atoms
toward itself. Therefore, if a certain atom or molecule
attracts to either nitrogen or fluorine or oxygen, the 5. Molar Heat of Vaporization
attraction is very strong making it hard to be It is the amount of heat required to change one mole of
disorganized. a substance to vapour at its boiling point. The
LESSON 2: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS NOTES: application of heat disarrange the intermolecular forces
of the liquid particles and allows them to evaporate.
How do intermolecular forces influence the properties of Thus, as molar heat of vaporization increases, the
liquids? boiling point of the substance will also increase.
Properties of liquids can be viewed through its STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER
particulate nature as well as how they interact within the
molecules. The following are the properties of liquids: A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom united by polar covalent bonds. The
1. Surface tension molecules of water are held by a strong hydrogen bond,
which contributes to the high boiling point of water.
this property can be illustrated better when you think of
an insect walking on the surface of the water. As Water can exists in all states of matter. It can be a solid
defined, surface tension is property of liquid that resist through ice. applied, ice melts and water molecules will
an external force and assume a lesser surface area. slowly move faster. Some properties of water were
Surface tension makes the insect to be able to walk on mentioned in the concept about properties of solids and
the surface of water without sinking. It supports the liquids. One of them is the surface tension, which is
weight of the insect. Moreover, the strong hydrogen very visible in water. It supports light objects, such as
bonds make the surface tension of water even stronger. insects and dry leaves, on the surface of water. Aside
from that, water can be a gas in the form of steam or
2. Viscosity
vapor. The more heat is applied, the greater its
Viscosity is the ability of a liquid to resist in flowing. tendency to change its form into gas.
When the fluid is flowing, the molecules compress and LESSON 3: TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
experience friction due to molecular interaction among NOTES:
them. What does it really mean? It means that different
fluids with different viscosities have different speeds Unlike liquids and gases, solids have a rigid structure
when a certain amount of force is applied to them. and strong intermolecular forces of attraction. It is
Moreover, less force is required for liquids with less difficult for the molecules to be disturbed unless there is
viscosity and higher force applied for higher viscosity. a greater amount of heat or force being applied
Because of its strong attraction, solids can be classified
3. Vapor pressure according to their particles' arrangement. They can be
Vapor pressure It refers to the pressure exerted by the crystalline or amorphous solids.
vapor with its liquid or solid in equilibrium. This means
• Crystalline solids- These are solids which the
that in a closed container, gas exerts a pressure above
particles are arranged and organized in a specific
the surface of the liquid when a solid or liquid substance
location. Crystalline solids have a rigid form making
is made to evaporate. And the force between the gas
them hard to break or destroy. Because the particles
phase and the surface of the liquid is what we refer as
have definite packing, these solids have a precise
vapor pressure. In terms of the substance
melting point. Example of that is salt.
intermolecular forces, the attraction varies on the
amount of temperature being added to the substance. It There are four types of crystalline solids. These are
means that when you increase the temperature of the ionic crystals (composed of cations and anions),
container, the molecules with high kinetic energy covalent crystals (solids in which atoms are held
increases its speed. Thus, it increases the force exerted together by strong covalent bonds), molecular crystals
by the vapour on the container. Compared to liquids, (molecules in which principal attractive forces are
solids are highly attractive that make them take much dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, dispersion, and
time to evaporate. hydrogen bonding), and metallic crystals (the principal
constituent particles are atoms of the same metal).
4. Boiling Point
• Amorphous Solids - no orderly patter "no shape”
the boiling point of a substance is the temperature at Not all solids are hard and brittle like crystalline
which the vapour pressure is equal to the external or solids. Some of them can be formed, melted, and
atmospheric pressure. Every substance has its own rearranged. These solids are called amorphous
boiling point. Water, for example, has 100°C normal solids. Unlike crystalline solids, their particles are
boiling point. But, how do boiling point affects the put together in random or form short-range order.
intermolecular forces of a substance? Thus, they have different shapes and forms.
First recall that a solid's particles are rigidly packed and Examples of these type of solids are glass,
not moving. Liquid's particles are moving but they are polymers, gel, and plastics. Some of these materials
still close together and interacting. Gases are moving are the results of melting and solidifying processes.
and interacting in a bigger space as possible. So,
LESSON 4: PHASE DIAGRAMS OF WATER AND
compared to liquids, they basically don't interact.
CARBON DIOXIDE NOTES: PHASE CHANGES
To visualize the three states of matter, let us pretend we In General Chemistry 1, the phase changes are
have these three substances: water, helium, and NaCl. described as conversions from one state of matter to
We placed them at zero degree Celsius, the lowest another by adding or removing heat. Since some
temperature possible. When we apply heat on water, as phases of matter have definite arrangement of their
liquid, the molecules will eventually disorganized and particles, phase changes occur with increased
the hydrogen bond decreases. For helium, knowing that temperature. For example, solid's particles are held
it's a gas and doesn't have enough attraction, vapour together by strong intermolecular forces of attraction,
increases when temperature will be raised. And lastly, they tend to move in a vibrational motion. But, if heat
NaCl, as a solid, has the strongest attraction among the will be applied to it, there will be an increase of its
three substances. Thus, it has the greatest kinetic energy. The particles will eventually
intermolecular force. But if temperature will be disorganized.
increased, its particles will slowly be placed apart from
each other, making their attraction to be decreased. From the figure given above, you can see the six phase
Like what stated above, every substance has its own changes occurring in matter. These are - melting (from
way of interaction and as well as, amount of solid to liquid), evaporation or vaporization (from liquid
temperature for them to be disorganized. to gas), sublimation (from solid to gas), condensation
(from gas to liquid), freezing (from liquid to plaf solid), Carbon Dioxide
and deposition (from gas to solid). As stated above,
these phase changes are described and differentiated
by an increase and decrease of the order of molecules.
PHASE DIAGRAMS OF H2O AND CO2
A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the
pressure temperature relationships that apply to the
equilibria between the phases of a substance. It is very
important and useful in interpreting data as to when and
how matter attains equilibrium and which substance will
exist as a solid, liquid, or gas under a certain pressure
and temperature.

We can interpret the phase diagram of CO2 as the

following:
• As you can see from the figure above, unlike with
water, the phase diagram of CO2 has positive slope
of the solid-liquid boundary line, which signifies that
as the pressure increases, the melting point of solid
CO2 also increases.
• Moreover, the triple point of CO2 is 5.1 atm and
-56.7°C. Meaning, CO2 cannot be a liquid at
pressures less than 5.1 atm.
• The critical point of CO2 is 31°C and 73
atmospheric pressure (atm). Exceeding the critical
point is the region where the liquid and gas phases
The Figure 11 illustrates the phase diagram of water. are no longer evident.
The y-axis of the diagram represents the pressure in • supercritical fluid is a substance that has a
atm while the x-axis is given for temperature in degrees temperature above its critical temperature and a
Celsius. density near its liquid density. From the diagram,
• From the diagram, the curved lines give the heating CO2 at -78°C and 1 atm will sublime the
temperature and pressure at which two phases exist solid CO2 and becomes the so-called dry ice.
in equilibrium. Equilibrium means that phase change LESSON 5: HEATING AND COOLING CURVES FOR
from Phase A to Phase B occurs at the same rate as WATER (H2O) NOTES
the phase change from Phase B to Phase A.
• Line AB shows the temperature-pressure conditions
for liquid-gas equilibrium, Line AD for solid-liquid
equilibrium, and Line AB for solid gas equilibrium.
• At point A, the three phases of matter coexist; solid,
liquid, and gas.That point at which the three curves
intersect is what we call as triple point. And it gives
an idea that the pressure and temperature at which
the three states are in equilibrium with each other.
• The critical point of H2O is 217.75 atm and
373.99°C.
• As observed, the freezing point and the boiling point
of water are 0°C and 100°C at 1 atmospheric In the Figure above, you can see different phase
pressure. However, when pressure increases changes of matter. To easily interpret the diagram, let's
beyond 1 atm, the freezing point decreases (below start with the heating curve of water.
0°C) and the boiling point increases (above
100°C).
• One of the important features of the phase diagram INTERPRETATION OF THE DIAGRAM
of water is the negative slope of the solid-liquid (1) When solid is heated, the temperature rises until it
boundary line, which implies that the melting point of reaches the melting point temperature (0°C).
ice decreases as the external pressure increases.
This behaviour shows because the density of ice is (2) As heat is being absorbed by the system, the ice
less than that of liquid water at melting point. That's melts. However, the temperature remains the same
why ice floats on liquid water. until it is converted to liquid. The heat absorbed
helps the particles to overcome the attraction in the
solid.
(3) Only liquid exists; because there was heat being
added, the temperature rises until it reaches
100°C, which is the boiling point of water.
(4) The water continues to boil at constant temperature
(100°C) until it becomes a gas. To overcome the
attractive forces in the liquid, the adding of heat
must be done.
(5) And lastly, the gas molecules keep on absorbing
heat; hence, the temperature increases.
The reverse process of heating is the cooling. In the
diagram, the cooling process happens when the
direction is from the highest temperature to the lowest
temperature possible. It means that when heat is
removed, gas condenses at a constant temperature,
which is 100°C, to be converted to liquid. Once it
reaches to liquid phase, with enough pressure, it will be
frozen to form a solid water (ice) at I atm. However,
there are some instances wherein liquids, such as
saltwater, will not freeze at 1 atm. The freezing point of
a substance will only depend on the behaviour and
nature of its particle.
The total energy change for the whole process is given
by total = q1 + 92 +43 + 4 + qs where 1,2,3,4, and 5 are
the regions as indicated in Figure 1.14.