Math Handbook For Water System Operators

Math Handbook for
Water System Operators

Math Fundamentals and
Problem Solving
First Edition
Bob Larsen
Outskirts Press, Inc.

Denver, Colorado
The opinions expressed in this manuscript are solely the opinions of the author and do not
represent the opinions or thoughts of the publisher. The author represents and warrants that
he either owns or has the legal right to publish all material in this book.
Math Handbook for Water System Operators

Math Fundamentals and Problem Solving
All Rights Reserved
Copyright © 2007 Bob Larsen
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All Rights Reserved. Used With Permission.
This book may not be reproduced, transmitted, or stored in whole or in part by any means,
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ISBN-10: 1-59800-958-3
ISBN-13: 978-1-59800-958-3
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Printed in the United States of America

Contents
Foreword ...............................................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1: Basic Math Functions and the Calculator

Introduction...............................................................................................................................1
Selecting a Calculator ...............................................................................................................3
Fractions and Decimals ...........................................................................................................3
Using a Calculator.....................................................................................................................5
Basic Rules for Calculations .................................................................................................. 11
Chapter 1 Review Problems .............................................................................................. 13
Chapter 2: Basic Math Principles

Rounding.................................................................................................................................. 15
Significant Figures .................................................................................................................. 16
Powers of Numbers ............................................................................................................... 19
Percentage.................................................................................................................................20
Ratios and Proportions ...........................................................................................................21
Average and Median Values.................................................................................................. 22
Scientific Notation.................................................................................................................. 24
The Metric System...................................................................................................................26
Chapter 2 Review Problems...................................................................................................29
Chapter 3: Working with Equations

What is an Equation? ..............................................................................................................31
Parts of an Equation .............................................................................................................. 32
Rearranging Equations........................................................................................................... 32
Similar Units .............................................................................................................................37
Chapter 3 Review Problems.................................................................................................. 39
Chapter 4: Linear, Area and Volume Computations

Introduction............................................................................................................................. 41
Linear Computations.............................................................................................................. 41
Area Computations ................................................................................................................ 43
Volume/Capacity Computations ......................................................................................... 46
Chapter 4 Review Problems.................................................................................................. 53
iv Math Handbook for Water System Operators
Chapter 5: Conversions
Introduction .............................................................................................................................55
Length Conversions ................................................................................................................55
Area Conversions ....................................................................................................................57
Volume/Capacity Conversions .............................................................................................58
Weight Conversions ................................................................................................................59
Pressure Conversions..............................................................................................................60
Flow Conversions....................................................................................................................60
Temperature Conversions......................................................................................................61
Metric Conversions .................................................................................................................62
Chapter 5 Review Problems...................................................................................................65
Chapter 6: Water System Concepts

Concentration...........................................................................................................................67
Density and Specific Gravity .................................................................................................68
Force and Pressure of Water .................................................................................................69
Velocity and Flow....................................................................................................................71
Detention Time........................................................................................................................74
Head and Headloss..................................................................................................................76
Water Pumping and Storage ..................................................................................................81
Chemical Dosage and Chemical Feed Rate .........................................................................84
Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate ...............................................................91
Sedimentation Tank Loading and Overflow Rates ............................................................93
Horsepower and Efficiency ...................................................................................................95
Electricity and Power Costs ...................................................................................................98
Process Efficiency ..................................................................................................................102
Chlorine Demand ...................................................................................................................104
Chemical Solutions.................................................................................................................105
Alkalinity ..................................................................................................................................113
Hardness ..................................................................................................................................116
Water Softening ......................................................................................................................119
Fluoridation .............................................................................................................................124
Drainage Basins ......................................................................................................................124
Water Supply Wells ................................................................................................................127
Water Usage ............................................................................................................................129
Administrative Duties ............................................................................................................130
Chapter 6 Review Problems..................................................................................................133
Contents v
Chapter 7: Problem-Solving Methods

General .....................................................................................................................................141
Problem Solving Steps ...........................................................................................................141
Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems....................................................................145
Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems............................................... 149
Appendix C – Common Formulas.................................................................................... 195
Appendix D – Conversion Tables ..................................................................................... 203
Appendix E – List of Elements ......................................................................................... 209
Appendix F – Chemical Formulas and Equivalent Weights ......................................... 215
Appendix G – Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 217
Appendix H – Glossary....................................................................................................... 219

Foreword
Water treatment and distribution system operators are responsible for the delivery of safe
drinking water to the public. Their duties include monitoring and adjusting water system
processes, maintaining facilities and equipment and monitoring the quality of the water to
assure compliance with state and federal regulations. Operators are also required to
provide construction and inspection services for repairs to and expansions of water
treatment facilities and water distribution systems. The duties performed by water
system operators need to be properly documented and recorded for future reference.
In the performance of these duties, the water system operator uses mathematics to
calculate process parameters and to make operational decisions. Math is also used in
performing system maintenance, recordkeeping and budgeting. It is necessary for the
water system operator to have an understanding of math fundamentals along with the
technical concepts associated with water system operations.
After reading the material and solving the problems presented in this Handbook, the
water system operator should be able to;
use a calculator to perform basic math functions,

understand the basic math principles that are commonly used in water system
calculations,
identify equations, rearrange equations and solve for unknowns,
perform linear, area and volume calculations,
convert the units of measurements commonly used in water system operations,
understand the basic concepts of water treatment and distribution, and
solve problems that are commonly encountered in water system operations.
This Handbook can be used as a reference to prepare the water system operator for the
math problems given on licensing examinations for water treatment and water
distribution system operation.
Chapter 1
BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR
Introduction
The basic math functions are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
These functions are typically represented on a calculator by the following symbols.
Addition +
Subtraction −
Multiplication x
Division ÷
Other symbols are commonly used for the multiplication and division functions. These
symbols are shown below.
Multiplication “brackets” ()() expressed as (2) (3)
Multiplication “dot” • expressed as 2 • 3
Division “Slash” ⁄ expressed as 8 ⁄ 2 or 8

2
The use of the calculator has changed the way math is learned and applied to solve
problems. It is no longer necessary to memorize multiplication tables, to solve simple
math problems in our head or do problems “by hand”. All we need to do is learn how to
use the calculator effectively. Whether this is a good or bad situation is subject to
discussion.
In this Handbook, the calculator is used to manipulate math functions to solve water
system problems.
The math education you have had in the past may have involved solving math problems
by hand without using the calculator, as shown in the following example.
1
2 Math Handbook for Water System Operators
Example 1-1
Add the following five numbers without using a calculator.
2,234.907
345.01
13.04
135.7
1,980
Line up the numbers keeping the decimal point in the same column.
2,234.907
345.01
13.04
135.7
1,980.
Add zeros to the right hand side of the numbers so the columns to the right of the
decimal point have the same number of digits.
2,234.907
345.010
13.040
135.700
1,980.000
Starting from the right, add the columns. If a column adds up to a number greater
than nine, “carryover” the number to the top of the next column on the left.
1 211
2,234.907
345.010
13.040
135.700
1,980.000
4,708.657
This example shows that solving problems by hand is tedious and subject to error. Using
a calculator to add a group of numbers is faster and usually more accurate.
Basic Math Functions and the Calculator 3
When using this Handbook, have a calculator on hand and perform the example
calculations as they are presented. Using a calculator effectively is not as easy as it may
seem. Pressing the wrong number or function keys and/or misreading the location of the
decimal point are common problems. Calculator skills can be improved with practice.
Selecting a Calculator
Calculators are available in many types and sizes. For water system operators, a calculator
with the four basic functions plus a square root function (√) is the usually best option.
Calculators with a square function (x2) and a pi function (π) are useful but not necessary.
Programmable calculators can be helpful for solving repetitive problems but are not
normally permitted for use at licensing exams.
It is convenient to use a calculator with reasonably sized keys and viewing area. Credit
card sized calculators can be difficult to use and the display hard to read.
Even simple calculators have functions that are not typically used. The M keys perform
memory calculations; the percentage key (%) calculates percentages, and the plus/minus
key (+/−) “toggles” between plus and minus values. These function keys can cause
confusion. Use them with caution or not at all.
Fractions and Decimals

Numbers can be presented in two basic formats, fractions and decimals.
Fractions
A fraction has two components, a numerator and a denominator, and is expressed as
follows:
Numerator
2
3 Denominator
The numerator and denominator are whole numbers and, as shown above, the numerator
(2) is divided by the denominator (3). Therefore, a fraction represents a division function.
Fractions are useful when solving problems using ratios and proportions. However,
adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions can be cumbersome.
Fractions can be added or subtracted only if the denominators have the same number. If
the denominators are not the same, the fractions must be changed to provide a similar
common denominator before addition or subtraction can be performed. Two fractions
can be multiplied by multiplying the numerators and the denominators of each fraction.
Two fractions can be divided by reversing the numerator and denominator of the fraction
you are dividing by and then multiplying the two fractions.
The good news is that most problems can be solved by converting numbers given in
fractions to a decimal format and then using the calculator to solve the problem.
Decimals
A decimal has numbers in a horizontal line, separated by a dot or decimal point.
Numbers in decimal format are expressed as follows.
Separator Decimal Point
2,123.987
Whole Number Fraction of the Number
The whole number (2,123) and the fraction of the number (987) can have any
combination of digits (or characters). The number 2,123.987 has seven digits. The
comma between the 2 and the 1 is called a separator.
The terms used to describe the digits of a number expressed in decimal format are shown
below.
2, 1 2 3 . 9 8 7
Decimal Point
Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands
Hundreds
Tenths
Units
Tens
For example, the third number to the left of the decimal point (1) is referred to as the
hundreds digit and the first number to the right of the decimal point (9) is referred to as
the tenths digit.
When using a calculator, the numbers entered and the numbers displayed after a
calculation are always expressed in decimal format.
Most math problems the operator will perform can be calculated in decimal format. If a
number is given as a fraction, it should be converted to decimal format before using a
calculator. This conversion is made by simply dividing the numerator by the denominator.
Using a Calculator
The procedures for performing the basic math functions, addition (+), subtraction (−),
multiplication (x) and division (÷), on a calculator are described below.
Addition
Addition using a calculator is performed as follows:
Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 2. Enter the + key.
Step 3. Enter the number to be added.
Step 4. Enter the = key.
Example 1-2
Add the numbers 345 and 78.35.
Step 1. Enter 345.

Step 3. Enter 78.53.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer displayed is 423.53.
If three or more numbers are to be added, it is not necessary to enter the = key after each
addition. The intermediate answers are displayed each time the + key is entered.
Example 1-3
Add the numbers 123.34, 45, 346.5 and 1,020.23.

Step 3. Enter 45.
Step 4. Enter the + key. The intermediate answer displayed is 168.34.

Step 6. Enter the + key. The intermediate answer displayed is 514.84.
Step 8. Enter the + key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 1535.07.
Note that the final answer is displayed after the + key is entered in Step 8. The = key
could be entered instead of the + key in this step with the same result. Also, note that
when the number 1,020.23 is entered the “thousands” separator (the comma between the
1 and the 0) is not entered. Separators are not entered when using the calculator and most
calculators do not show the separator in the display.
Subtraction
Subtraction using a calculator is performed similarly to addition. However, the number
that you are subtracting from is entered first.
Example 1-4
Subtract the numbers 12.27 and 34.1 from 78.
Step 1. Enter 78.

Step 2. Enter the − key.
Step 4. Enter the − key. The intermediate answer displayed is 65.73.
Step 5. Enter 34.1.
Step 6. Enter the − key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 31.63.
Addition and Subtraction

A string of numbers can be added and subtracted on a calculator since subtraction is the
same as adding a negative number. When adding and subtracting a string of numbers, it is
suggested that the = key be used after each intermediate calculation. A string of numbers
can be added and subtracted without using the = key, but this method can sometimes be
confusing.
Example 1-5
From the number 1,245.63, add 62, subtract 546.230, subtract 346.2 and add 545.45.

Step 3. Enter 62.

Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 1307.63.
Step 7. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer is 761.4.
Step 10. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer is 415.2.
Step 13. Enter the = key. The final answer is 960.65.
When entering a decimal number in a calculator when the fraction of the number ends in
0, for example 546.230 in the above example, the trailing zeros do not need to be entered.
Multiplication
Multiplication using a calculator is performed similarly to addition.
Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 2. Enter the x key.
Step 3. Enter the number to be multiplied by.
Example 1-6
Multiply 23.94 by 5.3.

Step 3. Enter 5.3.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer 126.882 is displayed.
If three or more numbers are to be multiplied, it is not necessary to enter the = key after
each multiplication calculation. Note in the example below that the intermediate answers
are displayed each time the multiplication key is entered.
Example 1-7
Multiply the number 12.12 by 45 then by 0.32 and finally by 1,020.23.

Step 3. Enter 45.
Step 4. Enter the x key. The intermediate answer displayed is 545.4.
Step 5. Enter .32 (the zero before the decimal point does not need to be entered).
Step 6. Enter the x key. The intermediate answer displayed is 174.528.
Step 8. Enter the x key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 178058.7
The final answer is displayed after the x key is entered in Step 8. The = key could be
entered in this step with the same result.
Division
Division using a calculator is performed very similarly to multiplication. The number to
be divided is entered first.
Step 1. Enter the number to be divided.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key (on most calculators “÷” is the division symbol key).
Step 3. Enter the number the first number will be divided by.
Example 1-8
Divide the number 54.3 by 4
Step 1. Enter 54.3.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key.
Step 3. Enter 4.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The answer 13.575 is displayed.
If three or more numbers are to be divided in sequence, it is not necessary to enter the =
key after each division. The intermediate answers are displayed each time the ÷ key is
entered.
Example 1-9
Divide the number 525 by 5, then divide by 2, then divide by 3.4 and then divide by 6.
Step 1. Enter 525.


Step 3. Enter 5.
Step 4. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 105.
Step 5. Enter 3.4.
Step 6. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 30.882352.
Step 7. Enter 6.
Step 8. Enter the ÷ key (or the = key). The final answer displayed is 5.1470586.
Similar to the previous calculations, the final answer is displayed after the ÷ key is entered
in Step 8. The = key could also be entered in this step with the same result.
Note that in Step 6, the “whole number” has two digits (30.) and the “fraction of the
number” has six digits (.882352) for a total of eight digits. In Step 8 the whole number has
one digit (5.) and the fraction of the number has seven digits (.1470586) for a total of
eight digits.
Most hand held and small desktop calculators display a maximum of eight digits. Some
calculators have displays showing twelve or more digits.
The math calculations displayed on a calculator are accurate only within the limits of the
display. For an eight-digit display calculator, if a calculation results in an answer over
99999999, an error message is displayed. If a calculation results in an answer under
0.0000000, the calculator will typically display 0. Therefore, an eight-digit calculator is
accurate only within the values of 0.0000001 and 99999999. When performing water
system calculations, it is often necessary to use very small or very large numbers and
sometimes the limits of a calculator can be exceeded. If a calculator exceeds its limits, the
numbers can be expressed in scientific notation before performing the calculation.
Multiplication and Division

Numbers can be multiplied and divided on a calculator concurrently as long as there are
no addition or subtraction functions present.
Example 1-10
Multiply the number 7 by 19 and divide the result by 24 multiplied by 6.4. This problem
can be written as:
7 x 19
24 x 6.4
Step 1. Enter 7.

Step 3. Enter 19.
Step 4. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 133.
Step 5. Enter 24.
Step 6. Enter the ÷ key. The intermediate answer displayed is 5.5416666.
Step 7. Enter 6.4.
Step 8. Enter the ÷ key. The final answer is 0.8658854.
This example may also be solved in three separate calculations as shown below.
Calculation 1 (Multiply 7 by 19)

Step 1. Enter 7.
Step 3. Enter 19.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 133. (Write down this
intermediate answer.)
Calculation 2 (Multiply 24 by 6.4)

Step 1. Enter 24.
Step 3. Enter 6.4.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The intermediate answer displayed is 153.6. (Write down this
intermediate answer.)
Calculation 3 (Divide the results of Calculation 1 by the results of Calculation 2.)

Step 1. Enter 133.
Step 4. Enter the = key. The final answer displayed is 0.8658854.
Square Root
The square root key on a calculator is used to calculate the square root of a number.
The square root is the opposite of squaring a number or multiplying a number by itself.
For example, 2 x 2 = 4. So the square root of 4 is 2. The symbol for square root is √.
To find the square root of a number on most basic calculators, enter the number and
then the square root key (√ ). The method for determining the square root of a number
may be different on more advanced or programmable type calculators.
Example 1-11
Find the square root of 6.34.
Step 1. Enter 6.34.

Step 2. Enter the √ key. The answer displayed is 2.5179356.
Basic Rules for Calculations

When performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division calculations, use the
following rules.
1. Multiplication and division calculations should be performed before

addition and subtraction calculations.
2. If there are brackets present, the calculations in the brackets should be

performed first.
Example 1-12
Solve the following problem.
7x6−2
Perform the multiplication function first.
7 x 6 = 42
Then subtract 2 from 42.

42 – 2 = 40
Example 1-13
7 x (6 − 2)
Perform the subtraction shown in the brackets.
(6 − 2) = 4
Then multiply 7 times 4.
7 x 4 = 28
Example 1-14
(23.45 x 12.12) + (12.3 x 45.33) + (56.78 – 34.72) (2.5)
Perform the calculations within the three brackets.
(23.45 x 12.12) = 284.214
(12.3 x 45.33) = 557.559
(56.78 – 34.72) = 22.06
Perform the multiplication calculation remaining on the right hand expression.
(22.06) (2.5) = 55.15
Add the remaining three numbers.
284.214 + 557.559 + 55.15 = 896.923

Chapter 1
BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR
Review Problems
Solve the following problems using a calculator. Provide all answers in decimal format.
1. 23.45 x 45.56 − 23.82
2. 23.45 x (45.56 − 23.82)
3. 98.3 − 34.8
2
4. √34.2 − 6.89 x 2.1
5. 6 4
5 7
6. √3.45 − 1.285
9.1
13
Chapter 2
BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES
Rounding
Numbers are rounded to make them easier to work with. The calculator can display
many digits, both to the right and the left of the decimal point. Rounding simplifies
numbers and makes calculations using numbers easier.
The general rules for rounding are presented below.
If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round the

number up. For example, 48 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 50.
If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, round the

number down. For example, 43 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 40.
When rounding numbers, first identify the digit are you rounding to. Whole numbers, the
numbers to the left of the decimal point can be rounded to the nearest units digit, the
nearest tens digit, the nearest hundreds digit, the nearest thousands digit and so on.
Example 2-1
Examine the number 5,337.
5,337 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 5,340.
5,337 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,300.
5,337 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 5,000.
As seen in the example, when rounding whole numbers the digits to the right of the digit
you are rounding to become zeros.
15
Example 2-2
Review the following rounding examples.
65 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 70.
5,828 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,800.
10,754 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 11,000.
Rounding fractions of numbers, the numbers to the right of the decimal point, is similar
to rounding whole numbers. Fractions of numbers are rounded to the nearest tenths
digit, the nearest hundredths digit, the nearest thousandths digit and so on.
Example 2-3
Review the following rounding examples.
12.9145 rounded to the nearest tenth digit is 12.9.
1.8627 rounded to the nearest hundredth digit is 1.86.
2.4578 rounded to the nearest thousandth digit is 2.458.
When rounding fractions of numbers, the trailing zeros can be dropped.
Rounding reduces the accuracy of mathematical calculations. However, most water

system calculations do not require a high degree of accuracy. The operator should be
aware of the accuracy required when making rounding decisions.
Significant Figures
When performing mathematical calculations, it is sometimes necessary to present the
answer with the correct significant figures. Significant figures are the number of
meaningful or accurate digits in a number.
Significant figures, also called significant digits, and rounding are related concepts.
When several measurements are used in calculations, the answer cannot be more accurate
than the least accurate measurement. The answer should be rounded to reflect the
accuracy of the measurements.
Basic Math Principles 17
There are several rules for identifying the number of significant figures in a measurement.
1. The zeros contained within a number are “significant”.
2. Leading zeros are not “significant”.
3. Trailing zeros are not “significant” unless a decimal point is included.
Example 2-4
Review the following significant figure examples.
5,001 has 4 significant figures. (Zeros contained within a number are significant.)
0.00012 has 2 significant figures. (Leading zeros are not significant.)
0.00120 has 3 significant figures. (The trailing zero is significant because a decimal
point is included. The leading zeros are not significant.)
1.0023 has 5 significant figures. (Zeros contained within a number are significant.)
200 has 1 significant figure. (Trailing zeros are not significant because there is no
decimal point.)
200. has 3 significant figures. (Trailing zeros are significant because a decimal point is
included.)
200.00 has 5 significant figures. (Trailing zeros are significant because a decimal point
is included.)
When adding and subtracting measurements of different accuracies, the answer can be no
more accurate than the least accurate measurement. The rule determining significant
figures for addition and subtraction calculations is stated below.
When adding and subtracting measurements, the answer cannot have more
decimal places than the least accurate measurement.
Example 2-5
Three different maintenance crews repaired three sections of water mains. The following
repair lengths were reported to the City maintenance department; 1,202.2 feet, 562.25 feet
and 360.4 feet. What was the total length of water system repairs made reported to the
correct significant figures?
Add the three repair lengths. The answer is 2,124.85 feet.
The least accurate measurements of the three lengths are 1,202.2 feet and 360.4 feet.
The decimal point shows the accuracy of these measurements at the tenths digit.
Rounding to the nearest tenths digit, the answer to the correct significant figures is
2,124.9 feet.
When multiplying and dividing measurements of different accuracies, the answer can be
no more accurate than the least accurate measurement. The rule determining significant
figures for multiplication and division is stated below.
When multiplying and dividing measurements, the answer cannot have more
significant figures than the least accurate measurement.
When multiplying and dividing numbers of different accuracies, the same rule applies; the
answer can be no more accurate than the least accurate number. The answer should not
contain more significant figures than the least accurate number.
Example 2-6
A chemical feed tank is measured and the length is 4.5 feet and the width is 2.25 feet.
Determine the area of the tank using the equation, Area = Length x Width. Express the
area in correct significant figures.
Multiply the length by the width. The answer is 10.125 square feet.
The length (4.5 feet) has two significant figures and the width (2.25 feet has 3
significant figures. The length is the least accurate measurement.
The area, expressed in two significant figures, is 10. square feet.

Powers of Numbers
The expression “raising the number to a power” means multiplying the number by itself
for a specified number of times. The “power” number indicates how many times the
number is multiplied by itself.
The term for raising a number to a power is expressed as follows.
Xy
Where:
X is the number that is being multiplied, and

y
is the number of times the number is multiplied by itself.
Example 2-7
Review the following examples of powers of numbers.
22 equals 2 times 2 and can be written as:
2 x 2, or
2 • 2, or
(2) (2)
42 equals 4 times 4 and can be written as:
4 x 4, or
4 • 4, or
(4) (4)
33 equals 3 times 3 times 3 and can be written as:
3 x 3 x 3, or
3 • 3 • 3, or
(3) (3) (3)
Percentage
Percentage is used to express parts of a whole. If a 1,000-gallon capacity storage tank
contains 500 gallons it is said to contain one-half, or 50 percent of the whole tank
capacity.
A percent is expressed using the percent symbol (%). Percentage is written as a number
followed by the percent symbol.
Percentage can be calculated by multiplying a number by 100 and attaching the percent
symbol. When using a percentage in an equation, the percentage is typically expressed in
decimal format.
When converting a number from a percentage format to a decimal format, the

decimal point is moved two spaces to the left and the percent symbol is deleted.
This is equivalent to dividing by 100.
Example 2-8
Convert the following percentages to numbers in decimal format.
50% converts to 0.50.
120% converts to 1.2.
0.33% converts to 0.0033.
When converting a number in decimal format to a percentage format, the decimal

point is moved two spaces to the right and the percent symbol is attached. This is
equivalent to multiplying by 100.
Example 2-9
Convert the following numbers in decimal format to percentages.
7.5 converts to 750%.
0.65 converts to 65%.
1.0 converts to 100%

A percentage key is usually provided on most calculators. However, this key is not
required for calculations and its use can be confusing.
Ratios and Proportions

A ratio is a comparison of two numbers. Ratios are typically expressed using a fraction
or a colon.
Example 2-10
The following expressions are called ratios.
1 or 1:2
2
3 or 3:4
4
A proportion is an equation with a ratio on each side. It is also a statement, which says
the two ratios are equal.
Example 2-11
1 is proportional to 2
2 4
or
1 2
= 4
2
If three numbers in a proportion are known, the forth number can be determined by
using cross products. A cross product is defined as the numerator of one ratio times the
denominator of the other ratio.
In a proportion, there are two cross products and these cross products are always
equal.
Example 2-12
Is the following proportion valid?
4 8
= 14
7
The proportion is shown below with the cross products connected with dotted lines.
4 8
= 14
7
The cross products are:
4 x 14 = 56, and 8 x 7 = 56
Since the cross products are equal, the proportion is valid.

Example 2-13
Solve for Y in the following proportion.
5 Y
6
=
18
The cross products are equal, therefore:
5 x 18 = 90 and Y x 6 = 90
To solve for Y, divide 90 by 6. Y = 15
Average and Median Values

Average and median values are used to evaluate a series or group of numbers.
The average of a group of numbers is determined by adding the numbers and dividing
the sum by the number of numbers in the group. The average is also referred to as the
mean or arithmetic mean.
Example 2-14
Find the average of the following group of eight numbers.
34, 67, 32, 100, 104, 62, 12 and 89
The sum of these numbers is 500.
Divide 500 by 8. The average is 62.5.
The median is the “middle value” of a group or series of numbers. The median of a
group of numbers is determined by placing the numbers in order, from smallest to
largest, and selecting the middle value.
Example 2-15
Find the median of the following group of five numbers.
27, 12, 6, 32 and 3
Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.
3, 6, 12, 27, 32
Since 12 is the middle value of this group, it is the median.
If there are an even quantity of numbers in the group, finding the median value is
different since there is no single number in the middle. In this case the middle pair, the
two numbers in the middle, are identified and the average of these two numbers is the
median.
Example 2-16
Find the median of the following group of eight numbers.
54, 34, 12, 16, 80, 30, 9 and 22
Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.

9, 12, 16, 22, 30, 34, 54, 80
The middle pair of this group is 22 and 30.
Calculate the average of this middle pair by adding 22 and 30 and dividing the sum
by 2. The median is 26.
Averages and medians are commonly used by water system operators to record
operational data, to predict future operating conditions and to maintain an appropriate
inventory of water treatment chemicals.
Scientific Notation
Performing math functions on a calculator with very large numbers or very small
numbers may not be possible. Computations on a calculator are limited by the number of
digits the calculator can display.
Example 2-17
Perform the multiplication problem shown below on a calculator. (It is assumed that the
calculator has an 8-digit display.)
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = ?
The calculator display shows 1.0000000 and an error message.
For problems using very large or very small numbers, the numbers can be expressed in
scientific notation prior to using a calculator. Scientific notation is a shorthand way of
writing very large or very small numbers. A number expressed in scientific notation
format is written as the product of a decimal number between 1 and 10, called a
coefficient, and a power of 10.
For example, 2.34 x 103 is a number expressed in scientific notation format.
The general term for a number expressed in scientific notation is shown below.
Coefficient x 10Y
Where:
Coefficient = a decimal number between 1 and 10.
Exponent = Y
= the power of 10 or the number of times 10 is
multiplied by itself.
Example 2-18
Consider the number 12, 230,000.
This same number expressed in scientific notation format is
1.223 x 107.
where the term 1.223 is the coefficient and 7 is the exponent.

Example 2-19
Consider the number 0.000023.
This same number expressed in scientific notation format is
2.3 x 10-5
where the term 2.3 is the coefficient and -5 is the exponent.
The above examples illustrate the following rules for expressing numbers in scientific
notation format.
1. The exponent equals the number of spaces the decimal point is moved.
2. If the decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent is positive. If the
decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent is negative.
When multiplying and dividing numbers in scientific notation format the following rules apply.
1. When multiplying numbers in scientific notation format multiply the

coefficients and add the exponents.
2. When dividing numbers in scientific notation format divide the

coefficients and subtract the exponents.
Example 2-20
Multiply 12,450,900 by 85.
If these numbers were multiplied on a calculator, an error message would appear.

Express the numbers in scientific notation format.
12,450,900 equals 1.24509 x 107
85 equals 8.5 x 101
(1.24509 x 107) x (8.5 x 101) = (1.24509 x 8.5) x (107 + 1) = 10.583265 x 108
10.583265 x 108 equals 1,058,326,500

Example 2-21
Divide 0.025 by 1,360,000.
If these numbers were divided on a calculator, a zero would appear indicating an

error.
Express the numbers in scientific notation format.
0.025 equals 2.5 x 10-2
1,360,000 equals 1.36 x 106
(2.5 x 10-2) ÷ (1.36 x 106) = (2.5 ÷ 1.36) x (10-2 - 6) = 1.8382352 x 10-8
1.8382352 x 10-8 equals 0.000000018382352
The Metric System

The metric system is a system of units and measurements based on multiples of 10.
The metric system is use widely throughout most of the world but used infrequently in
the US. The metric system is also referred to as the International System of Units (SI).
Most calculations performed by water system operators are in the English or US system
of measurements (i.e. inches, feet, miles, pounds, gallons, etc.). Metric units, however, are
commonly used in the laboratory and often for calculating chemical dosages and
identifying contaminant concentrations.
Common units of length measurement in the metric system are the millimeter (mm), the
centimeter (cm), the decimeter (dm), the meter (m) and the kilometer (km). The
relationships among these length measurements are shown below.
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters
1 decimeter = 10 centimeters
1 meter = 100 centimeters
1 kilometer = 1,000 meters
Common units of volume measurement in the metric system are the milliliter (mL), the
cubic centimeter (cc), the liter (L) and the cubic meter. The relationships among these
volume measurements are shown below.
1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter

1 liter = 1,000 milliliters
1 cubic meter = 1,000 liters
Common units of mass measurement in the metric system are the microgram (μg), the
milligram (mg), the gram (g) and the kilogram (kg). The relationships among these mass
measurements are shown below.
1 milligram = 1,000 micrograms

1 gram = 1,000 milligrams
1 kilogram = 1,000 grams
The metric system also has the following special relationships.
1 milliliter of water weighs 1 gram and has a volume of 1 cubic centimeter at

a temperature of 4° C.
1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram and has a volume of 1 cubic decimeter at a
temperature of 4° C.
Chapter 2
BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES
Review Problems
1. Round the number 5, 234.6734
a) to the nearest hundreds digit

b) to the nearest tenths digit
c) to the nearest hundredths digit
d) to the nearest thousands digit
2. Add the following measurements and show the sum in the correct significant figures.
1,025.3 inches, 13.24 inches and 78.6 inches
3. A water utility has a total annual budget of $345,000. The utility spends
approximately $28,000 per year on chemicals. What percentage of the annual budget
is spent on chemicals?
4. Express the following numbers in scientific notation format.
a) 1,259
b) 34,560
c) 100,240
d) 0.004567
5. Solve for x in the following proportion.
4 13.5
=
x 6
29
Chapter 3
WORKING WITH EQUATIONS
What is an Equation?
An equation is a statement written in numbers and symbols that has two sides
connected by an equal sign. An equation can also be referred to as a formula. The equal
sign indicates that the value represented by the numbers and symbols on the left side of
the equation is the same as the value represented by the numbers and symbols on the
right side of the equation.
The equation below is used to calculate the area of a rectangle.
Area = Length x Width
This equation states that the area of a rectangle is equal to the length of the rectangle
times the width of the rectangle. The length and width are the rectangles measurements.
Most equations show the both the measurements and the units of the measurements.
The area of a rectangle equation written with the measurements and the units of the
measurements is shown below.
Area (feet2) = Length (feet) x Width (feet)
Equations can include a variety different mathematical functions including addition (+),
subtraction (−), multiplication (x), division ( ⁄ or ÷), powers of numbers (xY), square root
(√) and others.
The equation shown below is used to convert temperature in Celsius degrees (ºC) to
Fahrenheit degrees (°F).
°F = °C x 1.8 + 32
This equation contains two mathematical functions, multiplication (x) and addition (+).
31
Parts of an Equation
Equations can have variables, constants and unknowns. A variable is a measurable
quantity that can change in value. A constant is a previously determined value that does
not change. An unknown is a value that is not known and needs to be found by
calculation.
The equation shown below is commonly referred to as the pounds formula and is used
frequently in water system calculations.
Mass Flow (pounds/day) = Flow (million gallons/day) x Dosage (milligrams/liter) x 8.34
The variables in this equation are Mass Flow, Flow and Dosage. The value 8.34 is a
constant. The units of measurement for the variables are shown in parentheses.
Solving an equation means finding the value of the unknown by calculation. Equations
can have several variables and constants. In order to solve an equation for an unknown,
all of the other variables and constants in the equation must be known.
For example, in the pounds formula shown above, there are a total of four variables and
constants. The constant of 8.34 is known. If the variable Mass Flow is an unknown and
needs to be calculated the two other variables, Flow and Dosage, must be known.
Rearranging Equations
Introduction
To solve for an unknown in an equation, it is frequently necessary to rearrange the
equation. Rearranging an equation consists of isolating the unknown on one side of the
equation and putting all of the other variables and constants on the other side of the
equation. The basic rule for rearranging equations is stated below.
If the same mathematical operation is performed on each side of the equation the
equation remains unchanged.
The value of the left side of an equation is always equal to the value on the right side of
the equation. If you perform the same mathematical operation on both sides of the
equation as stated in the above rule, the value on the left side will remain equal to the
value on the right side.
Working with Equations 33
Equations with Addition and Subtraction

For equations having addition and subtraction, the equations are rearranged by adding or
subtracting the same number or symbol from each side of the equation.
A number to add or subtract is chosen to “cancel out” a number on one side of the
equation.
Example 3-1
Examine the equation 15 = A + 5 + 4.
Rearrange this equation to solve for A, the unknown.
Step 1. Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation.
15 = A + 5 + 4 can be rewritten as:
15 − 4 = A + 5 + 4 − 4, or 11 = A + 5
11 = A + 5 can be rewritten as
11 − 5 = A + 5 − 5, or 6 = A
A shortcut rule for rearranging equations with addition and subtraction is presented
below.
When moving a number or symbol from one side of the equation to the other side
of the equation, change the sign. If the sign is plus (+), change to minus (−) and
if the sign is minus (−), change to plus (+).
The diagram below illustrates the previous problem solved using this shortcut rule.
15 − 5 − 4 = A + 5 + 4
In the above diagram, the + 5 and + 4 on the right side of the equation are moved to the
left side and the signs are changed from + to −.
The equation can be rewritten as follows:
15 − 5 − 4 = A, or 6 = A
Equations with Multiplication and Division

For equations having multiplication and division, the equations are rearranged by
multiplying or dividing the same number or symbol on each side of the equation.
A number to multiply or divide is chosen to “cancel out” a number on one side of the
equation.
Example 3-2
Examine the equation 300 = V x 25 x 8.34.
Rearrange this equation to solve for V, the unknown.
Step 1. Divide both sides of the equation by 25.
300 = V x 25 x 8.34 can be rewritten as:
300 = V x 25 x 8.34 or 12 = V x 8.34

25 25
Step 2. Divide both sides of the equation by 8.34.
12 = V x 8.34 can be rewritten as:
12 = V x 8.34 or 1.44 = V
8.34 8.34
Note that the “strikethroughs” indicate the numbers “cancel out”.
A shortcut rule for rearranging equations with multiplication and division is presented
below.
When moving a number or symbol from one side of the equation to the other side
of the equation, move it from the top of one side to the bottom of the other side or
move it from the bottom of one side to the top of the other side.
The diagram below shows the previous problem solved using this shortcut rule.
300 = V x 25 x 8.34
8.34 x 25
In the above diagram, the numbers 25 and 8.34 on the top of the right side of the
equation are moved to the bottom of the left side of the equation.
The equation can be rewritten as follows:
300 = V or 1.44 = V
8.34 x 25
Equations with Addition and Subtraction and Multiplication and Division

For equations having addition and subtraction along with multiplication and division the
same general rules for rearranging equations are valid.
In rearranging these types of equations, care must be taken in performing the

mathematical operations. In general, the addition and subtraction functions are
rearranged before the multiplication and division functions.
Example 3-3
The equation for converting to Fahrenheit degrees (°F) to Celsius degrees (ºC) is shown
below. Rearrange the equation to solve for Celsius degrees (ºC).
°F = °C x 1.8 + 32
°F − 32 = °C x 1.8 + 32 + 32 or
°F − 32 = °C x 1.8
Step 2. Divide both sides of the equation by 1.8.
°F − 32 = °C x 1.8 or
1.8 1.8
(°F − 32) = °C
1.8
Example 3-4
The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder is V = 0.785 x D2 x H where;
V = volume of the cylinder

D = diameter of the cylinder, and
H = height of the cylinder.
If the volume (V) is 70.65 cubic feet and the diameter (D) is 3 feet what is the height (H)
of the cylinder?
The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder has four parts; three variables
(V, D and H) and one constant (0.785).
Three of the four parts are known (V, D and 0.785) and one part is unknown (H).
To rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown (H) on one side, divide both sides
of the equation by 0.785 and by D2.
Rearranging V = 0.785 x D2 x H results in,
V = 0.785 x D2 x H = H
0.785 x D2 0.785 x D2
Plug into the equation the known values for V and D and solve for H.
H = V = 70.65 feet3 = 10 feet

0.785 x D2 0.785 x 32 feet2
Similar Units
The measurements and symbols in equations must be expressed in similar units. In
water system problems, it is often necessary to change or convert measurements from
one unit to another before an equation can be solved.
Example 3-5
A rectangle has a width of 2 feet and a length of 48 inches. Determine the area of the
rectangle in the units of square feet.
The equation for the area of a rectangle is;
Area (feet2) = Length (feet) x Width (feet)
Change the length units of the rectangle from 48 inches to 4 feet to have units similar
the width.
Plug the length and width into the equation and calculate the area.
Area (feet2) = 4 feet x 2 feet = 8 feet2

Example 3-6
A water main has a diameter of 18 inches. Determine the cross-sectional area of the water
main in the units of square feet.
The cross-section of a water main is a circle. The equation for the cross-sectional
area of a circle is;
Area (feet2) = 0.785 x D2 where D = Diameter of the circle
To calculate the area of the circle in square feet, change the units of the diameter
from 18 inches to 1.5 feet.
Plug the known diameter into the equation and calculate the area.
Area (feet2) = 0.785 x (1.5 feet)2 = 1.77 feet2

Chapter 3
WORKING WITH EQUATIONS
Review Problems
1. Rearrange the following equation to solve for °F.
°C = (°F − 32)
1.8
2. Solve the following equation for the unknown A.
23 + 12.5 = 2 + 65.7 − A
3. Solve the following equation for the unknown V.
500 = V x 34 x 8.34
4. Solve the following equation for the unknown Y.
Y = (34.8 − 12.9) + 67
7.9
5. Solve the following equation for the unknown Z.
56,000 = 23.4 x (Z – 2.5)
39
Chapter 4
LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS
Introduction
Water treatment and distribution systems include facilities that have a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. These objects can be one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-
dimensional.
One-dimensional or linear objects include the length of a water main, the depth of water
in a storage tank and the length of a sedimentation tank overflow weir. Two-dimensional
objects relate to area and include the exterior surface of a water storage tank, the surface
area of a sand filter and the drainage area of a river or lake. Three-dimensional objects are
those that have volume and include treatment process units, storage tanks and water
mains.
Linear Computations
One-dimensional objects are referred to as linear. The length of a water main is a linear
dimension.
Perimeter is a special linear dimension for a closed two-dimensional figure. The

perimeter of any closed two-dimensional figure is defined as the distance around the
outside of the figure.
Example 4-1
A rectangle is 4 feet long and 2 feet wide. What is the perimeter of the rectangle?
The rectangle is shown below with the known length and width dimensions.
41
Length = 4 feet
Width = 2 feet Width = 2 feet
Length = 4 feet
The linear distance around the perimeter of the rectangle can be calculated by adding
each length and width dimension as shown below.
4 feet + 4 feet + 2 feet + 2 feet = 12 feet
The perimeter can also be calculated using the following equation.
(2 x 4 feet) + (2 x 2 feet) = 8 feet + 4 feet = 12 feet
The above example shows that the perimeter of a rectangle is equal to twice the length
plus twice the width, or
Perimeter = (2 x Length) + (2 x Width)
The distance around the outside of a circle is called the circumference. Circumference is
a special term for the perimeter of a circle. The circumference can be determined by
multiplying the diameter of the circle by a constant called Pi, the Greek letter.
The symbol for Pi is π. Pi is a constant with a value of approximately 3.14159. Pi is a

number that has a repeating decimal. This means that the digits to the right of the
decimal point are repeated indefinitely. For most water system calculations, using a value
of 3.14 for Pi is appropriate.
The parts of a circle are shown in the following diagram.
Circumference (C)
Circle
Radius (R)
Diameter (D)
Linear, Area and Volume Computations 43
The equation for determining the circumference (C) of a circle is:
C = π x D or C = 3.14 x D
The diameter of a circle is equal to two times the radius, or
D=2xR
If the radius is known, it must be changed to diameter by multiplying by two before using
the circumference equation.
Example 4-2
If a circle is has a diameter of 12.00 inches, what is the circumference of the circle?
The circle is shown below with the known diameter.
Circumference (C) = ?
Diameter (D) = 12.00 inches
The circumference is calculated by solving the following equation.
C = π x D = 3.14 x D = 3.14 x 12.00 inches = 37.68 inches
Area Computations
Area is a measurement defining the size of a figure in a plane or on a surface. The
equations used to calculate the areas of objects depend on the shape of the object. The
most common objects used in water system calculations are the rectangle and the circle.
Rectangles
The area of a rectangle is calculated by multiplying the length times the width. The
equation for calculating the area of a rectangle is shown below.

Example 4-3
A rectangle is 6 feet long and 3 feet wide. What is the area of the rectangle?
The rectangle is shown below with the known length and width dimensions.
Length = 6 feet
Width = 3 feet
The area of the rectangle is equal to 6 feet times 3 feet or 18 square feet. Using the
equation,
Area = Length x Width = 6 feet x 3 feet = 18 square feet (ft2)
Note that the units for area are square feet, abbreviated as ft2. When multiplying numbers
that have units, the units along with the numbers are also multiplied.
Circles
The area of a circle is defined by the following equation.
Area = π/4 x D2 or
Area = 0.785 x D2
where:
π = 3.14
D = the diameter of the circle
The area of a circle can also be calculated using the following equation.
Area = π x R2
where:
π = 3.14
R = the radius of the circle
When solving water system problems, equations showing the diameter are generally easier
to use than equations showing the radius since the dimensions of water mains and
circular tanks are usually presented as diameters.
Example 4-4
A circle has a diameter of 12 inches. Calculate the area of the circle in square inches (in2).
The circle is shown below with the known diameter.
Circumference (C)
Diameter (D) = 12 inches
The area of the circle is calculated by solving the following equation.
Area = π/4 x D2 = 0.785 x D2
or
Area = 0.785 x 12 inches x 12 inches = 113 square inches (in2)
The units for the area of the circle in this example are in square inches. In water system
problems, it is common for the area to be calculated in square feet (ft2) to be consistent
with other units of measurements in the problem. To calculate the area of the circle in
square feet the diameter of 12 inches must be changed or converted to 1 foot. The area
in units of square feet can then be determined using the area of a circle equation.
Area = π/4 x D2 = 0.785 x D2
or
Area = 0.785 x 1 foot x 1 foot = 0.785 square feet (ft2)

Volume/Capacity Computations
General
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume has two definitions that
are important to understand when performing water system calculations. These
definitions are presented below.
1. Volume is the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object,

often expressed in cubic units such as cubic feet (ft3).
2. Volume is the liquid capacity of a space or a container, often expressed in

units such as gallons.
Volume can be expressed as a space measurement (cubic feet) or as a liquid measurement

(gallons). When solving water system problems it is often necessary to change a volume
measurement from cubic feet to gallons or from gallons to cubic feet.
One of the most important concepts in water system calculations is the following volume
relationship between cubic feet and gallons.
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 7.48 gallons (gals)
Rectangular Objects
The volume of a rectangular object is calculated by multiplying the length times the width
times the height. Three-dimensional rectangular objects in water systems include
treatment units, clearwells and storage tanks. The equation for calculating the volume of
a rectangular object is shown below.
Volume = Length x Width x Height
where:
Length = the length of the rectangular object
Width = the width of the rectangular object
Height = the height of the rectangular object
Since the length times the width equals the area, the equation for calculating the volume
of a rectangular object can also be expressed as follows.
Volume = A x H
where:
Area = the area of the rectangle
Height = the height of the rectangular object
Example 4-5
A clearwell measures 60 feet long, 35 feet wide and 20 feet high. What is the volume of
the clearwell in cubic feet?
The clearwell is shown below with the known dimensions.
35 feet
20 feet
60 feet
The volume of the clearwell is calculated as follows.
Volume = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Height (ft)
or
Volume = 60 ft x 35 ft x 20 ft = 42,000 ft3

Example 4-6
What is the volume of this clearwell in gallons?
As shown previously, 1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons
If the clearwell volume of 42,000 ft3 is multiplied by 7.48 gals/ft3, the volume of the
clearwell in gallons can be determined.
42,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 314,160 gals

ft3
Cylinders
In water systems, pipes and circular tanks have the shape of cylinders. The volume of a
cylinder is calculated by using the following equation.
Volume = π/4 x D2 x H or
Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H
where:
π = 3.14
D = the diameter of the cylinder
H = the height (or length) of the cylinder
By examining the above equation, it can be seen that volume of a cylinder equals the area
of a circle multiplied by the height. The equation is shown below.
Volume = Area x Height
where:
Area = the area of a circle
Height = the height (or length) of the cylinder
Volume of cylinder calculations are commonly used in water system problems since
cylinders can represent treatment units, storage tanks and water mains. A pipe or water
main can be thought of as a cylinder in the horizontal position. For a water main, the
height (H) becomes the length (L) in the volume of a cylinder equation.
Example 4-7
A water main is 8 inches in diameter and 1,200 feet long. What is the volume of the water
main in cubic feet? What is the capacity of the water main in gallons?
Length = 1,200 feet
Diameter = 8 inches
The equation for calculating the volume of a cylinder is shown below.

Volume = 0.785 x D2 x L
The length dimension of the main is given in feet and the diameter dimension of the
main is given in inches. Before using the equation, these dimensions must be in the
same units. The diameter is converted from inches to feet as shown below.
8 inches x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 inches
The volume of the water main in cubic feet can now be determined by plugging the
known values for diameter and length into the volume of a cylinder equation.
Volume = 0.785 x 0.667 ft x 0.667 ft x 1,200 ft = 419 ft3
Since 1 cubic foot of volume equals 7.48 gallons, the capacity of the main in gallons
can be calculated as follows.
419 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 3,134 gallons

ft3
Spheres and Cones

Process treatment units and water storage tanks are sometimes in the shape of spheres
and cones. The equations for calculating the volume of these shapes are presented
below.
Diameter (D)
Volume = π x D3
6
Sphere
Diameter (D)
3
Cone Height (H)
The volume of a cone is equal to one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same height
and diameter.
Example 4-8
A water storage tank has a cylindrical top and a cone bottom as shown in the diagram
below. What is the volume of the tank in gallons?
Diameter = 20 feet
Water
Storage Tank
Height CYLINDER = 100 feet
Height CONE = 22 feet
The volume of the water storage tank, in cubic feet, is determined by calculating the
volumes of the cylinder and the cone using the equations given above and then
adding the two volumes.
The total volume in cubic feet can be changed to gallons using the relationship 1 ft3
= 7.48 gallons.
Volume CYLINDER = 0.785 x D2 x H = 0.785 x 20 ft x 20 ft x 100 ft = 31,400 ft3

Volume CONE = 0.785 x D2 x H = 0.785 x 20 ft x 20 ft x 22 ft = 2,303 ft3

3 3
Volume TANK = Volume CYLINDER + Volume CONE
Volume TANK = 31,400 ft3 + 2,303 ft3 = 33,703 ft3
Volume TANK = 33,703 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 252,100 gallons

1 ft3
Example 4-9
A sphere-shaped water storage tank has a diameter of 25 feet. What is the volume of the
tank in gallons?
Diameter (D) = 25 feet
Water Storage Tank
Calculate the volume of the sphere-shaped water storage tank in cubic feet using the
volume of a sphere formula.
Volume SPHERE = π x D3 = 3.14 x (25 ft)3 = 3.14 x 25 ft x 25 ft x 25 ft = 8,177 ft3

6 6 6
The volume of the sphere in cubic feet can be changed to gallons using the
relationship 1 ft3 = 7.48 gallons.
Volume SPHERE = 8,177 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 61,160 gallons

1 ft3
Chapter 4
LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS
Review Problems
1. Find the perimeter of a rectangle 23.4 feet long and 12.2 feet wide.
2. Find the diameter in feet of a circular water storage tank having a circumference
of 392.5 feet.
3. Calculate the volume in cubic feet of a water main 4 feet in diameter and 1,350
feet long.
4. Calculate the number of gallons in a water main having a diameter of 18 inches

and a length of 1,800 feet.
5. A water storage tank has a cylindrical top and a conical bottom. The top portion
has a diameter of 18 feet and a height of 75 feet. The conical bottom has a height
of 10 feet. Find the volume of the tank in gallons.
6. A cylindrical water storage tank has a volume of 300,000 gallons. If the height is
32 feet, what is the diameter of the tank in feet?
7. Calculate the number of cubic yards excavated from a trench with dimensions of
250 feet long, 20 feet wide and 9 feet deep.
53
Chapter 5
CONVERSIONS
Introduction
Properties such as distance, time, velocity, volume, flow and temperature can be
expressed in different units or measurements. When a property is changed from one unit
to another unit, for example changing a temperature measurement from degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Centigrade, it is said that Fahrenheit is converted to Centigrade.
An equation typically requires measurements and units to be similar before the equation
can be solved. Therefore, conversions are frequently necessary prior to solving equations
to make units and measurements similar or consistent.
For some conversions, such as the Fahrenheit to Centigrade temperature conversion,

special equations are used. Most conversions, however, can be performed using basic
math principles.
The operator may refer to tables or reference books when conversions are required. In
addition, a list of conversion factors is provided for certification exams. It is not
necessary for the operator to memorize all conversions. However, familiarity with the
following fundamental water system conversions is recommended.
1 foot of head (water) = 0.433 psi

1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons
1 gallon of water = 8.34 pounds
1 milligram per liter (mg/L) = 1 part per million (ppm)
Length Conversions
Length measurements include inches (in), feet (ft), yards (yd) and miles (mi). Common
length conversions are listed below.
12 in = 1 ft
55
3 ft = 1 yd
5,280 ft = 1 mi
Most everyone is familiar with these basic length conversions. The examples below show
how math principles are used to calculate length conversions.
Example 5-1
A water main has a diameter of 8 inches. Convert the diameter units to feet.
8 inches = 8 inches x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 inches
In this example, an equation has been created showing 8 inches equal to 8 inches
multiplied by the expression 1 foot divided by 12 inches. Since 1 foot equals 12 inches,
the expression 1 foot divided by 12 inches is equivalent to one. Therefore, the diameter
of 8 inches is multiplied by an expression that equals one. Basic math principles state that
when a value is multiplied by one, the value does not change.
The line through the inches units in the above example indicates that these units “cancel”
each other out. This convention will be used in the examples and problems presented in
this Handbook.
The above example illustrates the following rule for conversions.
When converting from one unit to another unit, multiply the unit by an expression
that equals one. When a number or expression is multiplied by one, its value does
not change.
This method for converting from one unit to another unit is referred to as the unit
factor method or dimensional analysis.
Example 5-2
The width of a trench measures 154 inches. Convert the width of the trench from inches
to yards.
To convert inches to yards, the inches are multiplied by two expressions that are
equal to one; 1 foot/12 inches and 1 yard/3 feet.
Conversions 57
154 inches = 154 inches x 1 foot x 1 yard = 4.28 yards

12 inches 3 feet
Using this rule for converting requires a bit of reasoning in determining the expressions
that needs to be applied. To “get rid of” a specific unit, put the unit on the bottom (or
denominator) of the expression. In the example above, the units of “inches” needed to
be eliminated so the expression required “inches” to be on the bottom.
Also, the final units need to be on the top (or numerator) of an expression. In the
example, the units of “yards” needed to be on the top of the expression.
Area Conversions
Area measurements include square inches (in2), square feet (ft2), acres (ac) and square
miles (mi2). Common area conversions are listed below.
1 ft2 = 144 in2

1 ac = 43,560 ft2
1 mi2 = 640 ac
The rule for conversions, multiplying the unit to be converted by an expression or

expressions equal to one, is shown in the following examples.
Example 5-3
A pipe has a cross-sectional area of 113 in2. What is the cross-sectional area of the pipe in
ft2?
113 in2 = 113 in2 x 1 ft2 = 0.785 ft2

144 in2
Example 5-4
A drainage basin has an area of 235,890 ft2. What is the area of the drainage basin in
acres?
253,890 ft2 = 253,890 ft2 x 1 acre = 5.83 acres

43,560 ft2
Example 5-5
A drainage basin has an area of 1.0 square mile. How many acres does the drainage basin
contain?
First calculate how many square feet are contained in one square mile. One mile is
equal to 5,280 ft. Therefore, the area of a one-mile square drainage basin in square
feet can be calculated as follows.
1 mi2 = 5,280 ft x 5,280 ft = 27,878,400 ft2
The conversion from ft2 to acres can now be made as shown below.
27,878,400 ft2 = 27,878,400 ft2 x 1 acre = 640 acres

43,560 ft2
Volume/Capacity Conversions
Volume measurements include cubic inches (in3) and cubic feet (ft3). A gallon (gal) is also
a volume or capacity measurement. For calculations involving drainage areas, the volume
term acre-feet (ac-ft) is commonly used. Common volume conversions are listed below.
1 ft3 = 1,728 in3

1 ft3 = 7.48 gals
1 ac-ft = 43,560 ft3
Review the following conversion examples.
Example 5-6
A pipe has an internal volume of 2,390 in3. What is the volume in ft3?
2,390 in3 = 2,390 in3 x 1 ft3 = 1.38 ft3

1,728 in3
Example 5-7
What is the capacity of the pipe in the above example in gallons?
1.38 ft3 = 1.38 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 10.32 gals

1 ft3
Example 5-8
A total of 12.39 million gallons (mg) of rain falls on a drainage basin. How many acre-
feet (ac-ft) of rain falls on the drainage basin?
Conversions 59
12.39 mg = 12.39 mg x 1,000,000 gals = 12,390,000 gals

1 mg
12,390,000 gals = 12,390,000 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 ac-ft = 38.03 ac-ft

7.48 gals 43,560 ft3
Weight Conversions
The most common weight measurement used in water systems is pounds (lbs). Metric
mass units of milligrams (mg), grams (gm) and kilograms (kg) are also commonly used in
water system calculations.
Weight and mass are related but different. Mass is the amount of material in an object
and is the same everywhere in the universe. Weight is the force exerted by an object and
is a function of gravity. Although not theoretically accurate, for most water system
calculations weight and mass can be considered equal.
Common weight conversions are listed below.
1 lb = 454 g
1 kg = 1,000 g
1 lb = 0.454 kg
The volume to weight conversion commonly used in water system calculations is shown
below.
1 gallon (of water) = 8.34 pounds
This conversion is only valid for water. Liquids with densities and specific gravities
different than water have different volume to weight conversions.
Example 5-9
A water storage tank contains 2,000 gallons. How many pounds of water does the tank
contain?
2,000 gals = 2,000 gals x 8.34 lbs = 16,680 lbs

1 gal
Example 5-10
How many kilograms does this water storage tank contain?
16,680 lbs = 16,680 lbs x 0.454 kg = 7,573 kg

1 lb
Pressure Conversions
Pressure is an important measurement for water system operators and is widely used in
monitoring and operating water facilities.
Pressure is typically measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and head of water (feet).
The conversion factor for psi and head of water is presented below.
1 foot of head = 0.433 psi
Example 5-11
The pressure inside a water main is 56 psi. What is the “head” in feet?
56 psi = 56 psi x 1 foot = 129 feet

0.433 psi
Example 5-12
A column of water is 215 feet high. What is the pressure in psi at the bottom of the
column?
215 feet = 215 feet x 0.433 psi = 93 psi

1 foot
Flow Conversions
Water system problem solving requires an understanding of the different units for
measuring flow and the ability to convert from one unit of flow to another.
Flow measurements include gallons per day (gpd), million gallons per day (mgd), gallons
per minute (gpm), cubic feet per second (cfs or ft3/sec) and gallons per hour (gph).
Common flow conversions are listed below.
Conversions 61
1 cfs = 449 gpm

1 cfs = 0.646 mgd
1 mgd = 694 gpm
1 mgd = 1.55 cfs
1 gpm = 1,440 gpd
These flow conversions are typically available in reference books and are provided for the
operator licensing exams. If flow conversion factors are not readily available, they can be
calculated by remembering that 1 cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons and applying the
appropriate time conversions.
Example 5-13
Convert 1 cubic foot per second (cfs or ft3⁄sec) to million gallons per day (mgd).
1 ft3 = 1 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 60 sec x 60 min x 24 hours = 646,272 gals

sec sec 1 ft3 1 min 1 hour 1 day day
646,272 gals = 646,272 gals x 1 mg = 0.646 mg

day day 1,000,000 gals day
Therefore, 1 cfs = 0.646 mgd
Temperature Conversions
Two scales are commonly used to measure temperature; degrees Fahrenheit (ºF) and
degrees Centigrade (ºC). Fahrenheit is the standard scale used in the US and Centigrade is
the metric scale. In the Centigrade scale, water freezes at 0º and boils at 100º. In the
Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32º and boils at 212º.
The relationships between Fahrenheit and Centigrade measurements are related by the
following equations. These equations are used to convert from one temperature scale to
the other.
ºC = (ºF – 32)
1.8
ºF = (ºC x 1.8) + 32
Example 5-14
Convert 22 ºC to ºF.
Plug 22 ºC into the Fahrenheit to Centigrade equation and solve for ºF.
ºF = (ºC x 1.8) + 32
ºF = (22 x 1.8) + 32
ºF = 39.6 + 32
ºF = 71.6
Example 5-15
Convert 212 ºF to ºC.
Plug 212 ºF into the Centigrade to Fahrenheit equation and solve for ºC.
ºC = (ºF – 32)
1.8
ºC = (212 – 32)
1.8
ºC = 180
1.8
ºC = 100
Metric Conversions
The metric system is a system of units and measurements based on factors of 10. Metric
measurements are commonly used in the laboratory where mass is expressed in grams (g)
or kilograms (kg) and volume or capacity is expressed in milliliters (mLs) or liters (L).
Chemical dosages are commonly expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
Common metric and US conversions are shown below.
Length
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meters (m)
1 mile (mi) = 1.6093 kilometers (km)
Conversions 63
Area
1 square meter (m2) = 10.764 square feet (ft2)
1 square mile (mi2) = 2.59 square kilometers (km2)
Volume/Capacity
1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (L)
1 gallon (gal) = 3,785 cubic centimeters (cc)
Mass
1 pound (lb) = 454 grams (g)
1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilograms (kg)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g)
Using these relationships, metric to US and US to metric conversions can be performed.
Example 5-16
Convert 786 grams to pounds.
786 grams = 786 g x 1 kg x 1 lb = 1.73 lbs

1,000 g 0.454 kg
Example 5-17
Convert 235 square feet (ft2) to square meters (m2).
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 ft2 = (0.3048)2 m2 = 0.0929 m2
235 ft2 = 235 ft2 x 0.0929 m2 = 21.83 m2

1 ft2
Example 5-18
Convert 1.2 gallons to milliliters.
1.2 gals = 1.2 gals x 3.785 L x 1,000 mL = 4,542 mL

1 gal 1L
Chapter 5
CONVERSIONS
Review Problems
1. Convert − 40 °F to ºC.
2. Convert 123.67 ft3 to gallons.
3. Convert 1.5 cfs to gpd.
4. Convert 2.5 mgd to cfs.
5. Convert 0.0056 pounds to grams.
6. Convert 234 million gallons to acre-feet.
7. Convert 62 psi to feet of head.
8. Convert 3,456 gallons of water to pounds of water.
65
Chapter 6
WATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS
Concentration
Concentration is a measure of how much of a given substance is combined with another
substance. In water system applications, the amount of chemicals added to a water
treatment process can be defined in terms of concentration. The amount of contaminants
in a water supply can also be quantified as a concentration.
Concentration can be expressed in a variety of units including pounds per gallon

(lbs/gal), milligrams per liter (mg/L), parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb).
Example 6-1
If 3 pounds of lime are mixed in 60 gallons of water, the concentration of the
mixture is 3 pounds divided by 60 gallons or 0.05 lbs/gal.
If 5 milligrams of polymer are mixed with 2 liters of water, the concentration of the
mixture is 5 milligrams divided by 2 liters or 2.5 mg/L
If 28 pounds of a contaminant such as arsenic is found in 1,000,000 pounds of a

water supply, the concentration of arsenic is 28 pounds divided by 1,000,000 pounds
or 0.000028 pounds/pound.
If 10 gallons of sodium hypochlorite are added to 5 million gallons of water, the

concentration of the mixture is 10 gallons divided by 5,000,000 gallons or 0.000002
gallon/gallon.
As seen in the last example, the term 0.000002 gallon/gallon is very small and can be
cumbersome to use in math calculations. This concentration, however, can also be
expressed in parts per million (ppm) by multiplying by one million. The concentration
can then be expressed as 2 ppm, which means 2 gallons of sodium hypochlorite for every
one million gallons of water. When expressing a concentration in parts per million the
67
units of the substance that is added must be the same as the units of the substance that is
being added to. In this case, the common unit is gallons.
When chemicals such as alum, lime, chlorine and polymer are added to water treatment
processes, the concentration is typically referred to as the dose or dosage of the
chemical. Dosage is usually expressed in metric terms as mg/L. A dosage of 1 mg/L
means that one milligram of a substance exists in one liter of water.
In the metric system, one liter of water is equal in weight to one kilogram. One kilogram
equals 1,000 grams and one gram equals 1,000 milligrams. Therefore, one liter equals
1,000,000 milligrams. A concentration of 1 mg/L is equivalent to 1 milligram per
1,000,000 milligrams or 1 part per million (ppm). The conversion of 1 mg/L to 1 ppm is
shown in the following example.
Example 6-2
Convert 1 mg/L to ppm.
1 mg = 1 mg x 1 L x 1 kg x 1 gm = 1 mg = 1 ppm
L L 1 kg 1,000 gms 1,000 mg 1,000,000 mg
Density and Specific Gravity

The density of a substance is a measure of its mass per unit volume. The greater the
density of a substance, the greater it’s mass per unit volume. A dense substance, such as
iron, has less volume than an equal mass of a less dense substance such as water.
The density of water is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. The density of water can also be
expressed as 8.34 pounds per gallon. Some substances used in water supply systems have
a higher density than water, such as liquid sodium hypochlorite, and some have a lower
density than water, such as anhydrous ammonia.
Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water.
Therefore, the specific gravity of water by definition is 1.0. Substances that are lighter
than water have specific gravities less than 1.0 and will float in water. Substances having
specific gravities exceeding 1.0 are heavier than water and will sink in water. The
relationship between density and specific gravity is shown in the following equation.
SG SUBSTANCE = Density SUBSTANCE

Density WATER
Water System Concepts 69
Example 6-3
The specific gravity (SG) of a sodium hypochlorite solution is 1.07. What is the density of
sodium hypochlorite in lbs/ft3?
The specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite is defined by the following equation.
SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE

Density WATER
Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown density of sodium hypochlorite.
Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = SG SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE x Density WATER
Plug the known values for the specific gravity of sodium hypochlorite and the density
of water into the equation.
Density SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE = 1.07 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 66.8 lbs/ft3
Force and Pressure of Water

Force is the weight of an object, typically expressed in pounds (lbs).
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit of surface area, typically expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi or lbs/in2).
Water exerts forces and pressures in water treatment and distribution systems. System
forces and pressures are used to design water supply systems and to monitor water
system operations.
The weight of a column of water one foot high will exert a pressure of 0.433 pounds on
each square inch of surface area, or 0.433 psi. As the water column increases in height,
the pressure on each square inch will increase by 0.433 psi for every additional foot of
height. Examine the figure shown below.
1 inch
1 foot = 12 inches
1 inch
1 foot = 12 inches
12 inches
1 foot = 12 inches
0.433 psi Area = 144 in2

62.4 lbs.
The figure shown represents one cubic foot of water having dimensions of 1 foot long by
1 foot wide by 1 foot high. The dimensions can also be expressed in inches; 12 inches
long by 12 inches wide by 12 inches high.
The area of the bottom of the cube can be calculated as follows:
Area = 1 foot x 1 foot = 1 ft2, or
Area = 12 inches x 12 inches = 144 in2
The density of water is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3). Therefore, the total force on
the bottom of the cubic foot of water is 62.4 pounds.
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit of surface area, usually expressed as pounds per
square inch. If the total force on the bottom of the cubic foot of water is divided by the
total area of the force, the pressure in psi can be determined. This is shown in the
following calculation.
Pressure = Force = 62.4 lbs = 0.433 psi

Area 144 in2
Every vertical foot of water exerts a pressure on the bottom surface equal to 0.433
psi, or
1 foot of water (or foot of head) = 0.433 psi
Example 6-4
A water storage tank is 20 feet in diameter and 60 feet tall. What is the pressure in psi at
the bottom of tank assuming the water level is 50 feet from the tank bottom?
Solve this problem by converting the water height of 50 feet to psi.
50 feet = 50 feet x 0.433 psi = 21.65 psi

1 foot
In the above example, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is influenced only by the
height of the water. The pressure is not influenced by the diameter of the tank or the
height of the tank.
If the pressure exerted on a surface area is known the height of the water can be
determined using the rule for conversions.
Example 6-5
Convert 1 psi to a height of water (head).
1 psi = 1 psi x 1 foot = 2.31 feet

0.433 psi
The above example shows the following relationship.
Every psi of water is equivalent to a water height (or head) of 2.31 feet, or
1 psi = 2.31 feet of head
Velocity and Flow

Velocity is a function of the speed of an object and its direction. In water systems,
velocity is defined as the speed of water as it travels through a treatment unit, process
piping or water main.
Velocity is usually expressed in the units of feet per second, commonly written as ft/sec
or fps.
Flow is defined as the quantity or volume of water that travels through a cross-sectional
area over a specific period of time. The general equation for flow is shown below.
Q=AxV
where:
Q = flow
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity
The concept of flow through a pipe is illustrated in the following figure.

1 time 2 Area
Area
Velocity (V)
Water travels through the pipe at a velocity of V from Point 1 to Point 2. While traveling
from Point 1 to Point 2, it takes a specific time. During this time, the water passes
through or “displaces” a specific volume (Vol) of pipe. Therefore, flow can also be
considered as volume displace over a period of time or volume divided by time. The
equation is shown below.
Q = Vol
T
where:
Q = flow
Vol = volume
T = time
Flow can be expressed in many units. The most common units of flow are cubic feet per
second (cfs or ft3/sec), gallons per minute (gpm) and million gallons per day (mgd).
Example 6-6
Determine the flow in cfs in an 8-inch diameter pipe that is transporting water at a
velocity of 2 fps.
Flow = ?
Diameter = 8 inches
Velocity = 2 ft/sec
The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.
Determine the cross-sectional area of the pipe using the area of a circle formula.
Since the flow and the velocity are expressed in “feet” units, convert the diameter of
the pipe from inches to feet before using the area of a circle formula.
8 in = 8 in x 1 foot = 0.667 foot

12 in
Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 0.667 ft x 0.667 ft = 0.349 ft2
Plug the known values for velocity and area in the flow formula.
Q = A x V = 0.349 ft2 x 2 ft/sec = 0.70 ft3/sec

Example 6-7
Determine the velocity in fps in a 24-inch diameter pipe that is transporting water at a
flow of 8,455 gpm.
Flow = 8,455 gpm

Diameter = 24 inches
Velocity = ?
The equation for flow is Q = A x V where Q equals flow, A equals the cross-
sectional area of the pipe and V equals the velocity of the water.
Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown velocity.
Q=AxV or Q=AxV=V
A A
Determine the area of the pipe. Since the flow and the velocity are in “feet” units,
convert the diameter of the pipe from inches to feet before using the area of a circle
formula.
24 in = 24 in x 1 foot = 2 feet
12 in
Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 2 ft x 2 ft = 3.14 ft2
Convert the flow from gallons per minute to cubic feet per second to make the flow
units consistent with the units for velocity and area.
8,455 gpm = 8,455 gal x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 18.84 ft3/sec

min 7.48 gals 60 sec
Plug the known values for flow and area into the rearranged flow formula.
V = Q = 18.84 ft3/sec = 18.84 ft x ft x ft/sec = 6 fps

A 3.14 ft2 3.14 ft x ft
Detention Time
Detention time is the amount of time that a volume of water will remain in a space. The
space may be a pipe, a treatment basin, a clearwell, a water storage tank or any other
object that has volume. Detention time is a key parameter used by water system operators
to evaluate and monitor treatment, storage and distribution systems.
The general equation for detention time is shown below.
DT = Vol
Q
where:
DT = detention time
Vol = volume
Q = flow
Note that the detention time equation is similar to the flow equation discussed in the
previous section. The concept of detention time is illustrated in the following figure.
Q Q
V
1 time 2
A flow of water, shown as Q, flows through a rectangular basin with a volume of V. The
time it takes to travels from Point 1 to Point 2 is called the detention time. The detention
time, calculated by dividing the volume by the flow, assumes that each drop of water in
the basin travels at the same velocity. In reality, the water drops do not travel at the same
velocity due to unequal influent flow distribution, basin size and shape, temperature
variations and other environmental and structural factors. Therefore, the calculated
detention time is often referred to as the theoretical detention time. Due to these
factors, some drops of water will reach the end of the basin before the calculated
detention time. This is called short-circuiting.
Detention time can be expressed in the units of seconds, minutes, hours and days.
In solving water systems problems, do not confuse velocity with volume. Velocity
and volume both can be abbreviated by the letter V.
Example 6-8
A circular water sedimentation basin has a diameter of 250 feet and a depth of 12 feet. At
a flow of 20 mgd, what is the detention time in hours?
Q = 20 mgd
Depth = 12 feet Q = 20 mgd
Diameter = 250 feet
The equation for detention time is DT = Vol/Q where DT equals detention time, Vol
equals the volume of the tank and Q equals the flow through the tank..
The sedimentation basin has the shape of a cylinder. Its volume can be calculated by
using the equation for the volume of a cylinder.
Volume = 0.785 x 250 ft x 250 ft x 12 ft = 588,750 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to million gallons.
588,750 ft3 = 588,750 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 4,403,850 gals

1 ft3
4,403,850 gals = 4,403,850 gals x 1 mgd = 4.404 mg

1,000,000 gals
Plug the known valves for volume and flow into the detention time formula.
DT = Vol = 4.404 mg = 0.22 day

Q 20 mg/d
Convert the units of detention time from days to hours.
DT = 0.22 days x 24 hours = 5.28 hours

1 day
Head and Headloss

Static and Dynamic Conditions
The pressure in a water system depends on the height of the water. For every foot of
water depth a pressure of 0.433 psi is created. The depth of the water column is called the
head or pressure head.
The figure below represents a water main under pressure with no flow. The water main is
horizontal or at the same elevation at all points. A condition of no flow is called static.
100 ft
43.3 psi 43.3 psi

P P
Q=0
A B
The pressure head at Point A and Point B is 100 feet. The pressure gauges on the water
main read 43.3 psi at both points.
The figure below represents a water main under pressure with no flow. The flow remains
static but the water main is sloped.
100 ft
120 ft
43.3 psi
P
P 52.0 psi
A Q=0
B
The pressure head from Point A to Point B increases from 100 feet to 120 feet due to the
change in the height of the water column and the corresponding pressure increases from
43.3 psi at Point A to 52.0 psi at Point B.
The figure below represents a horizontal water main under flow conditions. A flow
condition is called dynamic.
100 ft
70 ft
43.3 psi 30.3 psi
P P
Q
A B
The pressure head from Point A to Point B drops from 100 feet to 70 feet and the
corresponding pressure is reduced from 43.3 psi to 30.3 psi.
The figure below represents a sloped water main under flow conditions.
100 ft
43.3 psi
P 60 ft
Q P 26.0 psi
A
B
The pressure head from Point A to Point B drops from 100 feet to 60 feet and the
corresponding pressure is reduced from 43.3 psi to 26.0 psi.
Example 6-9
Determine the pressure head at Point B in the following diagram.
132 ft
57.2 psi
P ? ft
Q P 32.0 psi
A
The pressure head is the depth of the water column that has a pressure of 32 psi at
the bottom.
Convert the pressure given at Point B from psi to feet.
32 psi = 32 psi x 1 foot = 73.9 feet

0.433 psi
Headloss
Under dynamic conditions in a piping system, pressure is reduced due to headloss.
Headloss represents the energy expended by the water as it moves through the piping
system. Headloss can also be defined as the reduction in total head as the water moves
through the system. Headloss has the following components.
Friction headloss
Minor headloss
Velocity headloss
Friction headloss is the energy lost due to the friction between the water and the walls
of the pipe. The rougher the walls, the higher the frictional head loss. Wall roughness is a
function of the pipe material, pipe age and scaling and corrosion conditions. At a given
flow, frictional head loss increases as the pipe length increases and decreases as the pipe
diameter increases. Frictional headloss can be calculated by using the Hazen-Williams
formula or from hydraulic tables found in standard hydraulic handbooks.
Minor headloss represents energy lost due to changes in the direction of flow or
changes in velocity caused by bends, fittings, valves or other structural components.
Minor headlosses can be caused by elbows, reducers, increasers and valves. Minor
headlosses are usually, but not necessarily, a minor portion of total system headloss.
Minor head losses can be calculated using formulas and coefficients available in standard
hydraulic handbooks.
Velocity headloss represents the energy in the water due to its motion. Velocity head is
defined by the following equation.
Velocity Head = V2 ⁄ 2g
where:
V = velocity
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 (acceleration due to gravity)
Velocity headloss is small when compared to total head loss and is seldom used in water
system hydraulic calculations.
Example 6-10
Determine the pressure in psi at Point B in the system below given the following
information.
− Friction headloss from Point A to Point B is 21 feet

− Minor headloss and velocity headloss are negligible
− Pipe rises in elevation 30 feet from Point A to Point B.
150 ft P
30 ft
Q B
The pressure head at Point B equals the pressure head at Point A minus the change
in elevation minus the friction headlosses.
Pressure head at B = Pressure head at A − elevation loss − friction loss
Pressure head at B = 150 ft − 30 ft − 21 ft = 99 feet
Convert the pressure head in feet to psi.

1 foot
Pumping Systems
In pumping systems, the total head is defined as the energy required to pump the water
from the source to the discharge point. Total head is also referred to as total dynamic
head (TDH). Total head is the sum of the following.
Static head
Friction headloss
Minor headloss
Velocity head
In equation form,
TDH = Static Head + Friction Headloss + Minor Headloss + Velocity Head

Example 6-11
A pump delivers flow from a clearwell (water elevation 10 feet) to a water storage tank
(water elevation 120 feet). Determine the total dynamic head given the following
conditions.
− Headloss due to friction = 22 feet

− Velocity Head = 1 foot
− Minor Headloss = 8 feet
Calculate the static head.
Static Head = Storage Tank Water Elevation − Clearwell Water Level Elevation
Static Head = 120 feet − 10 feet = 110 feet
Plug the known values into the Total Dynamic Head equation.
TDH = Static Head + Friction Headloss + Minor Headloss + Velocity Head
Total Head = 110 ft + 22 ft + 8 ft + 1 ft = 141 feet
Water Pumping and Storage

In water supply systems, water is generally pumped from the source wells or surface
water supply to a treatment system. After treatment, the water is pumped to a clearwell,
storage tank or directly to the distribution system. Water may also be pumped at
intermediate points in the treatment process or in the distribution system.
Water system operators perform calculations to determine the proper volumes of water
that need to be pumped, treated and stored to meet consumer demands. A typical water
system operation includes storing treated water and pumping the treated water into the
distribution system to meets system demands. This operation is illustrated below.
QTREATMENT = Constant
Treatment
Plant
Varying
Water Discharge Pump
Depth Clearwell to Distribution System
QDISCHARGE = Variable
Water Storage
Tank
The drawing shows a Treatment Plant discharging treated water to a Water Storage Tank.
The flow from the Treatment Plant to the Water Storage Tank is constant. A Discharge
Pump pumps the treated water from the Water Storage Tank into the distribution system
to meet system demands. The pump may be operated by a variable speed drive or have a
constant speed drive that turns on and shuts off based on the water demand and/or the
desired system pressure.
During operation, the water level in the Water Storage Tank will vary depending on water
demand. If the water demand over a specific time period is greater than the flow from the
Treatment Plant the water level in the Water Storage Tank will drop. If the water demand
over a specific time period is less than that the flow from the Treatment Plant the water
level in the Water Storage Tank will rise.
Example 6-12
Determine the average pumping rate of the Discharge Pump in mgd given the
information in the following diagram.
QTREATMENT = 28.2 mgd
Water Storage
Treatment
Tank
Plant
Water level
Clearwell
rises 8.8 feet
in 5.0 hours QDISCHARGE = ?
Discharge
Diameter = 200 ft Pump
The Discharge Pump will pump at an average rate equal to the Treatment Plant flow
(28.2 mgd) minus the volume of water stored in the Water Storage Tank. Because
the tank level is rising, the flow from the Discharge Pump will be less that the flow
from the Treatment Plant.
The volume of the water stored in the Water Storage Tank in cubic feet can be
calculated as the volume of a cylinder with a diameter of 200 feet and a height of 8.8
feet.
Volume Stored= 0.785 x D2 x H = 0.785 x D x D x H
Volume Stored = 0.785 x 200 ft x 200 ft x 8.8 ft = 276,320 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to million gallons to be consistent with the
units for flow.
276,320 ft3 = 276,320 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 1 mg = 2. 067 mg

1 ft 3
1,000,000 gals
Calculate the volume of water discharged from the Treatment Plant to the Water
Storage Tank during the 5.0 hour period.
Volume from Plant = 28.2 mg x 5.0 hours x 1 day = 5.875 mg

day 24 hours
The volume of water pumped by the Discharge Pump during the 5.0 hour period is
equal to the volume of water discharged from the Treatment Plant to the Water
Storage Tank minus the volume of water stored.
Volume Pumped = 5.875 mg − 2. 067 mg = 3.808 mg
The flow from the Discharge Pump is the volume pumped divided by the time
period.
Discharge Pump Flow = Volume = 3.808 mg = 0.762 mg

Time 5.0 hrs hr
Convert the flow units from mg/hr to mgd.
0.762 mg = 0.762 mg x 24 hrs = 18.3 mgd

hr hr day
Chemical Dosage and Chemical Feed Rate

General
In water treatment and distribution systems, chemicals are added to disinfect the water, to
assist in the removal of contaminants and to improve public health. Some of the more
common chemicals are listed below.
Chlorine
Alum
Lime
Fluoride
Clays
Polymers
Water treatment chemicals are available in the three physical forms; gasses, liquids and
solids. Solid chemicals can be provided in powder, granular or tablet form. The units of
the chemicals can be in weight or mass, such as pounds or grams, or in volume, such as
gallons or cubic feet. Chemicals are also available in different strengths or purities. A
chemical is said to have 100% purity if the entire amount of chemical added is being used
by the process in performing its function. If a chemical has 50% purity, then only one-
half of the chemical added is being used by the process. In performing calculations
involving chemicals, the units of measurement and the purity of the chemical are key
considerations.
Chemical Dosage
Dosage is amount of a chemical added to water. Dosage is typically expressed as a
concentration in terms of mg/L or ppm.
Example 6-13
If 2 gallons of algaecide are added to clean a tank containing 26,000 gallons of water, the
dosage is two gallons per 26,000 gallons. The dosage can be expressed in several forms as
shown below.
2 gallons per 26,000 gallons, or

2 gallons/26,000 gallons, or
0.0000769 gallons/gallon
From this example, it can be seen that dosage can be expressed as a fraction or as a
decimal. It can also be seen that dosages can be very small when expressed in decimal
format.
In water system problems, dosage is usually expressed as a concentration in the units of

parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L). As discussed earlier, ppm and
mg/L are equal expressions.
In the previous example, the dosage of 2 gallons per 26,000 gallons can also be expressed
as a concentration in ppm or mg/L. To convert a number in decimal format to ppm or
mg/L, the number is multiplied by one million. The conversion of 0.0000769 to ppm or
mg/L is shown below.
0. 0000769 x 1,000,000 = 76.9 ppm or mg/L
Chemical Feed Rate

Chemical feed rate refers to the quantity or volume of chemical being added to the
process over a certain time. Chemical feed rate can be expressed in several units
including:
pounds per day (lbs/day)

gallons per day (gpd)
gallons per hour (gph), and
grams per minute (g/min)
Chemical feed rate has units similar to flow when the volume is expressed in gallons, such
as gallons per day. Chemical feed rate can be considered as a “flow” of chemicals.
The Pounds Formula

The pounds formula is one of the most important equations that water system operators
use. This equation defines the relationship among feed rate, dosage, volume and flow.
The pounds formula can be used to calculate the following:
Chemical dosages required

Quantities of chemical needed
Water treatment flows
Volume of treatment units, and
Quantities of pollutants removed from the treatment process.
The pounds formula can be expressed in two versions, as a “mass” or as a “mass flow”.
The mass format represents a static or non-flowing condition, such as adding chlorine to
disinfect a storage tank or a water main. The mass flow format represents a flow
condition, such as adding chemicals to the flow entering a sedimentation basin. These
two formats of the pounds formula are shown in the equations below.
Equation (1)
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
where:
Mass = pounds
Volume = million gallons
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)
Equation (2)
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day
Flow = million gallons per day
Dosage (or Concentration) = milligrams per liter (or ppm)
Equation (1) is used to solve “static” problems where there is no flow of water, such as
disinfecting a water storage tank.
Equation (2) is used to solve problems where water is flowing, such as adding alum to a
water treatment process.
Example 6-14
Determine the pounds of available chlorine required to disinfect a 200,000-gallon water
storage tank to a chlorine concentration of 50 mg/L.
Chlorine Concentration
Chlorine
= 50 mg/L
Volume = 200,000 gallons Supply
or 0.20 mg
Water Storage Tank

Calculate the pounds of chlorine required by using the “Mass” version of the
pounds formula or Equation (1).
Convert the volume units of the tank from gallons to million gallons.
200,000 gals = 200,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.20 mg

1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of available chlorine.
lbs of Cl2 = 0.20 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 83.4 lbs.

Example 6-15
Alum is added to a treatment process at a rate of 125 lbs/day. If the flow is 2 mgd, what
is the dosage of alum added in mg/L?
Alum Added = 125 lbs/day
Flow = 2 mgd
Floc Basin Sedimentation Basin
Calculate the dosage of alum using the “Mass Flow ” format of the pounds formula
or Equation (2).
Rearrange the formula to isolate the unknown dosage on one side of the equation.
Dosage (mg/L) = Mass Flow (lbs/day)

Flow (mgd) x 8.34
Plug the known values for mass flow and flow into the equation and solve for the
dosage of alum.
Dosage (mg/L) = 125 lbs/day = 7.5 mg/L

2 mgd x 8.34
Chemicals such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite and fluoride are not 100%
pure or active when added to water treatment processes. When the chemical used is less
than 100 % pure, the “mass” pounds formula (Equation 1) and the “mass flow” pounds
formula (Equation 2) are modified to account for the percent purity of the chemical.
Equation (1) - Modified for Chemical Feed Applications
Chemical Feed (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)
where:
Chemical Feed = pounds of chemical required
Volume = million gallons
Dosage = milligrams per liter (or ppm) of chemical added
% Purity = the percent purity of the chemical expressed as a decimal
Equation (2) – Modified for Chemical Feed Applications
Chemical Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)
where:
Feed Rate = pounds per day of chemical required
Flow = million gallons per day
Dosage = milligrams per liter (or ppm) of chemical added
% Purity = the percent purity of the chemical expressed as a decimal
Example 6-16
How many pounds of sodium hypochlorite at 15 percent strength are required to
disinfect a water storage tank? The desired chlorine dosage is 50 mg/L. The tank has a
volume of 1.35 million gallons.
Pounds of 15 % sodium
Chlorine Concentration Required hypochlorite added = ?
in Tank = 50 mg/L
Volume = 1.35 mg
Chemical
Feed Pump
Water Storage Tank
Since the sodium hypochlorite solution used for disinfection is not 100% pure, the
modified version of the “mass” pounds formula is used to take into consideration
the purity of the solution.

(% Purity)
Plug the known values for volume and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for
the unknown pounds of sodium hypochlorite.
Sodium Hypochlorite (lbs) = 1.35 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 3,753 lbs

0.15
The pounds formula can also be used for solving problems relating to contaminants
removed from water treatment processes.
Example 6-17
A water treatment process (Flocculation and Sedimentation) removes total suspended
solids (TSS) from the incoming raw water prior to the filtration process. Determine the
pounds per day of TSS that will go to the filters for further treatment given the
information in the following diagram.
Flow = 20 mgd TSS Concentration = 5 mg/L

TSS Pounds per Day (lbs/day) = ?
To Filters
Floc Basin Sedimentation Basin Sludge
Use the “mass flow” version of the pounds formula to solve the problem.
where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day of TSS sent to the filters
Flow = million gallons per day = 20 mgd
Dosage (or Concentration) of TSS = 5 mg/L
Plug the known values for flow and concentration into the pounds formula to solve
for the unknown pounds per day of TSS.
TSS (lbs/day) = 20 mgd x 5 mg/L x 8.34 = 834 lbs/day

Example 6-18
In a water treatment plant, sludge from the Sedimentation Basin flows to the Sludge
Lagoon for storage prior to being sent to a landfill for ultimate disposal. The sludge from
the lagoon is sent to the landfill annually. Determine the tons of dry solids removed from
the lagoon per year given the information in the following diagram.
To Filters
Flow = 150,000 gpd

TSS Concentration = 45 mg/L
To Landfill
Sedimentation Basin
Sludge Lagoon
Sludge Removed in
Tons per Year
Use the “mass flow” version of the pounds formula to solve the problem.
where:
Mass Flow = pounds per day of TSS deposited in the lagoon
Flow = 150,000 gpd = 0.15 mgd
Dosage (or Concentration) of TSS = 45 mg/L
Convert the units of flow from gallons per day to million gallons per day. Plug the
known values for flow and dosage into the pounds formula to solve for the unknown
pounds per day of TSS.
TSS (lbs/day) = 0.15 mgd x 45 mg/L x 8.34 = 56.30 lbs/day
Convert the TSS units from pounds per day to tons per year.
56.30 lbs = 56.30 lbs x 356 days x 1 ton = 10.27 tons/year

day day year 2,000 lbs
Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate

Filter Flow Rate (or Filtration Rate) and Filter Backwash Flow Rate are operational
parameters of the filtration process used to monitor process efficiency and equipment
operation.
The following diagram shows a typical multi-media rapid sand filter.

Filter Influent Flow
(QIN) Filter Length
Filter Width
Filter Effluent Flow

Filter Backwash to (QOUT)
Waste Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK)
Under normal operations, the Filter Influent (QIN) flows over the surface of the filter.
The water passes through the filter media and the treated water is collected and
discharged as Filter Effluent (QOUT). During backwash operations, the Filter Backwash
(QBACK) passes upwards through the filter to remove filter contaminants. The Filter
Backwash is discharged to waste.
The Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate are both expressed in terms of
flow per surface area of the filter. Since the surface area of the filter is the length times
the width, the equations for Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate for
rectangular filters can be written as shown below.
Filter Flow Rate = Filter Influent (QIN) = Filter Influent (QIN)

Filter Surface Area Length x Width
Filter Backwash Flow Rate = Filter Backwash (QBACK) = Filter Backwash (QBACK)
Filter Surface Area Length x Width
For circular filters, the filter surface area can be calculated using the area of a circle
formula.
Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Flow Rate are typically expressed in terms of
gpm/ft2.
Example 6-19
Determine the Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate given the parameters
shown in the diagram.
Filter Influent Flow (QIN) = 1,200 gpm
Filter Length = 40 feet
Filter Width = 15 feet
Filter Effluent Flow

(QOUT)
Filter Backwash to
Waste Filter Backwash Flow
(QBACK) = 15,000 gpm
The Filter Flow Rate and the Filter Backwash Flow Rate can be determined by using
the equations shown above. Plug into these equations the known values for Length,
Width, Filter Influent Flow and Filter Backwash Flow and calculate the respective
flow rates.
Filter Flow Rate = Filter Influent (QIN) = 1,200 gpm = 2 gpm

Length x Width 40 ft x 15 ft ft2
Filter Backwash Flow Rate = Filter Backwash (QBACK) = 15,000 gpm = 25 gpm
Sedimentation Tank Loading and Overflow Rates

Surface Loading Rate and Weir Overflow Rate are operational parameters of the
sedimentation process that are used to monitor process efficiency and equipment
operation.
The following diagram shows a Sedimentation Tank.
Length Overflow Weir

Influent Baffle
Sedimentation
Tank Influent Width
(QIN)
Sedimentation
Tank
Sedimentation
Tank Effluent
(QOUT)
Sludge
Under normal operations, the Sedimentation Tank Influent (QIN) flows into the tank. The
tank typically has influent baffles to provide flow distribution. The water travels through
the tank and eventually flows over an overflow weir at the end of tank. The flow is
collected and directed out of the tank as Sedimentation Tank Effluent (QOUT). During
sedimentation tank operation, the settled sludge is collected from the bottom of the tank
and removed for treatment and disposal.
The Surface Loading Rate is expressed in terms of flow per surface area of the tank.
Since the surface area of a rectangular sedimentation tank is the tank length times the
tank width, the equation for Surface Loading Rate can be written as follows.
Surface Loading Rate = Tank Influent (QIN) = Tank Influent (QIN)

Tank Surface Area Length x Width
For circular sedimentation tanks, the surface area is calculated by using the area of a circle
formula. The Surface Loading Rate for circular sedimentation tanks can be written as
follows.
Surface Loading Rate = Tank Influent (QIN) = Tank Influent (QIN)

Tank Surface Area 0.785 x D2
The Weir Overflow Rate is expressed in terms of flow per length of the weir at the
Sedimentation Tank outlet. The Weir Overflow Rate can be written as follows.
Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Influent Flow (QIN)

Length of Weir
For rectangular sedimentation tanks, the overflow weir is typically at the effluent end of
the tank. For some designs, the overflow weir is approximately equal to the width of the
tank.
For circular sedimentation tanks, the overflow weir is a circle and is typically located
adjacent to the outside edge of the tank. The weir length for circular tanks can be
approximated by using the circumference of a circle formula.
The Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate are typically expressed in gpd/ft2
and gpd/ft, respectively. The Surface Loading Rate can also be expressed in gpm/ft2.
Example 6-20
Calculate the Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate of the following
Sedimentation Tank.
Tank Length = 100 feet Weir
Tank Influent
(QIN) =
1,200,000 gpd
Tank Width = 60 feet
Sedimentation
Tank
Tank Effluent
(QOUT)
The Surface Loading Rate and the Weir Overflow Rate can be determined using the
equations previously shown.
Surface Loading Rate = Tank Influent (QIN) = 1,200,000 gpd = 200 gpd
Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Influent (QIN) = 1,200,000 gpd = 20,000 gpd
Length of Weir 60 ft ft
Horsepower and Efficiency

Horsepower, abbreviated as hp, is a unit of measurement used to express rate of work
or power. The electrical motors used to operate pumps and other water system
equipment are rated in horsepower units.
Horsepower can be expressed as Motor hp (or Input hp), Brake hp (or Shaft hp) and
Water hp.
Work or power can also be expressed as watts or kilowatts. The relationship among
watts, kilowatts and horsepower is shown below.
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts

1 kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 watts
1 horsepower (hp) = 0.746 kilowatts
The following diagram shows a pump driven by a motor that pumps treated water to a
clearwell.
Pumped Water
Electrical
Supply
Clearwell
PUMP
MOTOR
Water hp
Treatment Brake hp
Plant
Motor hp
The diagram indicates that the Motor hp is measured at the electrical input of the motor,
the Brake hp is measured at the output shaft of the motor and the Water hp is measured
at the outlet of the pump.
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to the input of any system, expressed as a
percentage (%).
In the diagram, the output of the motor is the Brake HP and the input of the motor is
the Motor hp. The efficiency of the motor is expressed by the following equation.
Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100

Motor hp
Similarly, the efficiency of the Pump can be expressed by the following equation.
Pump Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100

Brake hp
Another term used in water pumping applications is Wire-to-Water Efficiency. Wire-

to-water efficiency is defined as the efficiency of the pumping process from the input of
the motor (at the wire) to the output of the pump (at the water).
Wire-to-water efficiency of a pumping system is expressed by the following equations.
Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100

Motor hp
Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Motor Efficiency (%) x Pump Efficiency (%)
Example 6-21
Determine the motor efficiency, pump efficiency and wire-to-water efficiency of the
following pumping system.
Water hp = 8
Clearwell
MOTOR
PUMP
Motor hp = 10
Brake hp = 9
Treatment
Plant
Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100 = 9 x 100 = 90 %

Motor hp 10
Pump Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 8 x 100 = 89 %

Break hp 9
Wire-to-Water Efficiency (%) = Water hp x 100 = 8 x 100 = 80 %

Motor hp 10
Wire-to-Water Efficiency can also be determined by multiplying the Motor Efficiency by

the Pump Efficiency.
Wire-to-Water Efficiency = Motor Eff. x Pump Eff. = 90 % x 89 % = 0.90 x 0.89 =

0.80 = 80%
To calculate motor, pump or water horsepower when the efficiencies are known, first
select the appropriate efficiency equation and then rearrange the equation to solve for the
unknown horsepower.
Example 6-22
The motor in the diagram below has an efficiency of 80%. If the Break hp is 12, what is
the Motor hp?
MOTOR
Clearwell
PUMP
Motor Eff. = 80%

Motor hp = ? Brake hp = 12
Treatment
Plant
The equation for motor efficiency is;
Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp

Motor hp
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown Motor hp on one side of the equation
and plug in the known values for Brake hp and motor efficiency.
Motor hp = Brake hp = 12 = 12 = 15 hp
Motor Efficiency (%) 80% 0.80
There are also horsepower and efficiency equations based on pumping rate and head.
These equations are not commonly used by operators but are sometimes found on
operator licensing exams. These equations are typically provided with the exam materials.
These equations are shown below.
Motor hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)______

3,960 x Pump Efficiency x Motor Efficiency
Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Efficiency
Water hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960
In the above equations, the motor efficiency and pump efficiency are expressed in
decimal format.
Example 6-23
A pump with an efficiency of 92% pumps a flow of 2,350 gpm from the treatment plant
to the clearwell. The total head of the pumping system is 34 feet. What is the Break hp?
Using the Break hp equation, plug in the known values for motor efficiency, flow
and total head.
Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet) = 2,350 gpm x 34 feet = 21.9 hp

3,960 x % Pump Efficiency 3,960 x 0.92
Electricity and Power Costs

Electrical Measurements
The basic measurements in electricity are the amp, the ohm and the volt.
The amp or ampere is a measure of electric current and the flow of electrons. Amperage
can be compared to water flowing in a water main. The symbols for amps are I or A.
The ohm is a measure of the resistance to the flow of electrons. Resistance can be
compared to headloss in a water main. The symbol for ohms is the Greek letter omega or
Ω.
The volt is the force or pressure that exists between two points. Voltage can be compared
to pressure in a water system. The symbols used for volts are V, E, or EMF.
Amperage, resistance and voltage are related by the following equation.
Volts = Amps x Ohms
If two of the measurements are known, the third one can be calculated.
Example 6-24
An electrical circuit with a resistance of 65 ohms is powered by a 120 volt energy source.
What is the current flowing in the circuit?
Rearrange the voltage equation shown above to isolate the unknown amps on one
side of the equation.
Amps = Volts
Ohms
Plug in the known values for volts and ohms to solve for the unknown current in
amps.
Amps = Volts = 120 volts = 1.85 amps

Ohms 65 ohms
Power Cost Calculations

Water system process decisions are frequently made based on costs. The size and capacity
of pumps and process equipment, the number of units in operation and the total hours of
operation impact electrical usage and power costs.
Electrical power usage is typically measured, recorded and billed using two conditions;
the total power used over the billing period and the maximum or peak power use over
the billing period.
The total electrical power used is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The cost for
kilowatt-hours used is determined by multiplying the total kilowatt-hours used by the unit
cost per kilowatt-hour charged by the utility. This cost is called the kilowatt-hour
charge. The equation used to calculate the kilowatt-hour charge is shown below.
Kilowatt-hour Charge = Total Kilowatt-hours used x Cost per Kilowatt-hour
Some utilities have different unit costs per kilowatt hour for different levels of usage. For
example, usage from 0 to 750 kWh may be billed at $0.15 per kWh and usage over 750
kWh may be billed at $0.12 per kWh.
Utilities also monitor the maximum or peak rate at which electrical energy is used during
the billing period. The peak rate is typically averaged over a specific time interval, usually
15 minutes or a half-hour. This maximum or peak rate is called the demand. The
demand is measured in kilowatts (kW). The electrical utility charges a cost for each kW
used during this peak period. For example, if a water systems’ peak usage during the
billing period is 200 kW and the utility charges $2.00 per kW, the cost to the water system
for that peak usage would be $400. This cost is called the demand charge. The equation
used to calculate the demand charge is shown below.
Demand Charge = Maximum kW Usage x Demand Cost per kW
Some utilities also have customer service or other charges that are added to the kilowatt-
hour charge and demand charge.
The utilities electrical meter records the demand and the kilowatt hours and bills are
prepared using these records. The kilowatt-hours and kilowatt-hour charge can also be
estimated by water system personnel knowing the horsepower of the equipment, the
hours of operation and the cost per kilowatt-hour charge. Demand charges can be
estimated and sometimes controlled. Operators may be able to adjust equipment
operating periods to reduce peak power usage and demand charges.
Example 6-25
A 25 hp motor operates for 8 hours each day for a month. The month has 30 days. The
cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) is $0.15. What is the kilowatt-hour (kWh) charge for the
month for this motor?
The equation for kilowatt-hour charge is shown below.
Convert hp to kW.
25 hp = 25 hp x 0.746 kilowatts = 18.65 kW

1 hp
Calculate the total hours of motor operation for the month.
Total Operating Hours = 8 hours x 30 days = 240 hours

1 day
Calculate the total kilowatt-hours used
Total Kilowatt-hours used = 18.65 kW x 240 hours = 4,476 kW-hrs
Calculate the kilowatt-hour charge by multiplying the total kilowatt-hours used by the
cost per kilowatt-hour.
Kilowatt-hour Charge = 4,476 kW-hrs x $0.15 = $671.40

kW-hr
Using this example, the following equation can be developed to calculate kilowatt-hour
charge.
Kilowatt-hour Charge ($) = $/kWh x hp x 0.746 x Hours of Operation

Example 6-26
A water plant has a total monthly electrical usage of 20,350 kWh. The peak demand is 60
kW. The cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.12 and the demand charge is $1.50 per kW. What is
the total electrical cost for the month?
The total electrical charge is the sum of the kWh charge and the demand charge.
Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge
Calculate the kWh charge by multiplying the kWh usage by the cost per kilowatt-
hour.
Kilowatt-hour Charge = 20,350 kWh x $0.12 = $2,442.00

kWh
Calculate the demand charge by multiplying the peak demand in kW by the demand
cost.
Demand Charge = Maximum kW Usage x Cost per kW
Demand Charge = 60 kW x $1.50 = $90.00

kW
Add the Kilowatt-hour Charge and the Demand Charge to determine the total
electrical cost for the month.
Total Electrical Charge = Total kWh Charge + Demand Charge
Total Electrical Charge = $2,442.00 + $90.00 = $2,532.00
Process Efficiency
It is often necessary for water system operators to determine the efficiency of a water
treatment process or the percent removal of the contaminants in the water supply.
The Sedimentation Tank in the diagram below removes total suspended solids (TSS). The
influent raw water has a TSS concentration of 25 mg/L. The TSS entering the tank
settles to the bottom and is removed as sludge. The effluent from the tank has a TSS
concentration of 5 mg/L.
Influent TSS (mg/L) = 25 mg/L Effluent TSS (mg/L) = 5 mg/L
Sedimentation Tank
Sludge
The efficiency of the process (or percent removal) can be defined as follows.
% Removal = (Influent TSS − Effluent TSS) x 100

Influent TSS
% Removal = (25 mg/L − 5 mg/L) x 100 = 80 %

25 mg/L
The general equation for percent removal is shown below.
% Removal = (In − Out) x 100

In
Example 6-27
It is the goal of the treatment facility to operate the Sedimentation Basin to achieve a TSS
removal of 90%. The influent raw water has a TSS concentration of 32 mg/L. What is
the required TSS concentration of the Sedimentation Tank effluent to achieve the desired
treatment efficiency?
TSS Removal = 90%
Influent TSS (mg/L) = 32 mg/L Effluent TSS (mg/L) =?
Sedimentation Tank
This problem can be solved using the percent removal equation.

In
The EffluentTSS or “Out” in the equation is the unknown. This problem could be
solved by rearranging the equation and isolating “Out” on one side of the equation
and plugging in the knowns of “In” and % Removal.
An easier way to solve the problem is to recognize that if 90% TSS is removed from
the process then 100% minus 90% or 10% of the influent TSS must be in the
effluent. This solution is presented below.
Effluent TSS = (100% − 90%) x 32 mg/L = (1.0 − 0.9) x 32 mg/L = 3.2 mg/L
Chlorine Demand
Chlorine Demand is defined as is the difference between the amount of chlorine added,
or Chlorine Dose, and the amount of chlorine remaining, or Chlorine Residual, after a
certain contact time. Chlorine demand can change with changes in dosage, time,
temperature, pH and the nature and quantity of impurities in the water. Chlorine demand,
chlorine dose and chlorine residual are typically expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L)
or parts per million (ppm).
The diagram below diagram shows the flow to a water storage tank being disinfected at a
chlorine dose of 5 mg/L. The flow to the distribution system has a chlorine residual of 2
mg/L. The chlorine demand of 3 mg/L is the amount of chlorine used up in the Water
Storage Tank.
Chlorine Dose = 5 mg/L Chlorine Residual = 2 mg/L
QIN
Water Storage Tank
QOUT To Distribution
System
Chlorine Demand = 3 mg/L
The relationship among chlorine demand, chlorine dose and chlorine residual can be
Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) − Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Example 6-28
A chlorine dose of 2.5 mg/L is added to the water supply prior to entering the
distribution system. The chlorine residual at a point in the distribution system is measured
at 0.4 mg/L. What is the chlorine demand in the distribution system?
Plug in the known values for chlorine dose and chlorine residual into the equation
and solve for the unknown chlorine demand.
Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)
Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = 2.5 mg/L – 0.4 mg/L = 2.1 mg/L
Chemical Solutions
Chemical Fundamentals
All matter is composed of basic chemical materials. Elements are defined as substances
that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by common chemical reactions. An
atom is defined as the smallest unit of an element. Elements are listed in a chart called
the Periodic Table.
Each element in the Periodic Table is identified by atomic number, chemical symbol
and atomic weight. The element Calcium would be presented in the Periodic Table as
shown below.
20 Atomic Number
Ca Chemical Symbol
40.08 Atomic Weight
The atomic number represents the number of protons in the atom. The atomic weight
(AW) is measured in atomic mass units or AMU. The AMU is a very small number and it
is cumbersome to use in math calculations. The term mole was developed to express the
weight of elements in grams. A mole is defined as the atomic weight of a substance
expressed in grams. A mole is also referred to as a gram molecular weight.
Therefore, one mole of Calcium is equal to 40.08 grams. Referring to the List of
Elements in Appendix E, one mole of Oxygen (O) is equal to 16.00 grams and one mole
of Carbon (C) is equal to 12.01 grams.
Example 6-29
Determine the number of moles in 165.32 grams of Iron (Fe).
From the Periodic Table (refer to the List of Elements in Appendix E), Iron (Fe) has
an atomic weight of 55.85. Therefore, one mole of Iron is equal to 55.85 grams.
The amount of moles can be determined from the following relationship.
Moles of Fe = 165.32 grams = 2.96 moles

55. 85 grams/mole
Compounds
A compound is a chemical substance formed from two or more elements. Water,
expressed as a chemical compound, is H2O and consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms and
one oxygen (O) atom. Ammonia, expressed as a chemical compound, is NH3 and
consists of one nitrogen (N) atom and three hydrogen (H) atoms.
The molecular weight (MW) of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of all of
the elements in the compound. The molecular weight is also called the formula weight
(FW). The molecular weight is expressed in grams per mole, similar to atomic weight.
Example 6-30
Find the molecular weight of methane (CH4) given the following information.
Atomic weight of carbon – 12.01 grams

Atomic weight of hydrogen – 1.01 grams
Methane has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Therefore, the molecular
weight of methane can be calculated as follows.
MW METHANE = (AW CARBON x 1) + (AW HYDROGEN x 4)
= (12.01 x 1) + (1.01 x 4) = 16.05 grams

Example 6-31
Determine the number of grams in six moles of H2O.
Calculate the molecular weight of H2O.
MW WATER = (AW HYDROGEN x 2) + (AW OXYGEN x 1)
= (1.01 x 2) + (16.00 x 1) = 18.02 grams
By definition, 1 mole of H2O is equal to 18.02 grams. The number of grams in 6

moles of H2O can be determined as follows.
6 moles x 18.02 grams = 108.12 grams

1 mole
The percent composition of an element in a compound is the ratio of the weight of

each element by the total weight of the compound expressed as a percentage.
Example 6-32
Find the percent composition of each element in sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) given the
following information from the Periodic Table.
Atomic weight of sodium (Na) – 22.99 grams

Atomic weight of sulfur (S) – 32.07 grams
Atomic weight of oxygen (O) – 16.00 grams
The molecular weight of sodium sulfate can be calculated as shown below.
MW SODIUM SULFATE = (AW SODIUM x 2) +(AW SULFUR x 1) + (AW OXYGEN x 4)
MW SODIUM SULFATE = (22.99 x 2) + (32.07 x 1) + (16.00 x 4) = 142.05 grams
MW SODIUM SULFATE = 45.98 + 32.07 + 64.00 = 142.05 grams
The percent of the element sodium (Na) in sodium sulfate equals the weight of the
two sodium atoms divided by the molecular weight of sodium sulfate expressed as a
percentage.
% Na = 22.99 grams x 2 = 45.98 grams x 100 = 32.37 %

142.05 grams 142.05 grams
The percent of the element sulfur (S) in sodium sulfate is the weight of the sulfur
atom divided by the molecular weight of sodium sulfate expressed as a percentage.
% S = 32.07 grams x 1 = 32.07 grams x 100 = 22.58 %

The percent of the element oxygen (O) in sodium sulfate is the weight of the four
oxygen atoms divided by the molecular weight of sodium sulfate expressed as a
percentage.
% O = 16.00 grams x 4 = 64.00 grams x 100 = 45.05 %

Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is a representation of the relationship between the reactants and
products of a chemical reaction. The reactants, or substances before the reaction are
shown on the left. The products, or substances created after the reaction are shown on
the right.
Consider the following chemical equation.
2H2 + O2 2 H2O
This equation shows that 2 moles of H2 reacts with 1 mole of O2 to produce 2 moles of
H2O. Because the same quantity of atoms are present in the beginning and at the end of
the reaction, the mass does not change. This is the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Molar Solutions
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in terms of molarity (M). Molarity is
the number of moles (or gram molecular weights) of a substance per liter of solution. A
1 Molar or 1 M solution is a solution that contains 1 mole of a substance per 1 liter of
solution. Most solutions are aqueous, meaning the solution contains water.
The molecular weight of sodium chloride (NaCl) is 58.44. If 58.44 grams of NaCl are
added to water to make a 1 liter solution, the solution is a 1 molar solution or a 1 M
solution.
The molarity of a solution can be determined by using the following equation.
Molarity = moles of substance

liters of solution
Example 6-33
If 32 grams of NaCl are added to water to make 250 milliliters of solution, what is the
molarity of the solution?
Determine the moles of NaCl by dividing the number of grams of NaCl by the
molecular weight of NaCl.
Moles of NaCl = 32.0 grams = 0.55 moles

58. 44 grams/mole
Using the Molarity equation, divide the moles of NaCl by the liters of solution. Note
that 250 milliliters is converted to liters to be consistent with the definition for
Molarity.
Molarity (M) = moles of substance = 0.55 moles x 1,000 mLs = 2.2 M

liters of solution 250 mLs 1L
Example 6-34
Determine how many grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are required to make 350
milliliters of a 0.25 M NaOH solution.
Determine the molecular weight of NaOH. The atomic weights of the elements of
NaOH, as shown below, can be found in the Periodic Table (Refer to Appendix E).
Na – 22.99
O – 16.00
H – 1.01
MW SODIUM HYDROXIDE = (AW SODIUM x 1) +(AW OXYGEN x 1) + (AW HYDROGEN x 1) = 40.00
Rearrange the Molarity equation to solve for the unknown grams of sodium
hydroxide.
Molarity = moles of substance can also be written as;

liters of solution
Molarity = grams of substance/molecular weight

liters of solution
Rearrange the equation to solve for grams of substance.
Grams of substance = Molarity x liters of solution x molecular weight
Plug in the known values for molecular weight, liters of solution and molarity into
the rearranged equation. Convert 350 mLs to 0.35 liters before using the equation.
Grams of NaOH = 0.25 M x 0.350 L x 40.00 grams = 3.5 grams
Normal Solutions
The concentration of a solution can be also expressed in terms of normality (N).
Normality is the number of gram equivalent weights of a substance per liter of solution.
A 1 Normal or 1 N solution is a solution that contains 1 gram equivalent weight of a
substance per 1 liter of solution. The equivalent weight is defined as the molecular
weight in grams, which would react with or replace 1 gram of hydrogen or the molecular
weight in grams divided by the valence of the positive ions of the substance. In aqueous
solutions, the equivalent weight is determined by dividing the molecular weight by the
positive valence, or
Equivalent weight (grams) = molecular weight (grams)

positive valence
The normality of a solution can be determined by using the following equation.
Normality = number of equivalent weights

liters of solution
Example 6-35
Calcium sulfate (CaSO4) has a molecular weight of 136.15 grams and a positive valence
of 2. What is the equivalent weight of CaSO4?
equivalent weight = molecular weight (grams) = 136.15 grams = 68.1 grams

positive valence 2
Example 6-36
A 0.750 liter solution of CaSO4 (molecular weight = 136.15 grams) has 186 grams. CaSO4
has a positive valence of 2. What is the normality (N) of the solution?
CaSO4 has an equivalent weight of 68.1 grams as shown in the previous example.
The number of equivalent weights of CaSO4 added can be found as follows.
number of equivalent weights = number of grams

grams/equivalent weight
number of equivalent weights = 186 grams

68.1 grams/equivalent weight
number of equivalent weights = 2.73
The Normality can be calculated as shown below.
Normality = number of equivalent weights

liters of solution
Normality = 2.73 equivalent weights = 3.64 N

0.750 liters of solution
For substances having a positive valence of 1, the equivalent weight equals the molecular
weight and the normality of the solution equals the molarity of the solution.
Dilutions
In the laboratory, concentrated stock solutions are commonly diluted to less concentrated
solutions for analyzing water samples.
When solutions are diluted from one concentration to another concentration, they are
related by the following equation.
V1 x C1 = V2 x C2
where:
V1 = Volume of original solution
C1 = Concentration of original solution
V2 = Volume of diluted solution
C2 = Concentration of diluted solution
When using this equation, the concentration of the solution can be in any units including
milligrams per liter, percent, molar and normal. However, the concentrations, C1 and C2,
must be in the same units. The units for the volumes, V1 and V2, must also be the same.
Example 6-37
450 mLs of HCl with a 12 N concentration is available in the lab. How many mLs of this
solution are required to make an 8 N concentration of HCl?
Use the above equation, V1 x C1 = V2 x C2, where
V1 = Volume of original solution = 450 mLs

C1 = Concentration of original solution = 12 N
V2 = Volume of diluted solution = unknown
C2 = Concentration of diluted solution = 8 N
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown V2 on one side of the equation, plug
in the known values for V1, C1 and C2 and solve for V2.
V2 = V1 x C1 = 450 mLs x 12 N = 675 mLs

C2 8N
Example 6-38
200 mLs of a concentrated acid are used to make 2 liters of a 0.5 M solution. What was
the concentration of the original concentrated solution?
Use the equation V1 x C1 = V2 x C2.
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown concentration of the original solution
(C1) on one side.
Plug in the known values for V1, V2 and C2 and solve for C1. Note that the diluted
volume of 2 liters is first converted to 2,000 mLs to make the volume units
consistent.
C1 = V2 x C2 = 2,000 mLs x 0.5 M = 5 M

V1 200 mLs
Alkalinity
Alkalinity Relationships
Alkalinity is defined as the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is primarily a function
of the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content in water. The lower the alkalinity,
the less capacity the water has to absorb acids without becoming more acidic.
There are mathematical relationships among carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide

alkalinity. These relationships are shown in the table below. The figure below presents
these relationships graphically.
ALKALINITY RELATIONSHIPS
Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3
Hydroxide Carbonate Bicarbonate
Result of
Alkalinity Alkalinity Concentration
Titration
as CaCO3 as CaCO3 as CaCO3
P=0 0 0 T
P < 1/2 T 0 2P T − 2P
P = 1/2 T 0 2P 0
P > 1/2 T 2P − T 2(T − P) 0
P=T T 0 0
Where; P = Phenolphthalein Alkalinity; T = Total Alkalinity
Relationship Between Alkalinity Components and pH
CARBONATE
Constituent (%)
-2
(CO3 ) and
HYDROXIDE
-
BICARBONATE (OH )
-
(HCO3 )
CARBON DIOXIDE
(CO2)
4.5 8.3 11.3

pH
Alkalinity relationships are determined by lab analyses called titrations. A titration is a

method of determining the concentration of a substance in solution by adding to it a
standard reagent of known concentration in small, measured amounts until the reaction is
completed. The completion of the reaction is generally indicated by a color change. The
unknown concentration of the solution can then be found by calculation.
T Alkalinity, or Total Alkalinity, exists when the pH is greater than 4.3. T Alkalinity is
determined by titration with standard acid solution to the methyl orange endpoint, or a
pH of approximately 4.3. Total alkalinity is sometimes referred to as M alkalinity. Total
alkalinity can include many alkalinity components, such as hydroxides, carbonates and
bicarbonates.
P Alkalinity, or Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, exists when the pH is greater than 8.3.

When phenolphthalein is used as the titration indicator and acid is added, the color of the
water changes from pink to colorless when the endpoint pH of 8.3 is reached.
The pH of most natural waters is typically less than 8.3 so there is no P alkalinity present.
Example 6-39
The result of titrations show that the P Alkalinity is 175 mg/L (as CaCO3) and the T
Alkalinity is 228 mg/L (as CaCO3). What is the carbonate alkalinity as CaCO3?
Determine the relationship between P Alkalinity and T Alkalinity.
One-half of T Alkalinity = 228 mg/L = 114 mg/L

2
The P Alkalinity (175 mg/L) is greater than ½ T Alkalinity (114 mg/L), or
P>½T
Refer to the Alkalinity Relationships table. Since the P Alkalinity is greater than the
one-half of the T Alkalinity, the forth line of the table under Result of Titration is
used. From the Carbonate Alkalinity as CaCO3 column, the formula 2(T − P) is
shown. Plug the known values for T and P into this equation.
2(T − P), or
2 x (228 mg/L – 175 mg/L) = 2 x 53 = 106 mg/L

Example 6-40
The result of titrations show that the P Alkalinity is 75 mg/L (as CaCO3) and the T
Alkalinity is 180 mg/L (as CaCO3). What is the bicarbonate concentration as CaCO3?
Determine the relationship between P Alkalinity and T Alkalinity.
One-half of T Alkalinity = 180 mg/L = 90 mg/L

2
The P Alkalinity (75 mg/L) is less than ½ T Alkalinity (90 mg/L), or
P<½T
Refer to the Alkalinity Relationships table. Since the P Alkalinity is less than the one-
half of the T Alkalinity, the second line of the table under Result of Titration is used.
From the Bicarbonate Concentration as CaCO3 column, the formula (T − 2P) is
shown. Plug the known values for T and P into this equation.
T − 2P, or
180 mg/L – (2 x 75 mg/L) = 180 – 150 = 30 mg/L
Langelier Saturation Index
The Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is an index that was developed to estimate the
scaling and corrosive tendencies of water. The LSI is defined by the following equation.
LSI = pH − pHS
where:
pH = the pH of the water
pHS = the pH of the water at the calcium carbonate saturation point
(where CaCO3 is neither deposited or dissolved)
A negative (−) LSI indicates that corrosive conditions exist and a positive (+) LSI
indicates that scaling or deposition conditions exist.
Example 6-41
Water has a pH of 6.8. The saturation pH (pHS) is found to be 7.3. Does this water have
corrosive or scaling tendencies?
Determine the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) by using the LSI formula.
LSI = pH − pHS = 6.8 − 7.3 = − 0.5
The LSI is negative so the water has corrosive tendencies.
Hardness
The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of the bivalent metallic cations or
metallic cations having two positive charges. Most of the total hardness present in water
consists of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Water high in hardness can cause
deposition in water distribution systems and scaling of equipment. Hardness levels can be
reduced by ion exchange softening and chemical precipitation softening.
Hardness is commonly expressed in terms of mg/L of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

equivalents. To express calcium hardness as CaCO3 equivalents the following equation is
used.
Calcium Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
Calcium (mg/L) x Equivalent Weight of CaCO3

Equivalent Weight of Calcium
Similarly, to express magnesium hardness as CaCO3 equivalents the following equation is

used.
Magnesium Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) =
Magnesium (mg/L) x Equivalent Weight of CaCO3

Equivalent Weight of Magnesium
Example 6-42
Determine the value of the ratio shown below. This ratio is used to convert calcium
hardness in mg/L to hardness in CaCO3 equivalents.
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3

Equivalent Weight of Calcium
Determine the equivalent weight of CaCO3. The equivalent weight of CaCO3 is

Equivalent Weight CaCO3 = molecular weight of CaCO3

positive valence of CaCO3
The positive valence of CaCO3 = 2

Atomic Weight (AW) of Ca = 40.08
Atomic Weight (AW) of C = 12.01
Atomic Weight (AW) of O = 16.00
The molecular weight (MW) of CaCO3 = (1 x AW Ca) + (1 x AW C) + (3 x AW O)
= (1 x 40.08) + (1 x 12.01) + (3 x 16.00)
= 100.09
Therefore,
Equivalent Weight CaCO3 = 100.09 = 50

2
Determine the equivalent weight of calcium. The equivalent weight of calcium is

Equivalent Weight Calcium = atomic weight of Calcium

positive valence of Calcium
The positive valence of Calcium is 2.

Atomic Weight (AW) of Ca = 40.08
Therefore,
Equivalent Weight Calcium = 40.08 = 20
2
The ratio is calculated below
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 = 50 = 2.5

Equivalent Weight of Calcium 20
The ratio determined in the above example is used to convert calcium hardness in mg/L
to calcium hardness in CaCO3 equivalents. Calcium hardness in CaCO3 equivalents can
be obtained by multiplying the calcium hardness in mg/L by the factor 2.5.
Example 6-43
Determine the value of the ratio shown below. This ratio is used to convert magnesium
hardness in mg/L to hardness in CaCO3 equivalents.
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3

Equivalent Weight of Magnesium
Determine the equivalent weight of CaCO3. The equivalent weight of CaCO3 is 50 as

calculated in the previous example.
Determine the equivalent weight of magnesium. The equivalent weight of magnesium

is defined by the following equation.
Equivalent Weight of Magnesium = atomic weight of magnesium

positive valence of magnesium
The positive valence of Magnesium is 2.

Atomic Weight (AW) of Mg = 24.31
Therefore,
Equivalent Weight Magnesium = 24.31 = 12.16
2
The ratio is calculated below.
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 = 50 = 4.11

Equivalent Weight of Magnesium 12.16
The ratio determined in the above example is used to convert magnesium hardness in
mg/L to magnesium hardness in CaCO3 equivalents. Magnesium hardness in CaCO3
equivalents can be obtained by multiplying the magnesium hardness in mg/L by the
factor 4.11.
Hardness can also be expressed as carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness.

Carbonate hardness is caused by the carbonate and bicarbonate salts of calcium and
magnesium. Non-carbonate hardness measures other calcium and magnesium salts such
as calcium sulfate or magnesium chloride. Total hardness is the sum of carbonate
hardness and non-carbonate hardness. The concentrations of carbonate and non-
carbonate hardness are a function of the alkalinity of the water.
Example 6-44
Laboratory results of a water sample show a calcium hardness of 38 mg/L and a
magnesium hardness of 14 mg/L. Determine the total hardness as CaCO3.
Using the factors calculated in the previous two examples, the following expressions
can be written.
Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 = 2.5 x Calcium Hardness in mg/L
Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 = 4.11 x Magnesium Hardness in mg/L
Plug the known values for calcium and magnesium hardness into the above
expressions.
Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 = 2.5 x 38 mg/L = 95.0 mg/L
Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 = 4.11 x 14 mg/L = 57.5 mg/L
Add calcium and magnesium hardness to obtain total hardness.
Total Hardness as CaCO3 = 95.0 mg/L + 57.5 mg/L = 152.5 mg/L
Water Softening
Ion Exchange Softening
Hardness can be removed from water by ion exchange. Ion exchange is a process that
involves the exchange of one ion for another ion. The exchange of ions occurs in a
treatment vessel containing an ion exchange resin, typically a salt such as sodium chloride.
As the water passes through the resin, the Ca and Mg ions are exchanged with the sodium
ions.
When all the ion exchange sites in the resin have been saturated with Ca and Mg ions, the
resin is exhausted and requires regeneration. The treatment vessel is taken out of service
and backwashed to expand the bed and remove contaminants. Following backwashing,
the treatment vessel is regenerated using a brine (salt) solution. During regeneration, the
Ca and Mg ions that are attached to the resin are removed and replaced with sodium ions
from the brine solution When regeneration is complete, the resin is rinsed to remove the
excess salt before being placed back in service.
In the ion exchange industry, hardness concentration is commonly expressed in terms of

grains per gallon, abbreviated as gpg. One grain equals about 1 ⁄ 7,000 of a pound. To
convert grains per gallon to the more common hardness term of mg/L, the following
relationship is used.
1 gpg hardness = 17.1 mg/L hardness
Example 6-45
A water sample has a hardness of 220 mg/L. What is the hardness in grains per gallon
(gpg)?
Convert the hardness from mg/L to gpg using the conversion 1 gpg = 17.1 mg/L.
220 mg/L = 220 mg/L x 1 gpg = 12.87 gpg

17.1 mg/L
The ion exchange capacity of water softeners is expressed as kilograins of hardness

removal per cubic foot of resin. The quantity of water that a softener can treat before
regeneration is required is a function of the ion exchange capacity of the resin, the size of
the softener and the hardness of the water being treated. The ion exchange capacity of a
resin is defined by the following general equation.
Softener Capacity = Unit Capacity x Resin Volume
Example 6-46
An ion exchange unit in a water treatment plant has a resin with a hardness removal
capacity of 25 kilograins per cubic foot (25 kgr/ft3). The volume of the resin is 40 cubic
feet. The water to be treated has a hardness of 250 mg/L as CaCO3. How many gallons
of water can be treated before regeneration of the resin is required?
Calculate the ion exchange capacity of the softener in grains. The softener capacity is
the unit capacity multiplied by the resin volume.
Softener Capacity (grains) = Unit Capacity (kgr/ft3) x Resin Volume (ft3)
Softener Capacity (grains) = 25 kgr x 1,000 gr x 40 ft3 = 1,000,000 grains

ft3 kgr
Convert the hardness of the water to be treated from mg/L to gpg (grains per
gallon).
250 mg/L = 250 mg/L x 1 gpg = 14.6 gpg

17.1 mg/L
Calculate the volume of water that can be treated before regeneration is required.
Water Treated (gals) = 1,000,000 grains = 68,500 gals

14.6 grains/gallon
Ion exchange softeners are regenerated with brine solution. Theoretically, about 0.17
pound of salt is required for each 1,000 grains of hardness removed. In practice, excess
salt, about 0.4 to 0.5 pound of salt per 1,000 grains of hardness removed, is required to
achieve regeneration. The density of salt solutions is temperature dependent. The amount
of salt in a brine solution is determined using tables or a salometer.
Example 6-47
The ion exchange softener in the previous example is regenerated with a brine solution.
One-half pound of salt per 1,000 grains of hardness removed is required to regenerate the
resin. If a 10% brine solution contains 0.87 pounds of salt per gallon, how many gallons
of a 10% brine solution are required?
Calculate the pounds of salt required. In the previous example, the resin has a
capacity of 1,000,000 grains. The pounds of salt required for regeneration is
calculated as follows.
Salt Required (lbs) = 0.5 lbs x 1,000,000 grains = 500 lbs

1,000 grains
Calculate the gallons of brine required.
Brine (gals) = 500 lbs x 1 gallon = 575 gallons

0.87 lbs
Ion exchange softeners reduce hardness levels to near zero. It is not desirable to produce
zero hardness water due to the potential for corrosion. Ion exchange treatment plants
typically bypass some of the water around the ion exchange softener and blend this water
with the zero hardness water produced by the softener. The bypass flow required is a
function of the source water hardness and the desired finished water hardness. The
following proportion can be used to calculate the bypass flow.
Bypass Flow = Desired Finished Water Hardness

Total Plant Flow Source Water Hardness
Example 6-48
An ion exchange water softening plant with a flow of 1,200 gpm desires a finished water
hardness of 120 mg/L. If the source water hardness is 375 mg/L, what flow must be
bypassed around the softener? What is the percent of bypass flow required?
Rearrange the proportion shown above to solve for the unknown bypass flow. Plug
the known values for finished water hardness, source water hardness and treatment
plant flow into the equation and solve for the bypass flow.
Bypass Flow = Desired Finished Water Hardness x Total Plant Flow

Source Water Hardness
Bypass Flow (gpm) = 120 mg/L x 1,200 gpm = 384 gpm

375 mg/L
Calculate the percent bypass flow.
Bypass Flow (%) = Bypass Flow x 100

Total Plant Flow
Bypass Flow (%) = 384 gpm x 100 = 32 %

1,200 gpm
Chemical Precipitation Softening

In chemical precipitation softening, ions causing hardness are converted from soluble
form to insoluble form. The insoluble compounds formed, called precipitates, are
removed by settling or filtration. The chemicals selected for chemical precipitation
softening depend on the quantity and type of hardness present and treatment objectives.
Lime, soda ash and caustic soda are chemicals commonly used in chemical precipitation
softening.
The most common chemical precipitation process for the removal of calcium and
magnesium hardness is the lime-soda ash process. These chemicals raise the pH of the
water so that the solid precipitates, CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2, are at or near their minimum
solubilities. Since the minimum solubilities of these precipitates are 17 mg/L and 9
mg/L, respectively, it is not possible to lower the hardness level less than 26 mg/L.
Following the lime-soda ash process, the pH of the water is elevated and must be reduced
before further treatment or discharge to the distribution system. Typically, carbon
dioxide (CO2) is added. The addition of CO2 to reduce pH is called recarbonation.
Water treatment chemistry books should be referenced for information on the chemical
equations and mathematical calculations for determining chemical requirements for
precipitation softening processes.
Fluoridation
When added to a water supply, fluoride can reduce dental cavities in children and
strengthen tooth enamel. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral. About 65% of the U.S.
population receives fluoridated water, either naturally or by the addition of fluoridation
chemicals to the public water supply.
Fluoridation chemicals include sodium fluoride (a white, odorless powder), sodium

silicofluoride (white, odorless crystals) and hydrofluosilicic acid (a corrosive amber liquid
commonly referred to as silly acid). These chemicals have varying purities and available
fluoride ion content.
The pounds formula can be used to solve problems involving fluoride addition. When
solving fluoride addition problems, the operator should consider the following factors.
The background fluoride concentration of the source water.
The percent purity of the chemical.
The percent available fluoride ion content in the chemical.
Example 6-49
A fluoride dose of 1.15 mg/L is desired for treating a flow of 1,600 gpm. How many
pounds per day of sodium silicofluoride with a commercial purity of 98% and a fluoride
ion content of 60% will be required? The source water contains 0.15 mg/L of fluoride.
Use the “mass flow” version of the pounds formula modified for chemical feed.
Both the chemical purity and the fluoride ion content need to be considered. The
modified pounds formula is shown below.
Fluoride (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity) (% Fluoride Ion)
Convert the units of flow from gpm to mgd.
1,600 gpm = 1,600 gal x 24 hrs x 60 min x 1 mg = 2.30 mgd

min day hr 1,000,000 gals
Subtract the background fluoride concentration of 0.15 mg/L from the desired
fluoride dosage of 1.15 mg/L to determine the chemical dosage required.
Chemical Dosage Required (mg/L) =

Desired Fluoride Dosage (mg/L) – Background Concentration (mg/L)
Chemical Dosage Required (mg/L) = 1.15 mg/L – 0.15 mg/L = 1.00 mg/L
Plug the known values for flow, chemical dosage, percent purity and percent ion
content into the pounds formula and solve for the unknown pounds of fluoride
required.
Fluoride (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity) (% Fluoride Ion)
Fluoride (lbs/day) = 2.30 mgd x 1.00 mg/L x 8.34 = 32.6 lbs/day

(0.98) (0.60)
Drainage Basins
A drainage basin is an area from which surface water flows. A drainage basin is also
called a drainage area, a catchment area or a watershed. Precipitation in drainage
basins is collected in impoundments and recharges the groundwater. Knowledge of the
characteristics of drainage areas can assist in managing water supplies.
Example 6-50
A watershed with an area of 840 acres had a total annual rainfall of 45 inches. How many
million gallons of water fell on the watershed during the year?
The volume of water falling on the watershed equals the area of the watershed times
the depth of rainfall. This problem consists of converting units and using the
equation shown below.
Volume of Rainfall = Area of Watershed x Depth of Rainfall
Convert the watershed area units from acres to square feet.
840 acres = 840 acres x 43,560 ft2 = 36,590,400 ft2

1 acre
Convert the area to million cubic feet to simplify subsequent calculations.
36,590,400 ft2 = 36,590,400 ft2 x 1 million ft2 = 36.59 million ft2

1,000,000 ft2
Convert the depth of rainfall from inches to feet.
45 inches = 45 inches x 1 foot = 3.75 ft

12 inches
Calculate the volume of the rainfall in million cubic feet.
Volume = Area (ft2) x Depth (ft) = 36.59 million ft2 x 3.75 ft = 137.2 million ft3
Convert the rainfall volume units from million cubic feet to million gallons.
137.2 million ft3 = 137.2 million ft3 x 7.48 gals = 1,026 million gallons
1 ft3
Example 6-51
The flow from a drainage area due to precipitation was measured at 4,450 million gallons
for the year. The watershed has an area of 52 square miles. It was estimated that 15% of
the precipitation that fell on the watershed was measured. What was the annual rainfall in
inches?
The total precipitation that fell on the watershed during the year can be considered as
a volume of water with an area of 52 square miles and a depth of an unknown
number of inches.
Area = 52 square miles
Watershed
Depth
(Inches) ?
Calculate the total volume of precipitation that fell on the watershed considering that
only 15% of the precipitation was measured.
Total Precipitation Volume = Precipitation Volume Measured

% of Precipitation Measured
Total Precipitation Volume = 4,450 million gallons = 29,667 mg

0.15
Convert the units of precipitation volume from million gallons to million cubic feet.
29,667 mg = 29,667 mg x 1 ft3 = 3,966 million ft3

7.48 gals
Convert the units of watershed area from square miles to million square feet. (Note:
First multiply 5,280 ft by 5,280 ft, then divide by 1,000,000 ft2 and finally multiply by
52 mile2. Multiplying in the order shown in the equation below could exceed the
capacity of the calculator and result in an error message.)
52 mile2 = 52 mile2 x (5,280 ft x 5,280 ft) x 1 million ft2 = 1,450 million ft2
1 mile2 1,000,000 ft2
Rearrange the volume of rainfall equation to solve for the unknown depth and plug
in the known values for volume and area.

Depth of Rainfall (ft) = Volume of Rainfall (ft3)
Area of Watershed(ft2)
Depth of Rainfall (ft) = 3,966 million ft3 = 2.74 ft

1,450 million ft2
Convert the unit of rainfall depth from feet to inches
2.74 feet = 2.74 feet x 12 inches = 32.9 inches

1 foot
Water Supply Wells

When water is pumped from the ground by water supply wells, the water table in the
vicinity of the well is lowered. As the flow from the well pump increases, the depth from
the ground to the water table increases. Operators control and monitor well pumps and
water table levels to maintain an adequate water supply. A diagram showing well
pumping terminology is presented below.
Area of Influence
Well
GROUND SURFACE
ORIGINAL WATER TABLE Radius of Influence Static

Water
Level
Pumping
Water Groundwater
Level Drawdown
Flow
AQUIFER
Cone of
Depression
BEDROCK
The volume of the groundwater impacted by well pumping is in the shape of an inverted
cone and is called the cone of depression. The radius of influence is the horizontal
distance from the well that is impacted by pumping. The area of influence is the
projected area on the ground surface impacted by pumping.
The static water level is the depth from the ground surface to the groundwater before pumping.
The pumping water level is the depth from the ground surface to the water level in the well
during pumping operations when this depth has stabilized. The difference between the pumping
water level and the static water level is called the drawdown of the well.
Drawdown (ft) = Pumping Water Level (ft) − Static Water Level (ft)
The relationship between the pumping rate or yield of a well and the drawdown is called the specific
capacity or specific yield of the well. Specific capacity is defined by the following equation.
Specific Capacity = Pumping Rate (gpm)

Drawdown (ft)
The pumping rate or yield can be determined by dividing the volume of water pumped
by the time the pump is in operation.
Pumping Rate = Volume

Time
Example 6-52
Prior to the operation of a well pump the ground water level was measured at 15 feet
below the ground surface. After pump operation, the water level in the well stabilized to
a depth of 28 feet below the ground surface. What is the drawdown of the well?
Since the static water level (before pumping) is 15 feet and the pumping water level
(after pumping) is 28 feet, the drawdown can be determined using the drawdown
equation.
Drawdown (ft) = Pumping Water Level (ft) − Static Water Level (ft)
Drawdown (ft) = 28 feet − 15 feet = 13 feet

Example 6-53
In the previous example, the pump was in operation for 45 minutes and pumped a total
volume of 3,400 gallons. What is the specific capacity of the well?
The pumping rate is determined by dividing the volume of water pumped by the
time the pump was in operation.

Pumping Rate = Volume (gallons) = 3,400 gallons = 75.6 gpm
Time (minutes) 45 minutes
Using the drawdown of 13 feet calculated in the previous example, the specific
capacity can be calculated.
Specific Capacity = Pumping Rate (gpm) = 75.6 gpm = 5.8 gpm/ft

Drawdown (ft) 13 ft
Water Usage
The volume of water produced by a water utility and the amount of water consumed by
the systems’ users are commonly expressed in terms of gallons per capita per day
(gpcd). The term “per capita” means per person. The equations used for calculating gpcd
are shown below.
gpcd = water produced (gpd)

total population served
gpcd = water consumed (gpd)

total population served
The difference between the water consumed by the users and the water produced by the
utility provides an estimate of the water lost in the system.
In the gpcd equations, the water produced and water consumed can be calculated for the
total of all user groups or can be calculated for individual user groups such as residential,
commercial or industrial.
Example 6-54
A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial users produces the average
daily volumes of water listed below. The system serves a total population of 8,400.
Determine the total water produced by the utility in gpcd.
− Residential 1,760,000 gpd

− Commercial 280,000 gpd
− Industrial 400,000 gpd
Determine the total water produced in gpd by adding the average daily volumes of
water for the residential, commercial and industrial classes.
Total Water Produced = Residential + Commercial + Industrial
Total Water Produced = 1,760,000 gpd + 280,000 gpd + 400,000 gpd = 2,440,000 gpd
Divide the total water produced per day by the population as shown in the gpcd
equations.
gpcd = water produced (gpd) = 2,440,000 gpd = 290 gpcd

total population served 8,400 people
Example 6-55
A water utility has an average daily water use of 1,030,000 gpd. The commercial class
accounts for 22 % of the total water used. If the system has a population of 5,600 what is
the gpcd water use for the commercial class?
Determine the gpcd water use for all user classes
gpcd = water consumed = 1,030,000 gpd = 184 gpcd

total population 5,600
Determine the gpcd water use contributed by the commercial class.
gpcd for commercial class = gpcd for all classes x % commercial water use
gpcd for commercial class = 184 gpcd x 0.22 = 40.5 gpcd
Administrative Duties
Administrative duties that water system operators may encounter include estimating
project costs, budgeting and inventory control.
Operators need to estimate the cost of projects for budgeting purposes or to determine if
the funds on hand are sufficient to complete the project. Project costs consist of two
primary components; labor costs and material costs.
Budgeting is the process used by utilities to estimate total operating costs for the future.
Budgets are commonly expressed as a percentage of the previous year’s costs.
Inventory control is the process by which materials and supplies are purchased and
stored to insure that these materials and supplies are available to the utility when they are
needed.
Basic math functions, along with some judgment and common sense, are used to solve
these types of problems. The following examples illustrate issues related to administrative
tasks.
Example 6-56
An employee receives an hourly wage of $17.50. For each hour worked over 40 hours per
week, overtime is paid at the rate of 1.5 times the hourly rate. If an employee works 52
hours during a week what is the total pay that the employee should receive?
The total pay the employee will receive is the regular pay plus the overtime pay.
Calculate the regular pay by multiplying the regular hourly wage rate by the regular
hours.
Regular Pay = Regular Hours x Regular Pay Rate
Regular Pay = 40 hrs x $17.50/hr = $700.00
The overtime pay is found by multiplying the overtime hourly wage rate by the
overtime hours.
Overtime Hrs = Total Hrs Worked – 40 hrs = 52 hrs − 40 hrs = 12 hrs
Overtime Pay Rate = $17.50/hr x 1.5 = $26.25/hr
Overtime Pay = Overtime Hours x Overtime Pay Rate
Overtime Pay = 12 hours x $26.25/hour = $ 315.00
Total Pay = $ 700.00 + $ 315.00 = $ 1,015.00

Example 6-57
The current annual operating budget for a water treatment plant is $650,000. Fifty-five
percent of the budget represents salary costs and the remainder represents all other
expenses including utilities, supplies, billing and administration. It is estimated that salary
costs will increase by 4.5% and all other expenses will increase by 6.0% for the next year.
Calculate the budget for the next year.
Calculate the salary costs and other costs in the current budget. If 55% represents
salary costs then 45% represents the other costs.
Current Salary Costs = $ 650,000 x 0.55 = $ 357,500

Current Other Costs = $ 650,000 x 0.45 = $ 292,500
Calculate the future budget for salary costs and other costs. Multiply the current
salary costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 4.5%. Multiply the current other
costs by 100% plus the percentage increase of 6.0%.
Budget Salary Costs = $ 357,500 (1.00 + 0.045) = $ 373,588

Budget Other Costs = $ 292,500 (1.00 + 0.060) = $ 310,050
Add the budgets for salary costs and other costs.
Total Budget Costs = $ 373,588 + $ 310,050 = $ 683,638

Example 6-58
The water utility installs on average 250 linear feet of 8-inch diameter water main per
week. A 12 week reserve supply is required at all times to respond to a major water
system repair. It takes six weeks to obtain a new supply of pipe after an order. What is
the minimum inventory required before ordering additional pipe?
The minimum inventory period is equal to the reserve period plus the time required
to receive pipe after an order is placed.
Inventory Period = Reserve Period + Order Period

Inventory Period = 12 weeks + 6 weeks = 18 weeks
The minimum inventory of pipe required is the inventory period in weeks times the
pipe required per week.
Minimum Inventory = 18 weeks x 250 ft/week = 4,500 ft

Chapter 6
WATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS
Review Problems
1. A standpipe has a water level of 233 feet. What is the pressure in psi at the bottom
of the tank?
2. A water system has installed 2,450 feet of 8-inch diameter pipe. How many gallons
of water will it take to fill the pipe?
3. A 4-inch diameter pipe has a flow of 50 gpm. What is the velocity of the water in
feet per second?
4. A rapid sand filter has a surface area of 920 sq. ft. What is the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot, if the filter receives a flow of 5,250 gpm?
5. Rapid sand filters discharge to a clearwell at a rate of 375 gpm. The clearwell
measures 10 feet wide by 80 feet long by 12 feet deep. If the clearwell initially had a
depth of 5 feet of water, how many hours would it take to fill the clearwell?
6. A motor has an efficiency of 85% and a horsepower of 10. What is the brake
horsepower?
7. If it takes 25 minutes to pump down a clearwell with one pump operating at 120
gpm, how long would it take if a 215 gpm pump was used?
133
8. The sedimentation basin of a water treatment plant has a volume of 3,200 cubic feet.
What is the detention time in hours if the flow is 175 gallons per minute?
9. The maximum flow rate of a chemical feed pump is 234 mL/min. If this pump ran
continuously at this maximum rate, how many gallons would be pumped in one day?
10. A water storage tank is 45 feet tall and 155 feet in diameter. It currently has depth of
32 feet of water. What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank in psi?
11. A water treatment plant has a flow of 5,110 gpm. If lime is added at a rate of 120
g/min, what is the lime dosage in mg/L?
12. Find the detention time in hours for a water treatment plant given the following
information.
4 flocculation basins each 50 ft by 15 ft, with a water depth of 12 ft

1 sedimentation basin that is 700 ft long, 75 ft wide, with an average water
depth of 11 ft
12 filters each 40 ft by 30 ft, with an average water depth of 12 ft
Flow is 28.2 mgd
13. An employee receives an hourly wage of $13.25 plus overtime pay of 1.5 times the
hourly wage. Overtime pay is given for each hour worked over 40 hours per week. If
the employee works 48 hours during a week, what is the total weekly compensation
before taxes?
14. A clearwell pump delivers 725 gpm to a water storage tank. The demand for water
from this storage tank is approximately 926,000 gpd. How many hours will the pump
operate per week to meet the demand?
15. How many pounds of 61% calcium hypochlorite are required to disinfect a water
storage tank at a dosage of 50 mg/L. The tank is 110 feet in diameter and has a
maximum water level of 19 feet?
16. Your department uses 80 units of an item per week. You are required to maintain a
10-week reserve of this item at all times and it requires 4 weeks to obtain a new
supply. What is the minimum reorder point?
17. A 3.0 foot diameter pipe that is 2,500 feet long was disinfected with chlorine gas. If
55 pounds of chlorine were used, what was the chlorine dosage in mg/L?
18. Water is flowing at a velocity of 1.70 fps in a 10-inch diameter pipe. If the pipe
changes from a 10-inch to a 6-inch pipe, what will the velocity be in the 6-inch pipe?
19. The level in a clearwell rises 3.1 feet in 4.5 hours. If the tank has a diameter of 225
feet and the treatment plant is producing 32.4 mgd, what is the average discharge
rate of the treated water discharge pump in gallons per minute?
20. What is the specific gravity of a solution that weighs 10.27 lbs/gallon?
21. A water plant has a flow of 19.3 mgd. Chlorine gas at a rate of 360 lbs/day is added
for disinfection. What is the chlorine dosage in milligrams per liter?
22. A fluoride dose of 1.05 mg/L is desired for treating a flow of 1,750 gpm. How many
pounds per day of sodium silicofluoride with a commercial purity of 98% and a
fluoride ion content of 60.6% will be required? The water being treated contains
0.15 mg/l fluoride.
23. What should the flow meter read in gallons per minute if a 12-inch diameter, 1,250-
foot long main is flushed at 5.0 fps?
24. What is the motor horsepower (mhp) for a pump with the following parameters?
Motor Efficiency: 87 %
Total Head(TH): 107 ft
Pump Efficiency: 79 %
Flow: 2.564 mgd
25. Determine the gallons of 12.5% sodium hypochlorite solution needed to disinfect a
water main that is 24 inches in diameter and 750 ft long. The dosage required is 30
mg/l.
26. A stock HCl solution of 350 milliliters with an 8 N concentration is available in the
lab. The solution is diluted to make a 6 N concentration. How many milliliters of the
diluted solution are required?
27. A rectangular drainage area has a length of 23,500 feet and a width of 14,000 feet.
During a rainstorm, a total of 123 mg of stormwater runoff is measured. It is
estimated that the runoff is 50% of the total rainfall. Calculate the inches of rainfall
the drainage basin received.
28. The water supply for a treatment facility is sea water. How many tons of salt need to
be removed annually by the treatment system given the following information.
Plant Flow: 750 mgd

Sea Water Salt Concentration: 2,375 mg/L
Salt Removal Efficiency: 98.5 %
29. A water storage tank 30 feet in diameter has a maximum capacity of 400,000 gallons.
The tank is currently 75% full. What is the static pressure in psi at the bottom of the
tank?
30. An excavation for a new underground structure measures 200 ft long by 16 ft wide
by 8 ft deep. Twenty-five percent of the soil removed needs to be hauled off the site
because it is not suitable for use as backfill material. The truck hauling the unsuitable
material has a capacity of 4.5 cubic yards. How many trips are required by the truck
to haul the unsuitable soil off-site?
31. A polymer with a specific gravity of 1.18 is added to a sedimentation basin to

improve solids removal efficiency. Determine the rate of polymer addition in
milliliters per minute if the required dosage is 1.75 mg/L and the plant flow is 12.8
mgd.
32. A water treatment plant is designed to remove iron. Calculate the pounds of iron
removed per year given the following information.
Raw Water Iron Concentration: 2.6 mg/L

Plant Flow: 4 mgd
Iron Removal Efficiency: 79 %
33. How many gallons of water with a hardness of 185 mg/L can be treated in an ion
exchange softener before regeneration is required given the following information:
Resin Capacity: 20,000 grains/cubic foot

Softener Volume: 500 cubic feet
34. A water plant feeds a solution of caustic soda for final pH adjustment. The caustic
soda has a density of 9.42 lbs per gallon and is 25% active. Records show the average
dose is 7.5 mg/l and the average flow is 310 gpm. At this dosage and flow, how
many 55-gallon drums would be used in one year?
35. The result of titrations show that the P-Alkalinity of a water sample is 170 mg/L (as
CaCO3) and the T-Alkalinity is 230 mg/L (as CaCO3). What is the carbonate
alkalinity as CaCO3?
36. A motor with an efficiency of 92% pumps a flow of 2,500 gpm. The total head of
the system is 140 feet. What is the break horsepower of the motor?
37. A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial accounts determines that
commercial water usage is 340,000 gpd. Commercial water usage represents 18 % of
the total water used. If the utility serves a population of 6,400 what is the total gpcd
water use.
38. A water treatment plant has a flow of 200,000 gpd. A chlorine solution with 2%
available chlorine is fed to the finished water at a dosage of 2 mg/L. The chlorine
solution has a specific gravity of 1.02. At what rate, in mL/min, should the chlorine
feed pump be set?
39. A sedimentation tank measures 100 feet long by 35 feet wide and has a water depth
of 20 feet. At a flow of 2.5 mgd, determine the following operational parameters.
a) Volume in cubic feet and gallons

b) Detention time
c) Velocity of the flow through the tank
40. Laboratory results of a water sample show a calcium hardness of 42 mg/L and a
41. A fire hydrant must supply a flow of 1,000 gpm to meet fire protection needs. What
size water main is required to feed this hydrant if the velocity in the main cannot
exceed 6 fps?
42. A rapid sand filter is backwashed four times per day. The backwash flow goes to a
sludge thickener. The filter is backwashed for 30 minutes at a flow of 2,500 gpm. If
the backwash water has an average TSS concentration of 420 mg/L during the
backwash cycle, how many pounds of solids go to the sludge thickener?
43. A sedimentation tank at a water treatment facility has a diameter of 75 feet. The flow
to the tank is 5.5 cfs. The overflow weir is located at the periphery of the tank. What
is the weir overflow rate?
44. A welded steel standpipe needs exterior painting. The standpipe is 75 feet tall and
has a diameter of 22 feet. How many gallons of paint are required if the average
coverage rate is 120 square feet per gallon?
45. The equation V=0.785 x D2 x H is used to calculate the volume of a cylinder when
the diameter and height are known. Rearrange the equation to solve for the diameter.
46. A cylindrical standpipe has a volume of 237,800 gallons at a maximum height of 20

feet. What is the diameter of the standpipe in feet?
47. Determine the percent fluoride ion purity of hydrofluosilicic (silly) acid. The
chemical formula is H2SiF6.
48. The following table presents analytical results for source water alkalinity. Calculate
the running annual average (RAA) of the average quarterly values for the 4th quarter
of 2003 and the 1st quarter of 2004.
1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2003 65.6 72.0 82.7 67.9 90.5 100.6 80.8 50.6 67.0 55.5 89.0 90.0
2004 77.8 78.9 56.8 70.0 87.5 97.5 69.0 80.0 34.6 60.0 74.3 69.3
49. Given the information in the table below, calculate the kilowatt-hour (kWh) charge
for the month? Assume the cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.14 and the month has 31
days.
Average Daily
Horsepower
Plant Equipment Operating Time
(hp)
(hrs)
Raw Water Pump 60 8
Flocculator Drive 10 24
Sedimentation Tank Drive 25 24
Filter Backwash Pump 50 6
Clearwell Pump 20 8
50. An 18-inch water main 500 feet long is to be flushed at a flow of 35 gallons per
minute. How many minutes will it take to flush this main?
Chapter 7
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS
General
Water system operators are natural problem solvers. Although many operational tasks are
repetitive, the situations and conditions operators encounter are wide-ranging. Project
location, time constraints, public relations, availability of resources and many other
factors define the problems and influence the solutions.
Operators seldom use mathematics to solve these problems. Most problems are solved by
relying on prior experience and the experience of team members. Problems that involve
math, such as setting chemical pumping rates or disinfecting a water main are commonly
solved by using charts and graphs that have been prepared by others or by standard
procedures developed from operational experience.
The math problems on licensing examinations are challenging since they represent
situations not typically encountered. Exam questions could also relate to treatment
processes that are unfamiliar to operators since the processes may not exist at their utility.
In addition, the problems on the exams are presented in words rather than verbally. Real
world problems are seldom written.
The methods described in this Chapter are intended to provide the operator with an
approach to solve the math problems encountered on licensing exams.
Problem Solving Steps

Knowledge of and experience with basic water system concepts can help operators
understand the problems presented on licensing exams.
The first approach that should be used in solving a problem is to visualize the conditions
presented in the problem. Use experience to see if a straightforward solution is available.
A problem may not require the use of formulas but may be solvable instinctively.
141
Be aware that test makers may provide information in problems that is not required to
solve the problem. When taking exams, be alert for possible extraneous information.
If the approach to a problem is not clear-cut, the following steps may be helpful. Some
problems are more difficult than others. Apply only those steps that seem reasonable for
the problem at hand.
Step 1 - Read the Problem
Read the problem carefully to get an understanding of the situation and create a
mental picture.
Reread the problem.
Step 2 - Identify the Unknown
Identify the unknown.
Determine the units of the unknown.
Step 3 - Make a Drawing
Make a drawing illustrating the problem. Show the unit process and use arrows to
indicate direction of flow.
Place the known information on the drawing. Include the units.
Identify the unknown on the drawing with a question mark.
Step 4 - Convert the Units
Examine the units for the information given and convert units, if necessary, to be
consistent with other units.
For example, if a pipe diameter is given as 6 inches and the velocity is given in
feet per second, the units for diameter will likely need to be converted to feet.
Problem Solving Methods 143
It is also common to have the flow into a tank given in gallons per day and the
dimensions of the tank given in feet. If the volume of the tank needs to be
determined it is first calculated in units of cubic feet. It may be necessary to
change the tank volume from cubic feet to gallons to be consistent with the units
of flow.
Change fractions to decimals so they can be entered into the calculator.
Step 5 - Find the Equation(s)
Unless the problem is simple or straightforward, an equation may be needed to

solve the problem.
If you cannot directly determine the equation required, search the formula sheet
provided with the exam.
Step 6 - Rearrange the Equation and Plug in the Known Values
Rearrange the equation so the unknown is on one side and the knowns are on the
other side.
Insert the knowns from the drawing into the equation. Include the units of
measurement as well as the value.
Step 7 - Use a Calculator to Solve for the Unknown
Solve the equation using a calculator.
Divide the calculation into several steps, if necessary, to make calculator use less
complicated.
Solve for the unknown at least twice, or enough times to get the same answer
two times in a row.
Check the units of the answer to make sure they are the same as what was asked
for in the problem.
Step 8 - Select the Closest Answer
Your answer may not match exactly to the list of possible answers. If several
calculations are required, the rounding of intermediate values can create different
numerical answers.
Select the answer that is close to an answer provided.

APPENDIX A
Answers to Review Problems
Chapter 1 – BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR
1. 1,044.562 4. – 8.620924
2. 509.803 5. 0.6285715
3. 31.75 6. 0.062903
Chapter 2 – BASIC MATH PRINCIPLES
1.
a) 5,200 4.
b) 5,234.7 a) 1.259 x 103
c) 5,234.67 b) 3.456 x 104
d) 5,000 c) 1.0024 x 105
d) 4.567 x 10-3
2. 1,117.1 inches
5. 1.7777777
3. 8.1 %
Chapter 3 – WORKING WITH EQUATIONS
1. ºF = ºC x 1.8 + 32
4. 702.31
2. 32.2
5. 2,395.6623
3. 1.7632952
145
Chapter 4 – LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATIONS
1. 71.2 feet
5. 149,000 gallons
2. 125 feet
6. 40 feet
3. 16,960 cubic feet
7. 1,670 cubic yards
4. 23,780 gallons
Chapter 5 – CONVERSIONS
1. − 40 º C 5. 2.54 grams
2. 925 gallons 6. 718 acre-feet
3. 969,400 gallons per day 7. 143 feet
4. 3.87 cubic feet per second 8. 28,800 pounds
Chapter 6 – WATER SYSTEM CONCEPTS
1. 100.9 psi 9. 89 gallons/day
2. 6,400 gallons 10. 13.9 psi
3. 1.28 ft/sec 11. 6.2 mg/L
4. 5.7 gpm/ft2 12. 5.0 hours
5. 1.87 hours 13. $689.00
6. 8.5 hp 14. 149 hours
7. 14 minutes 15. 923 lbs
8. 2.3 hours 16. 1,120 units

Appendix A 147
Answers to Review Problems
17. 50 mg/L
37. 295 gpcd
18. 4.6 ft/sec
38. 51.5 mLs/minute
19. 19,083 gpm
39. a) 70,000 ft3 and 523,600 gallons
20. 1.23 b) 5 hours
c) 0.33 ft/min
21. 2.24 mg/L
40. 179 mg/L
22. 32 lbs/day
41. 10-inch diameter
23. 1,762 gpm
42. 1,050 lbs/day
24. 70 hp
43. 15,090 gpd/ft
25. 4.2 gallons
44. 46.3 gallons
26. 467 milliliters
45. D = √ V/(H x 0.785)
27. 1.2 inches
46. 45 feet
28. 2,670,000 tons/year
47. 79.1 %
29. 24.6 psi
48. 76.0 and 75.5
30. 53 trips
49. $ 5,764/month
31. 50 mLs/minute
50. 189 minutes
32. 24,970 lbs/year
33. 926,000 gallons
34. 79 drums/year
35. 120 mg/L
36. 96 hp
148
APPENDIX B
Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems
1. A standpipe has a water level of 233 feet. What is the pressure in psi at the bottom
of the tank?
Convert the height of the water in the standpipe from feet to psi.
233 feet = 233 feet x 0.433psi = 100.9 psi

1 foot
2. A water system has installed 2,450 feet of 8-inch diameter pipe. How many gallons
of water will it take to fill the pipe?
8 inches
2,450 feet
Determine the volume of the pipe cylinder in ft3 and then convert the volume to
gallons.
Convert the diameter units from inches to feet to be similar to the units for the
length of the pipe.

12 inches
Calculate the volume of the pipe in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
formula.
V = 0.785 x D2 x L
149
V = 0.785 x 0.667 ft x 0.667 ft x 2,450 ft = 855.6 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to gallons.
855.6 ft3 = 855.6 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 6,400 gallons

1 ft3
3. A 4-inch diameter pipe has a flow of 50 gpm. What is the velocity of the water in
feet per second.
4 inches
V=?
Q = 50 gpm
Rearrange the equation for velocity, Q = A x V, to solve for the unknown velocity.
V=Q⁄A
where: V = velocity
Q = flow
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
Find A, the cross-sectional area of the pipe, using the area of a circle formula. First
convert the diameter units from inches to feet.

12 inches
Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 0.333 ft x 0.333 ft = 0.0870 ft2
Convert the flow units from gpm to cfs to be compatible with the area units (ft2) and
the velocity units (ft/sec).
50 gpm = 50 gals x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 0.111 ft3/sec

Plug into the equation the known values for area and flow and solve for the velocity.
Appendix B 151
V = Q = 0.111 ft3/sec = 0.111 ft2 x ft /sec = 1.28 ft/sec

A 0.0870 ft2 0.0870 ft2
4. A rapid sand filter has a surface area of 920 square feet. What is the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot, if the filter receives a flow of 5,250 gpm?
2
Surface Area = 920 ft
Filter Influent Flow (QIN) =5,250 gpm
Top View of Filter
Filtration rate is defined as the flow per unit of surface area of the filter. The units
are typically expressed in gpm/ft2. The formula is shown below.
Filtration Rate = Filter Influent Flow (gpm)

Surface Area of the Filter (ft2)
The units for filter influent flow and filter surface area are given in the same units as
shown in the formula. Therefore, the flow and area can be plugged directly into the
Filtration Rate equation.
Filtration Rate = 5,250 gpd = 5.7 gpm/ft2

920 ft2
5. Rapid sand filters discharge to a clearwell at a rate of 375 gpm. The clearwell
measures 10 feet wide by 80 feet long by 12 feet deep. If the clearwell initially had a
depth of 5 feet of water, how many hours would it take to fill the clearwell?
Flow from Filters = 375 gpm
12 ft
7 ft rise in water level
5 ft
Clearwell
10 ft
80 ft
Time can be expressed as volume divided by flow as shown by the detention time
formula.
Detention Time = Volume

Flow
The volume of water needed to fill the tank is a rectangular shape with dimensions
of 80 feet long, 10 feet wide and 7 feet deep (the rise in water level).
Volume (ft3) = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft)
Volume (ft3) = 80 ft x 10 ft x 7 ft = 5,600 ft3
Convert the units of volume from ft3 to gallons to be consistent with the units of
flow.
5,600 ft3 = 5,600 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 41,888 gallons

1 ft3
Find the time for filling the tank using the detention time formula.
DT = Volume = 41,888 gallons = 112 minutes

Flow 375 gallons/minutes
Convert the units of time from minutes to hours.
112 minutes = 112 minutes x 1 hour = 1.87 hours

60 minutes
Appendix B 153
6. A motor has an efficiency of 85% and a horsepower of 10. What is the brake
horsepower?
Electrical
Supply
Brake hp
MOTOR
Motor hp
The brake horsepower is the horsepower at the output shaft of the motor. The
efficiency of the motor is expressed by the following equation.
Motor Efficiency (%) = Brake hp x 100

Motor hp
Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown brake horsepower and plug the
known values of motor efficiency and motor horsepower into the equation.
Brake hp = Motor Efficiency (%) x Motor hp

100
Brake hp = 85 x 10 hp = 8.5 hp
100
7. If it takes 25 minutes to pump down a clearwell with one pump operating at 120
gpm, how long would it take if a 215 gpm pump was used?
Set up the proportion shown below. The same units need to be on each side of the
equal sign. Place the smaller value on top (the numerator) and the larger value on the
bottom (denominator).
smaller gpm = smaller minutes

larger gpm larger minutes
120 gpm = smaller minutes

215 gpm 25 minutes
(You know that 25 minutes is the larger value for minutes because the larger
capacity pump will take less time to pump down the clearwell.)
Rearrange the proportion to solve for the unknown smaller minutes.
smaller minutes = 120 gpm x 25 minutes = 14 minutes

215 gpm
8. The sedimentation basin of a water treatment plant has a volume of 3,200 cubic feet.
What is the detention time in hours if the flow is 175 gallons per minute?
Q = 175 gpm Volume = 3,200 ft3
Sedimentation Basin Q = 175 gpm
Detention time is defined as volume divided by flow.

Flow
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to gallons to be consistent with the units
for flow.
3,200 ft3 = 3,200 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 23,936 gallons

1 ft3
Plug the volume and flow in the detention time formula.
DT = Volume = 23,936 gallons = 137 minutes

Flow 175 gallons/minute
Convert the time units from minutes to hours.

Appendix B 155
137 minutes = 137 minutes x 1 hours = 2.3 hours

60 minutes
9. The maximum flow rate of a chemical feed pump is 234 mL/min. If this pump ran
continuously at this maximum rate, how many gallons would be pumped in one day?
Convert the feed rate units from mL/min to gallons per day.
Convert mL/min to mL/day.
234 mL = 234 mL x 60 min x 24 hrs = 336,960 mL/day

min hr day
Convert mL/day to gallons/day
336,960 mL = 336,960 mL x 1 gallon x 1 L = 89 gallons/day

day day 3.785 L 1,000 mL
10. A water storage tank is 45 feet tall and 155 feet in diameter. It currently has depth of
32 feet of water. What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank in psi?
Storage Tank
Tank Height
= 45 ft Water Level = 32 ft
Diameter = 155 ft
The pressure at the bottom of the tank depends only on the height of the water.
Convert the water depth from feet to psi.


foot
11. A water treatment plant has a flow of 5,110 gpm. If lime is added at a rate of 120
g/min, what is the lime dosage in mg/L?
QIN = 5,110 gpm
Water Treatment Plant
QOUT = 5,110 gpm

Lime Pump
(pumping rate = 120 g ⁄ min)
Dosage or concentration is the quantity of one substance in another. In this

problem, a quantity of lime is added to a quantity of water. The dosage can be
expressed as shown below. (Note that g = grams and that the minutes cancel out.)
120 grams/min = 120 grams

5,110 gallons/min 5,110 gallons
The units in the above ratio (grams and gallons) need to be the same before the
numbers can be divided and expressed as a concentration. Any units can be used as
long as they are the same. In this problem, gallons are converted to grams.
5,110 gallons = 5,110 gallons x 8.34 lbs x 454 grams = 19,348,300 grams
gallon 1 lb
Express the ratio as grams of lime per grams of water and multiply by 1,000,000 to
convert to ppm (also mg/L).
lbs of lime = 120 grams = 0.0000062

lbs of water 19,348,300 grams
0.0000062 x 1,000,000 = 6.2 mg/L

Appendix B 157
12. Find the detention time in hours for a water treatment plant given the following
information:
− 4 flocculation basins each 50 ft long by 15 ft wide, with a water depth of 12 ft

− 1 sedimentation basin that is 700 ft long, 75 ft wide, with an average water depth
of 11 ft
− 12 filters each 40 ft long by 30 ft wide, with an average water depth of 12 ft

− Flow is 28.2 mgd
50 ft
15 ft
12 ft
4 Flocculation Basins 30 ft
700 ft 40 ft
75 ft
12 ft
11 ft
12 Filters
1 Sedimentation Basin
Detention Time = Volume/Flow. Find the total volume of all the treatment units
and divide by the total flow.
Calculate the volume of the treatment processes.
Volume of Flocculation Basins

Volume = Length x Width x Depth x 4 units
Volume = 50 ft x 15 ft x 12 ft x 4 = 36,000 ft3
Volume of Sedimentation Basin

Volume = Length x Width x Depth x 1 unit
Volume of Filters
Volume = Length x Width x Depth x 12 units
Total Volume = 36,000 ft3 + 577,500 ft3 + 172,800 ft3 = 786,300 ft3
Convert the total volume of the treatment processes from cubic feet to million
gallons to be consistent with the units for flow.
786,300 ft3 = 786,300 ft3 x 7.48 gallons x 1 mg = 5.88 mg

ft3 1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for volume and flow into the detention time formula.
DT = Volume = 5.88 mg = 0.21 day

Flow 28.2 mg/d
Convert the units for detention time from day to hours.
DT = 0.21 day x 24 hours = 5.0 hours

day
13. An employee receives an hourly wage of $13.25 plus overtime pay of 1.5 times the
hourly wage. Overtime pay is given for each hour worked over 40 hours per week. If
the employee works 48 hours during a week, what is the compensation before taxes?
The total compensation the employee receives is the regular pay plus the overtime
pay.
Calculate the regular pay by multiplying the regular hourly wage rate by the regular
hours.
Regular Pay = Regular Hours x Regular Pay Rate
Regular Pay = 40 hrs x $13.25/hr = $530.00
The overtime pay is calculated by multiplying the overtime hourly wage rate by the
overtime hours.
Overtime Hrs = Total Hrs Worked – 40 hrs = 48 hrs − 40 hrs = 8 hrs
Overtime Pay Rate = $13.25/hr x 1.5 = $19.875/hr
Overtime Pay = Overtime Hours x Overtime Pay Rate

Appendix B 159
Overtime Pay = 8 hours x $19.875/hour = $ 159.00
The total compensation is the regular pay plus the overtime pay.
Total Compensation = Regular Pay + Overtime Pay
Total Compensation = $ 530.00 + $ 159.00 = $ 689.00
14. A clearwell pump delivers 725 gpm to a water storage tank. The demand for water
from this storage tank is approximately 926,000 gpd. How many hours will the pump
operate per week to meet the demand?
725 gpm
System Demand =
926,000 gpd
Pump Water Storage Tank
The time in hours the pump operates can be expressed as volume divided by flow.
The detention time equation can be used to solve this problem.

Flow
Calculate the volume of water (in gallons) pumped for the week.
Volume Pumped per Week = 926,000 gals x 7 days = 6,482,000 gals/week

day week
Plug the known values for weekly volume and flow into the detention time formula.
DT = Volume = 6,482,000 gals = 8,941 minutes

Flow 725 gals/min
Convert the time units from minutes to hours.

8,941 minutes = 8,941 minutes x 1 hour = 149 hours

60 minutes
15. How many pounds of 61% calcium hypochlorite are required to disinfect a water
storage tank at a dosage 50 mg/L. The tank is 110 feet in diameter and has a
maximum water level of 19 ft?
Pounds of
Ca(OCl)2 = ?
19 ft Water Storage Tank
50 mg/L (dosage or
concentration in tank) 110 ft
This problem requires using the mass version of the Pounds Formula modified for
chemical feed . Since the chemical used is not 100% pure, the percent purity must be
included in the formula.

(% Purity)
Calculate the maximum volume of the water in the tank in cubic feet using the
volume of a cylinder formula.
Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height
Volume = 0.785 x 110 ft x 110 ft x 19 ft = 180,472 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to million gallons (mg).

ft3 1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for tank volume, dosage and percent purity into the Pounds
Formula
Appendix B 161
Lbs of Ca(OCl)2 = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

(% Purity)
Lbs of Ca(OCl)2 = 1.35 mg x 50 mg/L x 8.34 = 923 lbs

0.61
16. Your department uses 80 units of an item per week. You are required to maintain a
10-week reserve of this item at all times and it requires 4 weeks to obtain a new
supply. What is the minimum reorder point?
In calculating inventory, the department must consider the time required to obtain
new supplies. The equation for the inventory period can be expressed as follows.
Inventory Period = Reserve Period + Delivery Time
Inventory Period = 10 weeks + 4 weeks = 14 weeks
The minimum reorder point, or the minimum quantity of items required at the site, is
the inventory period in weeks times the average number of units used per week.
Reorder Point = 14 weeks x 80 units = 1,120 units

week
17. A 3.0 foot diameter pipe that is 2,500 feet long was disinfected with chlorine gas. If
55 pounds of chlorine were used, what was the chlorine dosage in mg/L?
3 feet
Dosage in Pipe ?
2,500 ft
55 lbs of chlorine gas added

This problem requires using the mass version of the Pounds Formula. Chlorine gas
is assumed to be 100% pure. Therefore the % purity is not required in the formula.
Chlorine Used (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
Rearrange the formula so the unknown dosage is isolated on one side of the
equation.
Dosage (mg/L) = Chlorine Used (lbs)

Volume (mg) x 8.34
Calculate the volume of the pipe in cubic feet using the volume of a cylinder
equation.
Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height
Volume = 0.785 x 3 ft x 3 ft x 2,500 ft = 17,663 ft3
Convert the volume units from ft3 to million gallons (mg).
17,663 ft3 x 7.48 gallons x 1 mg = 0.132 mg

3
ft 1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for volume and pounds of chlorine used into the rearranged
Pounds Formula.
Dosage (mg/L) = Chlorine Used (lbs) = 55 lbs = 50 mg/L

Volume (mg) x 8.34 0.132 mg x 8.34
18. Water is flowing at a velocity of 1.70 fps in a 10-inch diameter pipe. If the pipe
changes from a 10-inch to a 6-inch pipe, what will the velocity be in the 6-inch pipe?
Pipe 1
Pipe 2
10 inches V1 = 1.7 ft/sec
V2 = ? 6 inches
Q1 Q2
Appendix B 163
The flow in the 10-inch pipe and the 6-inch pipe are the same.
Therefore, Q1 = Q2
The equation for flow is:
Flow (Q) = Area (A) x Velocity (V); therefore
Q1 = A1 x V1 and Q2 = A2 x V2
If Q1 = Q2, then;
A1 x V1 = A2 x V2
Calculate A1 and A2, the cross-sectional areas of the pipes. First convert the diameter
units from inches to feet to be consistent with the units for velocity.
Pipe 1 Diameter = 10 in = 10 in x 1 foot = 0.833 foot

12 in
Pipe 2 Diameter = 6 in = 6 in x 1 foot = 0.50 foot

12 in
Calculate the cross-sectional areas of the pipes.
Area = 0.785 x Diameter2
Pipe 1 Area = A1 = 0.785 x 0.833 ft x 0.833 ft = 0.54 ft3
Pipe 2 Area = A2 = 0.785 x 0.50 ft x 0.50 ft = 0.20 ft3
Rearrange the equation, A1 x V1 = A2 x V2 to isolate the unknown V2 on one side.

Then plug in the known values, A1, A2, and V1 into the equation to solve for V2.
V2 = A1 x V1 = 0.54 ft2 x 1.7 ft/sec = 4.6 ft/sec

A2 0.20 ft2
19. The level in a clearwell rises 3.1 feet in 4.5 hours. If the tank has a diameter of 225
feet and the treatment plant is producing 32.4 mgd, what is the average discharge rate
of the treated water discharge pump in gallons per minute?
QTREATMENT = 32.4 mgd
Treatment
Plant
CLEARWELL
Water level
rises 3.1 feet
in 4.5 hours
QDISCHARGE = ?
225 feet Discharge

Pump
During the 4.5 hour period the Discharge Pump will pump the volume of water from
the treatment plant minus the volume of water stored in the Clearwell. (If the water
level dropped, the pump would pump the treatment plant volume plus the volume of
water lost in the Clearwell).
Calculate the volume of water stored in the Clearwell using the volume of a cylinder
formula.
Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Height Water Rises
Volume = 0.785 x 225 ft x 225 ft x 3.1 ft = 123,196 ft3
Convert the volume of water stored from ft3 to million gallons (mg).

ft3 1,000,000 gals
Calculate the volume of water produced by the treatment plant during the 4.5 hour
period.
Appendix B 165
32.4 mg x 4.5 hours x 1 day = 6.075 mg

day 24 hours
The average pumping rate is determined by subtracting the volume stored from the
water produced and dividing the resultant volume by the time period.
6.075 mg − 0.922 mg = 5.153 mg
5.153 mg = 1.145 mg/hour

4.5 hrs
Convert the units for pumping rate from mg/hour to gpm.
1.145 mg/hour = 1.145 mg x 1,000,000 gals x 1 hour = 19,083 gpm

hour mg 60 minutes
20. What is the specific gravity of a solution that weighs 10.27 lbs/gallon?
Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
The density of water is 8.34 lbs/gallon.
The specific gravity of the solution is defined by the following equation.
SG = Density of Solution (lbs/gal) or,

Density of Water (lbs/gal)
SG = Density of Solution (lbs/gal)

8.34 lbs/gal
Plug the known values for the density of water and the density of the solution into
the SG equation.
SG = Density of Solution (lbs/gal) = 10.27 lbs/gal = 1.23

8.34 lbs/gal 8.34 lbs/gal
21. A water plant has a flow of 19.3 mgd. Chlorine gas at a rate of 360 lbs/day is added
for disinfection. What is the chlorine dosage in milligrams per liter?
Q = 19.3 mgd
Water Plant
Q = 19.3 mgd
Chlorine Gas = 360 lbs/day
This problem requires using the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula. Since
chlorine gas is assumed to be 100% pure, the percent purity component of the
formula is not required for this problem
Cl2 Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown dosage.
Dosage (mg/L) = Cl2 Feed Rate (lbs/day)

Flow (mgd) x 8.34
Plug the known values for chlorine feed rate and flow into the equation to solve for
dosage.
Dosage = 360 lbs/day = 2.24 mg/L

19.3 mgd x 8.34
22. A fluoride dose of 1.05 mg/L is desired for treating a flow of 1,750 gpm. How many
pounds per day of sodium silicofluoride with a commercial purity of 98% and a
fluoride ion content of 60.6% will be required? The water being treated contains
0.15 mg/l fluoride.
Appendix B 167
Q = 1,750 gpm
Influent F = 0.15 mg/L Water Plant

Q = 1,750 gpm
Pounds of Fluoride = ?
Purity = 98%
F Ion Content = 60.6%
A modification of the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula is required for this
problem. Sodium silicofluoride (Na2SiF6)is expressed in terms of % commercial
purity and % fluoride ion or fluorine content. Both of these percentages need to be
included in the Pound Formula as shown below.
Fluoride (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dose (mg/L) x 8.34

% purity x % fluoride content
Convert the units of flow from gallons per minute to million gallons per day.
1,750 gallons = 1,750 gallons x 24 hours x 60 minutes = 2,520,000 gpd

minute minute day hour
2,520,000 gals = 2,520,000 gals x 1 mg = 2.52 mgd

day day 1,000,000 gals
Subtract the “background” fluoride concentration of 0.15 mg/L from the desired
fluoride dose of 1.05 mg/L.
1.05 mg/L − 0.15 mg/L = 0.90 mg/L
Plug the knowns into the modified Pounds Formula to solve for the pounds per day
of sodium silicofluoride (Na2SiF6) required.
Na2SiF6 (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dose (mg/L) x 8.34

% purity x % fluorine content
Na2SiF6 (lbs/day) = 2.52 mgd x 0.90 mg/L x 8.34 = 32 lbs/day

0.98 x 0.606
23. What should the flow meter read in gallons per minute if a 12-in diameter, 1,250-foot
long main is to be flushed at 5.0 fps?
1,250 feet
V = 5.0 ft/sec 12 inches
The equation for flow is Q = Velocity x Area
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the water main using the area of a circle formula.
Before using this formula, convert the units for the diameter of the pipe from inches
to feet to be consistent with the units for velocity.
12 inches = 12 inches x 1 foot = 1 foot

12 inches
Area = 0.785 x Diameter2 = 0.785 x 1 ft x 1 ft = 0.785 ft2
Plug the known values for area and velocity into the flow equation to solve for Q.
Q = Velocity x Area = 5.0 ft/sec x 0.785 ft2 = 3.925 ft3⁄ sec
Convert the flow units from cubic feet per second to gallons per minute.
3.925 ft3⁄ sec = 3.925 ft3 x 7.48 gallons x 60 seconds = 1,762 gpm
sec ft3 minute
24. What is the motor horsepower (mHp) for a pump with the following parameters?
− Motor Efficiency: 87 %
− Total Head(TH): 107 ft
− Pump Efficiency: 79 %
− Flow: 2.564 mgd
Appendix B 169
This problem requires using the motor horsepower formula shown below. (This
formula would be provided on the “Formula Sheet” provided with the licensing
exam.)
Motor hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)_____

3,960 x % Pump Efficiency x % Motor Efficiency
The Motor hp equation requires the flow units to be expressed in gallons per minute.
Convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to gallons per minute.
2.564 mg = 2.564 mg x 1 hour x 1 day x 1,000,000 gals = 1,781 gpm

day day 60 min 24 hour 1 mg
Plug the converted flow and the other values given in the problem into the mHp
equation. Note that the motor and pump efficiencies are expressed in decimals.
mHp = 1,781 gpm x 107 feet = 70 hp

3,960 x 0.79 x 0.87
25. Determine the gallons of 12.5% sodium hypochlorite solution needed to disinfect a
water main that is 24 inches in diameter and 750 ft long. The dosage required is 30
mg/l.
750 feet
24 inches
12.5 % NaOCl Required Dosage = 30 mg/L
This problem requires using the mass version of the Pounds Formula modified to
account for the purity of the chemical used.
Mass (lbs) = Volume (mg) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34 or

% Purity
Lbs of NaOCl = Vol. of Water in Pipe (mg) x 30 mg/L x 8.34

% purity of NaOCL
Using the volume of a cylinder formula, calculate the volume of the water in the pipe
in million gallons. Convert the diameter from 24 inches to 2 feet before using the
formula to make the diameter units consistent with the length units.
Volume of Main = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Length
Volume of Main = 0.785 x 2 ft x 2 ft x 750 ft = 2,355 ft3
Convert the volume units of the main from cubic feet to million gallons.

ft3
1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for volume, dosage and purity into the Pounds Formula to
solve for the pounds of sodium hypochlorite required.
Lbs of NaOCl = Vol. of Water in Pipe (mg) x 30 mg/L x 8.34

% purity of NaOCl
Lbs of NaOCl = 0.01762 mg x 30 mg/L x 8.34 = 35.27 pounds

0.125
Convert the units of NaOCl from pounds to gallons. Assume a density of 8.34
lbs/gallon for the NaOCl. (If the density of the 12.5 % sodium hypochlorite solution
was given in the problem, this density would be used in the calculation below.)
35.27 pounds = 35.27 lbs x 1 gallon = 4.2 gallons

8.34 lbs
26. A stock HCl solution of 350 milliliters with an 8 N concentration is available in the
lab. The solution is diluted to make a 6 N concentration. How many milliliters of the
diluted solution are required?
The equation for diluting a stock solution to change the concentration is shown
below.
V1 x C1 = V2 x C2,
where:
V1 = Volume of original solution = 350 milliliters
Appendix B 171
C1 = Concentration of original solution = 8 N

V2 = Volume of diluted solution = unknown milliliters
C2 = Concentration of diluted solution = 6 N
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown, V2 , on one side of the equation.
V1 x C1 = V2
C2
Plug the known values, V1, C1 and C2, into the equation and solve for V2.
350 milliliters x 8 N = 467 milliliters

6N
27. A rectangular drainage area has a length of 23,500 feet and a width of 14,000 feet.
During a rainstorm, a total of 123 mg of stormwater runoff is measured. It is
estimated that the runoff is 50% of the total rainfall. Calculate the inches of rainfall
the drainage basin received.
23,500 feet
Rainfall depth
in inches?
Drainage Area
14,500 feet
Determine the volume of water that fell on the drainage area in cubic feet and divide
by the area of the drainage area in square feet. This will give the rainfall depth in feet.
Convert the depth units from feet to inches.
Calculate the total rainfall volume considering that the runoff measured is 50% of the
rainfall.
Total Rainfall = Rainfall Measured = 123 mg = 123 mg = 246 mg

Percent Measured 50% 0.50
Convert the units of rainfall volume from million gallons to cubic feet.
246 mg = 246 mg x 1 ft3 x 1,000,000 gals = 32,887,700 ft3

7.48 gals 1 mg
Calculate the area of the drainage area.
Area = Length x Width = 23,500 ft x 14,000 ft
Note: Multiplying these numbers on a calculator may result in an error message. If this is
the case, perform the calculation by converting the length and width to scientific notation
before multiplying.
Area = (2.35 x 104) x (1.4 x 104) = 3.29 x 108
Divide the volume of the rainfall by the area of the drainage area to find the depth of
rainfall.
Depth of Rainfall (ft) = Volume of Rainfall (ft3)

Area of Rainfall (ft2)
Depth = 32,887,700 ft3 = 0.328877 x 108 ft2 x ft = 0.10 foot

3.29 x 108 ft2 3.29 x 108 ft2
Convert the rainfall depth units from feet to inches.
0.10 ft = 0.10 foot x 12 inches = 1.2 inches

foot
28. The water supply for a treatment facility is sea water. How many tons of salt need to
be removed annually by the treatment system given the following information.
− Plant Flow: 750 mgd

− Sea Water Salt Concentration: 2,375 mg/L
− Salt Removal Efficiency: 98.5 %
Appendix B 173
Q = 750 mgd
Q = 750 mgd
Influent Salt Water = 2,375 mg/L Water Plant (1.5 % of salt)
98.5 % of Salt Removed
Use the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula to calculate the pounds of salt
removed daily.
Calculate dosage (or concentration) of the salt removed from the process.
Salt Concentration (mg/L) = Sea Water Salt Concentration (mg/L) x Removal Eff.(%)
Salt Concentration (mg/L) = 2,375 mg/L x 98.5 % = 2,375 mg/L x 0.985 = 2,339 mg/L
Plug the known values for flow and salt concentration into the Pounds Formula to
solve for pounds per day of salt.
Salt Removed (lbs/day) = 750 mgd x 2,339 mg/L x 8.34 = 14,630,445 lbs/day
Convert the units of salt removed from pounds per day to tons per year.
14,630,445 lbs/day = 14,630,445 lbs x 1 ton x 365 days = 2,670,000 tons/year

day 2,000 lbs year
29. A water storage tank 30 feet in diameter has a maximum capacity of 400,000 gallons.
The tank is currently 75% full. What is the static pressure in psi at the bottom of the
tank?
Diameter = 30 feet
400,000 gals at H1
75% Capacity at H2
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is related to the height of the water.
Calculate the height of the tank by using the volume of a cylinder formula. Rearrange
the cylinder formula to solve for the unknown height (H1).
Volume = 0.785 x D2 x H1
or
H1 = Volume
0.785 x D2
Convert the volume units for the tank from gallons to cubic feet to be compatible
with the units for diameter.
400,000 gals = 400,000 gals x 1 ft3 = 53,476 ft3

7.48 gals
Plug the known values for tank volume and diameter into the equation and solve for
the tank height, H1.
H1 = Volume = 53,476 ft2 x ft = 75.69 ft

0.785 x D2
0.785 x 30 ft x 30 ft
Calculate the height of the water in the tank (H2).
H2 = 75% x H1 = 0.75 x 75.69 ft = 56.77 ft
Convert the units of height of the water from feet (or head) to psi.
Appendix B 175
56.77 ft = 56.77 ft x 0.433 psi = 24.6 psi

1 foot
30. An excavation for a new underground structure measures 200 ft long by 16 ft wide
by 8 ft deep. Twenty-five percent of the soil removed needs to be hauled off the site
because it is not suitable for use as backfill material. The truck hauling the unsuitable
material has a capacity of 4.5 cubic yards. How many trips are required by the truck
to haul the unsuitable soil off-site?
8 feet
16 feet
200 feet
Calculate the volume of the excavation in cubic feet.
Volume = Length (ft) x Width (ft) x Depth (ft)
Volume = 200 ft x 16 ft x 8 ft = 25,600 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to cubic yards.
25,600 ft3 = 25,600 ft3 x 1 yd3 = 948 yd3

27 ft3
Calculate the volume of unsuitable soil.
Unsuitable Soil = Soil Excavated x % Unsuitable Soil
Unsuitable Soil = 948 yd3 x 0.25 = 237 yd3
Calculate the truck trips required to remove the unsuitable soil knowing that the
truck has a capacity of 4.5 cubic yards
Truck Trips = 237 yd3 x 1 truck trip = 52.66 truck trips - Round up to 53 trips
4.5 yd3
31. A polymer with a specific gravity of 1.18 is added to a sedimentation basin to

improve solids removal efficiency. Determine the rate of polymer addition in
milliliters per minute if the required dosage is 1.75 mg/L and the plant flow is 12.8
mgd.
Q = 12.8 mgd
QPOLYMER = mL/min
Sedimentation Basin Q = 12.8 mgd
Polymer
Dosage = 1.75 mg/L
SGPOLYMER = 1.18
Using the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula, calculate the pounds per day of
polymer required.
Polymer (lbs/day) = 12.8 mgd x 1.75 mg/L x 8.34 = 187 lbs/day
Calculate the density of the polymer in pounds per gallon.
SG POLYMER = Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = 1.18

Density of Water (lbs/gal)
Rearrange this equation to solve for the Density of Polymer.
Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = Density of Water (lbs/gal) x SG POLYMER
Density of Polymer (lbs/gal) = 8.34 lbs/gal x 1.18 = 9.84 lbs/gal
Using the density of the polymer, convert the polymer units from pounds per day to
gallons per day.
187 lbs/day = 187 lbs x 1 gal = 19 gals/day

day 9.84 lbs
Appendix B 177
Convert the units for rate of polymer addition from gallons per day to milliliters per
minute.
19 gals/day = 19 gals x 1 day x 3,785 mLs = 50 mLs/minute

day 1,440 min 1 gal
32. A water treatment plant is designed to remove iron (Fe). Calculate the pounds of Fe
removed per year given the following information.
− Raw Water Iron Concentration: 2.6 mg/L
− Plant Flow: 4 mgd
− Fe Removal Efficiency: 79 %
The mass flow version of the Pounds Formula is used to solve this problem.
Mass Flow (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
Determine the concentration of the Fe removed
Fe Removed (mg/L) = Raw Water Fe (mg/L) x Fe Removal Efficiency
Fe Removed (mg/L) = 2.6 mg/L x 0.79 = 2.05 mg/L
Plug the known values for flow and concentration of Fe removed into the Pounds
Formula to calculate the pounds of Fe removed per day.
Fe Removed (lbs/day) = 4 mgd x 2.05 mg/L x 8.34 = 68.4 lbs/day
Convert the units for Fe removed from pounds per day to pounds per year.
68.4 lbs/day = 68.4 lbs x 365 days = 24,970 lbs/year

day 1 year
33. How many gallons of water with a hardness of 185 mg/L can be treated in an ion
exchange softener before regeneration is required given the following information:
− Unit Capacity: 20,000 grains/cubic foot

− Resin Volume: 500 cubic feet
The exchange capacity of an ion exchange softener is defined by the following

equation.
Softener Capacity = Unit Capacity x Resin Volume
Plug the known values for Unit Capacity and Resin Volume into the equation.
Softener Capacity = 20,000 grains x 500 ft3 = 10,000,000 grains

ft3
Convert the hardness from mg/L to grains per gallon (1 grain/gallon of hardness =
17.12 mg/L of hardness).
185 mg/L = 185 mg/L x 1 grain/gallon = 10.8 grains/gallon

17.12 mg/L
Divide the softener capacity in grains by the hardness in grains/gallon to determine

the gallons of water that can be treated before regeneration is required.
Water Treated = 10,000,000 grains = 926,000 gallons

10.8 grains/gallon
34. A water plant feeds a solution of caustic soda for final pH adjustment. The caustic
soda has a density of 9.42 lbs per gallon and is 25% active. Records show the average
dose is 7.5 mg/l and the average flow is 310 gpm. At this dosage and flow, how
many 55-gallon drums would be used in one year?
Q = 310 gpm Caustic Soda

Dosage = 7.5 mg/L
Purity = 25%
Density = 9.42 lbs/gallon
Water Plant Q = 310 gpm
Appendix B 179
Use the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula modified to account for the purity
of the caustic soda.
Caustic Soda Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
(% Purity)
Convert the units of flow from gpm to mgd.
310 gpm = 310 gal x 1,440 min x 1 mg = 0.446 mgd

min day 1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for flow, dosage and percent purity into the pounds formula.
Caustic Soda Feed Rate (lbs/day) = 0.446 mgd x 7.5 mg/L x 8.34 = 111.6 lbs/day
0.25
Using the density of caustic soda, convert the units of caustic soda used from
pounds per day to gallons per day.
111.6 lbs/day = 111.6 lbs x 1 gallon = 11.85 gals/day

day 9.42 lbs
Convert the units of caustic soda used from gallons per day to drums per year.
11.85 gals/day = 11.85 gals x 365 days x 1 drum = 79 drums/yr

day 1 yr 55 gals
35. The result of titrations show that the P-Alkalinity of a water sample is 170 mg/L (as
CaCO3) and the T-Alkalinity is 230 mg/L (as CaCO3). What is the carbonate
alkalinity as CaCO3?
Use the Alkalinity Relationship table to determine the relationship between T-

Alkalinity (T) and P-Alkalinity (P).
½ T = 230 mg/L = 115 mg/L

2
Since P > ½ T (170 mg/L > 115 mg/L) , the forth row of the Alkalinity
Relationship table is used. Under the Carbonate Alkalinity column the formula
corresponding to the forth row is 2(T − P).
Carbonate Alkalinity = 2(T − P) = 2(230 mg/L − 170 mg/L) = 120 mg/L
36. A motor with an efficiency of 92% pumps a flow of 2,500 gpm. The total head of the
system is 140 feet. What is the break horsepower of the motor?
Use the following break horsepower equation.
Brake hp = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x % Pump Efficiency
Plug the known values for flow, head and pump efficiency into the equation. Enter
the Pump Efficiency in decimal format.
Brake hp = 2,500 gpm x 140 feet = 96 hp

3,960 x 0.92
37. A water utility serving residential, commercial and industrial accounts determines that
commercial water usage is 340,000 gpd. Commercial water usage represents 18% of
the total water used. If the utility serves a population of 6,400 what is the total gpcd
water use.
Determine the total water usage for the utility.
Total Water Used = Commercial Water Usage

Commercial Usage (% of total usage)
Total Water Used = 340,000 gpd = 1,888,900 gpd

0.18
Determine the total gpcd by dividing the total water used by the population.
gpcd = 1,888,900 gpd = 295 gpcd

6,400 people
Appendix B 181
38. A water treatment plant has a flow of 200,000 gpd. A chlorine solution with 2%
available chlorine is fed to the finished water at a dosage of 2 mg/L. The chlorine
solution has a specific gravity of 1.02. At what rate, in mL/min, should the chlorine
feed pump be set?
Pump Rate = mL/min ? Chlorine Solution

Q = 200,000 gpd Dosage = 2 mg/L
Solution Strength = 2%
SG = 1.02
Water Treatment Plant

Q = 200,000 gpd
Use the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula modified to account for the purity
or strength of the chlorine solution.
Cl2 Solution Feed Rate (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34
(% Purity)
Convert the units of flow from gallons per day to million gallons per day.
200,000 gpd = 200,000 gals x 1 mg = 0.20 mgd

day 1,000,000 gals
Plug the known values for flow, dosage and percent purity into the pounds formula.
Cl2 Solution Feed Rate (lbs/day) = 0.20 mgd x 2 mg/L x 8.34 = 166.8 lbs/day
0.02
Given the specific gravity of the chlorine solution, calculate its density.
SG CHLORINE SOLUTION = Density CHLORINE SOLUTION

Density WATER
or Density CHLORINE SOLUTION = SG CHLORINE SOLUTION x Density WATER
Density CHLORINE SOLUTION = 1.02 x 8.34 lbs/gal = 8.51 lbs/gal

Using the density of the chlorine solution, convert the units of Cl2 solution feed rate
from pounds per day to gallons per day.
166.8 lbs/day = 166.8 lbs x 1 gal = 19.6 gals/day

day 8.51 lbs
Convert the Cl2 solution feed rate from gallons per day to milliliters per minute.
19.6 gals/day = 19.6 gals x 1 day x 3,785 mLs = 51.5 mLs/minute

day 1,440 min 1 gal
39. A sedimentation tank measures 100 feet long by 35 feet wide and has a water depth
of 20 feet. At a flow of 2.5 mgd, determine the following operational parameters.
a) Volume in cubic feet and gallons.

b) Detention time in hours.
c) Velocity of the flow through the tank in feet per minute (fpm).
Q = 2.5 mgd
Q = 2.5 mgd
20 feet Sedimentation Tank
deep 35 feet wide
100 feet long
a) Volume in cubic feet and gallons
Calculate the volume of the rectangular tank in cubic feet.
Volume = Length x Width x Depth
Volume (ft3) = 100 ft x 35 ft x 20 ft = 70,000 ft3
Convert the volume units from cubic feet to gallons.
70,000 ft3 = 70,000 ft3 x 7.48 gals = 523,600 gals

1 ft3
Appendix B 183
b) Detention time in hours
Plug the known values for volume and flow into the detention time formula.
First, convert the volume units from gallons to million gallons.
523,600 gals = 523,600 gals x 1 mg = 0.524 mg

1,000,000 gals
Detention Time = Volume = 0.524 mg = 0.21 day

Flow 2.5 mg/day
Convert the units of detention time from day to hours.
0.21 day = 0.21 day x 24 hrs = 5 hours

day
c) Velocity of the flow through the tank in fps
The formula for flow is area multiplied by velocity. Rearrange the flow formula to
solve for the unknown velocity.
Flow = Area x Velocity or Q = A x V
The rearranged formula is V = Q

A
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tank.
Area = Width x Depth = 35 ft x 20 ft = 700 ft2
Convert the units of flow from million gallons per day to cubic feet per minute to be
consistent with the units of area.
2.5 mgd = 2.5 mg x 1 ft3 x 1 day x 1,000,000 gals = 232 ft3/min

day 7.48 gals 1,440 min 1 mg
Plug the known values for flow and area into the equation and solve for velocity.
V = Q = 232 ft3/min = 0.33 ft/min

A 700 ft2
40. Laboratory results of a water sample show a calcium hardness of 42 mg/L and a
Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness
The expressions used for converting calcium and magnesium hardness from mg/L to
mg/L as CaCO3 are shown below.
Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 = 2.5 x Calcium Hardness in mg/L

Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 = 4.11 x Magnesium Hardness in mg/L
Plug the known values for calcium and magnesium hardness in units of mg/L into
the above expressions to obtain calcium and magnesium hardness in mg/L as
CaCO3. Add the results to obtain total hardness.
Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 = 2.5 x 42 mg/L = 105 mg/L
Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 = 4.11 x 18 mg/L = 74 mg/L
Total Hardness as CaCO3 = 105 mg/L + 74 mg/L = 179 mg/L
41. A fire hydrant must supply a flow of 1,200 gpm to meet fire protection needs. What
size water main is required to feed this hydrant if the velocity in the main cannot
exceed 6 fps?
Flow can be expressed as Q = Area x Velocity. Solve this problem by determining

the area associated with the flow and velocity given in the problem. Calculate the
water main diameter using the equation for the area of a circle, A=0.785 x D2.
Convert the units of flow from gallons per minute to cubic feet per second to be
consistent with the units for velocity.
1,200 gpm = 1,200 gal x 1 ft3 x 1 min = 2.674 ft3/sec

Appendix B 185
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the water main that is required provide a velocity
of 6 fps at the given flow rate. First, rearrange the flow equation to solve for the
unknown area.
Q = Area x Velocity or Area = Q ⁄ Velocity
Area = 2.674 ft3/sec = 0.446 ft2

6 ft2/sec
Calculate the diameter of the water main corresponding to this area. Rearrange the
area of a circle equation to solve for the diameter.
Area = 0.785 D2 or D = √ Area/0.785
D = √ Area/0.785 = √ 0.446 ft2/0.785 = √ 0.568 = 0.754 ft
Convert the units of diameter from feet to inches.
0.754 ft = 0.754 ft x 12 in = 9.05 inches

1 ft
Provide a 10-inch diameter main to meet fire flow requirements.
42. A rapid sand filter is backwashed four times per day. The backwash flow goes to a
sludge thickener. The filter is backwashed for 30 minutes at a flow of 2,500 gpm. If
the backwash water has an average TSS concentration of 420 mg/L during the
backwash cycle, how many pounds of solids go to the sludge thickener?
Filter Influent
(QIN)
Rapid Sand Filter
Filter Backwash to
Sludge Thickener Filter Effluent
Q = 2,500 gpm (QOUT)
TSS = 420 mg/L Filter Backwash Flow
TSS = lbs/day ? Q = 2,500 gpm
Use the mass flow version of the Pounds Formula to solve for the pounds per day of
solids to the sludge thickener.
Calculate the backwash volume in units of million gallons per day.
Backwash Flow = 2,500 gals x 30 min x 4 backwashes = 300,000 gpd

min backwash day
Backwash Flow = 300,000 gpd x 1 mgd = 0.3 mgd

1,000,000 gpd
Plug the know values for flow and concentration into the pounds formula.
TSS (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34
TSS (lbs/day) = 0.3 mgd x 420 mg/L x 8.34 = 1,050 lbs/day
43. A sedimentation tank at a water treatment facility has a diameter of 75 feet. The flow
to the tank is 5.5 cfs. The overflow weir is located at the periphery of the tank. What
is the weir overflow rate?
Appendix B 187
Overflow Weir
Influent Flow = Q = 5.5 cfs
Sedimentation Tank
Weir overflow rate is defined as the flow to the tank divided by the length of the
overflow weir, typically expressed as gpd/ft.
Weir Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd)

Weir Length (ft)
Convert the flow units from cubic feet per second to gallons per day.
5.5 cfs = 5.5 ft3 x 7.48 gals x 60 sec x 60 min x 24 hrs = 3,554,500 gpd
sec 1 ft3 min hr day
Calculate the length of the overflow weir. The length of the weir is assumed as the
circumference of the tank.
Length of Weir = Circumference = π x D = 3.14 x 75 = 235.5 feet
Plug the known values for flow and weir length into the weir overflow rate formula.
Weir Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd) = 3,554,500 gpd = 15, 090 gpd/ft
Weir Length (ft) 235.5 feet
44. A welded steel standpipe needs exterior painting. The standpipe is 75 feet tall and
has a diameter of 22 feet. How many gallons of paint are required if the average
coverage rate is 120 square feet per gallon?
Diameter = 22 ft
Top Surface Area
Cylinder Surface Area Height = 75 ft
Standpipe
The gallons of paint required are calculated by dividing the surface area of the
exterior of the standpipe by the coverage rate of the paint.
Gallons of Paint = Surface Area to be Painted (ft2)

Coverage Rate (ft2/gallon)
Calculate the exterior surface area of the standpipe. The surface area has two
components; the top surface and the surface of the cylinder.
Top Surface Area = 0.785 x D2 = 0.785 x 22 ft x 22 ft = 380 ft2
Cylinder Surface Area = Circumference x Height
Cylinder Surface Area = (π x D) x H = 3.14 x 22 x 75 = 5,181 ft2
Total Surface Area = Top Surface Area + Cylinder Surface Area
Total Surface Area = 380 ft2 + 5,181 ft2 = 5,561 ft2
Plug the known values for total surface area and paint coverage rate into the equation
to find the gallons of paint required.
Gallons of Paint = Surface Area to be Painted (ft2) = 5,561 ft2 = 46.3 gallons
Coverage Rate (ft2/gallon) 120 ft2/gal
Appendix B 189
45. The equation shown below is used to calculate the volume of a cylinder when the
diameter and height are known. Rearrange the equation to solve for the diameter.
V = 0.785 x D2 x H
where: V= Volume, D = Diameter and H = Height
Divide both sides of the equation by H.
V = 0.785 x D2 x H or V = 0.785 x D2
H H H
Divide both sides of the equation by 0.785
V = 0.785 x D2 or V = D2
H x 0.785 0.785 H x 0.785
Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
V = √D2 or V = D
√H x 0.785 √H x 0.785
46. A cylindrical standpipe has a volume of 237,800 gallons at a maximum height of 20

feet. What is the diameter of the standpipe in feet?
Diameter = ? ft
Max. Volume = 237,800 gals

Height = 20 ft
Standpipe
The formula developed in the previous problem can be used.

Convert the units of maximum tank volume from gallons to cubic feet to be
consistent with the units for height and diameter.
237,800 gals = 237,800 gals x 1 ft3 = 31,790 ft3

7.48 gals
Plug the known values for volume and height into the rearranged volume of a
cylinder equation and solve for the standpipe diameter.
D= V = 31,790 ft3 = √ 2,025 ft2 = 45 feet

√H x 0.785 √20 ft x 0.785
47. Determine the percent fluoride ion purity of hydrofluosilicic (silly) acid. The
chemical formula is H2SiF6.
The percent purity of the fluoride ion is the molecular weight (MW) of fluoride (F6)
divided by the molecular weight of hydrofluosilicic (silly) acid (H2SiF6). The
molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights (AW).
Determine the molecular weight of fluoride. The molecular weight is the atomic
weight times the number of atoms in the molecule. The atomic weight (AW) of the
fluorine can be found in the Periodic Table (Refer to Appendix E).
Atomic Weight (AW) of Fluorine (F) = 19.00
MW FLUORIDE = (AW FLUORIDE x 6) = 19.00 x 6 = 114.00
Determine the molecular weight of H2SiF6. The atomic weights of the elements of
H2SiF6.
Atomic Weight (AW) of Fluorine (F) = 19.00
Atomic Weight (AW) of Silicon (Si) = 28.09
Atomic Weight (AW) of Hydrogen (H) = 1.01
MW SILLY ACID = (AW HYDROGEN x 2) + (AW SILICON x 1) + (AW FLUORIDE x 6)
MW SILLY ACID = (1.01 x 2) + (28.09 x 1) + (19.00 x 6) = 144.11

Appendix B 191
Knowing the MW of fluoride and hydrofluosilicic acid, the percent fluoride ion
content can be calculated.
Fluoride Ion Purity (%) = MW FLUORIDE x 100 = 114.00 x 100 = 79.1 %

MW SILLY ACID 144.11
48. The following table presents analytical results for source water alkalinity. Calculate
the running annual average (RAA) of the average quarterly values for the 4th quarter
of 2003 and the 1st quarter of 2004.
1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2003 65.6 72.0 82.7 67.9 90.5 100.6 80.8 50.6 67.0 55.5 89.0 90.0
2004 77.8 78.9 56.8 70.0 87.5 97.5 69.0 80.0 34.6 60.0 74.3 69.3
Determine the average of the quarterly alkalinity values.
2003 – 1st Quarter = (65.6 + 72.0 + 82.7)/3 = 73.4
2003 – 2nd Quarter = (67.9 + 90.5 + 100.6)/3 = 86.3
2003 – 3rd Quarter = (80.8+ 50.6 + 67.0)/3 = 66.1
2003 – 4th Quarter = (55.5+ 89.0 + 90.0)/3 = 78.2
2004 – 1st Quarter = (77.8 + 78.9 + 56.8)/3 = 71.2
The RAA for the 4th quarter of 2003 is the average of the four quarterly averages
from 2003 – 1st quarter to 2003 – 4th quarter.
2003 – 1st Quarter = 73.4

2003 – 2nd Quarter = 86.3
2003 – 3rd Quarter = 66.1
2003 – 4th Quarter = 78.2
RAA = (73.4 + 86.3 + 66.1 + 78.2)/4 = 304/4 = 76.0

The RAA for the 1st quarter of 2004 is the average of the four quarterly averages
from 2003 – 2nd quarter to 2004 – 1st quarter.
2003 – 2nd Quarter = 86.3

2003 – 3rd Quarter = 66.1
2003 – 4th Quarter = 78.2
2004 – 1st Quarter = 71.2
RAA = (86.3 + 66.1 + 78.2 + 71.2)/4 = 301.8/4 = 75.5
49. Given the information in the table below, calculate the kilowatt-hour (kWh) charge
for the month? Assume the cost per kilowatt-hour is $0.14 and the month has 31
days.
Average Daily
Horsepower
Plant Equipment Operating Time
(hp)
(hrs)
Raw Water Pump 60 8
Flocculator Drive 10 24
Sedimentation Tank Drive 25 24
Filter Backwash Pump 50 6
Clearwell Pump 20 8
The kilowatt-hour charge is the total kilowatt-hours used multiplied by the cost per
kilowatt-hour.
Kilowatt-hour Charge = (Total Kilowatt-hours used) x (Cost per Kilowatt-hour)
Determine the total kilowatt-hours used for the month. In the equations below note
that horsepower is converted to kilowatts.
Kilowatt-hours = Horsepower x 0.746 kilowatts x hours x days

horsepower day month
Raw Water Pump = 60 hp x 0.746 kW x 8 hrs x 31 days = 11,100 kWh/month

1 hp day month
Appendix B 193
Flocculator Drive = 10 hp x 0.746 kW x 24 hrs x 31 days = 5,550 kWh/month
1 hp day month
Sed.Tank Drive = 25 hp x 0.746 kW x 24 hrs x 31 days = 13,880 kWh/month

1 hp day month
Backwash Pump = 50 hp x 0.746 kW x 6 hrs x 31 days = 6,940 kWh/month

1 hp day month
Clearwell Pump = 20 hp x 0.746 kW x 8 hrs x 31 days = 3,700 kWh/month

1 hp day month
Add the kWh/month for the process equipment.
Raw Water Pump 11,100 kWh/month

Flocculator Drive 5,550 kWh/month
Sedimentation Tank Drive 13,880 kWh/month
Filter Backwash Pump 6,940 kWh/month
Clearwell Pump 3,700 kWh/month
Total 41,170 kWh/month
Calculate the kilowatt-hour charge
Kilowatt-hour Charge = (Total Kilowatt-hours used) x (Cost per Kilowatt-hour)
Kilowatt-hour Charge = 41,170 kWh/month x $ 0.14/kWh = $ 5,764/month
50. An 18-inch diameter water main 500 feet long is to be flushed at a flow of 35 gallons
per minute. How many minutes will it take to flush this main?
500 feet 18 inches
Q = 35 gpm
Time can be defined as volume divided by flow or Vol ⁄ Q.

Calculate the volume of the main using the volume of a cylinder formula. Convert
the units for the diameter of the main from 18 inches to 1.5 feet to make the units
consistent to the units for the length of the main.
Volume = 0.785 x Diameter2 x Length
Volume = 0.785 x 1.5 ft x 1.5 ft x 500 ft = 883 ft3
Convert the volume units of the main from cubic feet to gallons.
883 ft3 = 883 ft3 x 7.48 gallons = 6,605 gals

ft3
Calculate the time by dividing the volume by the flow.
Time = Volume = 6,605 gals = 189 minutes

Flow 35 gals/min
APPENDIX C
Common Formulas
6 Circumference of a Circle
Circumference
Circumference = π x D
Diameter = 3.14 x D
where:
D = Diameter
π = 3.14
6 Area of a Circle
Area = 0.785 x D2
Diameter
where:
D = Diameter
6 Area of a Rectangle
Length

Width
195
6 Volume of a Rectangular Tank
Volume = Length x Width x Height
Width
Height
Length
6 Volume of a Cylinder
Diameter
where:
Height D = Diameter
H = Height
6 Volume of a Cone
3
Diameter
where:
D = Diameter
Height
H = Height
Appendix C 197
Common Formulas
6 Volume of a Sphere
Volume = π x D3
6
Diameter where:
D = Diameter
π = 3.14
6 Velocity
Velocity = Distance
Time
time 1 time 2
Distance
6 Flow Rate (in full pipes and open channels)
Flow Rate = Q = Area x Velocity
time 1 time 2 Area

Area
Velocity (V)
This formula can be rearranged to solve for velocity.
Velocity = Flow Rate

Area
6 Detention Time (DT)
DT = Volume
Flow (Q)
Q Volume Q
time 1 time 2
6 Filter Flow Rate and Filter Backwash Rate
For filtration systems
Filter Flow Rate = Filter Flow (gpm)

Filter Area (ft2)
Filter Backwash Rate = Backwash Flow (gpm)

Filter Area (ft2)
6 Surface Overflow Rate (or Loading Rate)
For sedimentation basins
Surface Overflow Rate = Flow (gpd)

Tank Area (ft2)
Appendix C 199
Common Formulas
6 Weir Overflow Rate
For sedimentation basins
Weir Overflow Rate = Tank Flow (gpd)

Weir Length (ft)
6 Percent Removal (Process Removal Efficiency)

In
Contaminant In
Contaminant Out
Treatment Unit
6 Pounds Formulas
Chem. Feed (lbs/day) = Flow (mgd) x Dosage (mg/L) x 8.34

Percent Purity (in decimal form)
6 Solution Formula
V1 x C1 = V2 x C2
where:
V1 = volume of concentrated solution
C1 = concentration of concentrated solution
V2 = volume of diluted solution
C2 = concentration of diluted solution
6 Temperature Conversion Formulas
°C = (°F − 32)
1.8
°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32
where:
°C = temperature in Centigrade
°F = temperature in Fahrenheit
6 Horsepower Formulas
Hp (Brake) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Eff.
Hp (Motor) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960 x Pump Eff. x Motor Eff.
Hp (Water) = Flow (gpm) x Head (feet)

3,960
Pump and motor efficiencies are in decimal format.

Appendix C 201
Common Formulas
6 Efficiency Formulas
Motor Eff. (%) = Brake Horsepower x 100

Motor Horsepower
Pump Eff. (%) = Water Horsepower x 100

Brake Horsepower
Wire-to-Water Eff. (%) = Water Horsepower x 100

Motor Horsepower
The positions of motor, brake and water horsepower are shown in the following
diagram.
Clearwell
PUMP
MOTOR
Water HP
Treatment Brake HP
Plant
Motor HP
6 Alkalinity Relationship Table
ALKALINITY RELATIONSHIPS
Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3
Hydroxide Carbonate Bicarbonate
Result of
Alkalinity Alkalinity Concentration
Titration
as CaCO3 as CaCO3 as CaCO3
P=0 0 0 T
P < 1/2 T 0 2P T − 2P
P = 1/2 T 0 2P 0
P > 1/2 T 2P − T 2(T − P) 0
P=T T 0 0
Where: P = Phenolphthalein Alkalinity
T = Total Alkalinity
APPENDIX D
Conversion Tables
One Equals or Contains

acre 0.405 hectare
acre 4,047 square meters
acre 43,560 square feet
acre - foot 1,233 cubic meters
acre - foot 325,853 gallons
acre - foot 43,560 cubic feet
centimeter 0.0328 feet
centimeter 0.3937 inch
cubic centimeter 0.0610 cubic inch
cubic decimeter 61.024 cubic inches
cubic foot 1,728 cubic inches
cubic foot 28,317 cubic centimeters
cubic foot of water 28.317 liters @ 4 °C
cubic foot of water 62.43 pounds @ 4 °C
cubic foot of water 7.48 gallons
cubic foot of water 28,317 grams
cubic foot per second 0.02832 cubic meters per second
cubic foot per second 0.6463 million gallons per day
cubic foot per second 448.83 gallons per minute
cubic inch 16.387 cubic centimeters
cubic meter 0.000811 acre-feet
cubic meter 1,000 liters
203

cubic meter 1.308 cubic yards
cubic meter 264.17 gallons
cubic meter 35.315 cubic feet
cubic meter 61,024 cubic inches
cubic yard 0.7646 cubic meter
cubic yard 27 cubic feet
day 1,440 minutes
decimeter 3.937 inches
foot 0.3048 meter
foot 12 inches
foot 3.048 decimeters
foot of water @ 4 °C 0.433 pounds per square inch
foot of water @ 4 °C 304.80 kilograms per square meter
foot per second 0.3048 meters per second
foot per second 0.6818 miles per hour
foot per second 1.0973 kilometers per hour
gallon 0.1337 cubic foot
gallon 128 fluid ounces
gallon 231 cubic inches
gallon 3,785 cubic centimeters
gallon 3.785 liters
gallon 3,785 milliliters
gallons per minute 1,440 gallons per day
gallons per minute 227.12 liters per hour
gallons per minute 0.00144 million gallons per day
gallons per minute 0.00223 cubic feet per second
grain 64.799 milligrams
Appendix D 205
Conversion Tables

grain 0.06480 grams
grains per gallon 17.12 milligrams per liter
gram 0.03527 ounce
gram 15.432 grains
grams per liter 1,000 milligrams per liter
hectare 2.471 acre
horsepower 0.746 kilowatt
horsepower 550 foot-pounds per second
horsepower 746 watts
horsepower-hours 0.746 kilowatt-hours
inch 2.54 centimeters
kilogram 2.205 pounds
kilometer 3,281 feet
kilometer 0.6214 mile
kilometers per hour 0.2778 meters per second
kilowatt 1,000 watts
kilowatt 1.340 horsepower
liter 0.03531 cubic feet
liter 0.2642 gallons
liter 61.024 cubic inches
meter 1.0936 yards
meter 3.2808 feet
meter 39.370 inches
meters per second 2.237 miles per hour
mile 1,609 meters
mile 1,760 yards
mile 5,280 feet

miles per hour 0.4470 meters per second
miles per hour 1.4667 feet per second
milligram 0.01543 grain
milligram per liter 1 part per million
millimeter 0.03937 inch
million gallons per day 1.547 cubic feet per second
million gallons per day 694.4 gallons per minute
ounce (liquid) 1.805 cubic inches
ounce (liquid) 29.573 milliliters
ounce 28.350 grams
part per million 1 milligram per liter
percent 10,000 milligram per liter
pound 0.4536 kilogram
pound 453.6 grams
pounds per square foot 4.882 kilograms per square meter
pounds per square inch 2.307 feet of water @ 4 °C
pounds per square inch 70.307 grams per square centimeter
square centimeter 0.1550 square inch
square decimeter 15.500 square inches
square foot 144 square inches
square foot 929.03 square centimeters
square inch 6.4516 square centimeters
square kilometer 100 hectares
square kilometer 247.11 acres
square meter 1.196 square yards
square meter 10.764 square feet
square mile 27,878,400 square feet
Appendix D 207
Conversion Tables

square mile 258.0 hectares
square mile 640 acres
square yard 0.8361 square meter
square yard 9 square feet
ton (short or US) 0.8929 long ton
ton (short or US) 0.9072 metric ton
ton (short or US) 2,000 pounds
ton (short or US) 907.2 kilograms
watts 0.001340 horsepower
yard 0.9144 meter
yard 3 feet
Concentration Relationships
lbs/1,000
mg/L or ppm Decimal Percentage
gallons *
1 0.000001 0.0001 % 0.00834
2 0.000002 0.0002 % 0.01669
3 0.000003 0.0003 % 0.02503
4 0.000004 0.0004 % 0.03337
5 0.000005 0.0005 % 0.04172
6 0.000006 0.000 6% 0.05006
7 0.000007 0.0007 % 0.05840
8 0.000008 0.0008 % 0.06674
9 0.000009 0.0009 % 0.07509
10 0.00001 0.0010 % 0.08343
100 0.0001 0.0100 % 0.83431
1,000 0.001 0.1000 % 8.3431
10,000 0.01 1% 83.431
100,000 0.1 10 % 834.31
1,000,000 1 100 % 8,343.1
* Density of Water = 62.42 lbs/gallon @ 4 °C
APPENDIX E
List of Elements
Name Symbol Number Atomic Weight

Actinium Ac 89 227
Aluminum Al 13 26.98
Americium Am 95 243
Antimony Sb 51 121.76
Argon Ar 18 39.95
Arsenic As 33 74.92
Astatine At 85 210
Barium Ba 56 137.32
Berkelium Bk 97 248
Beryllium Be 4 9.01
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98
Bohrium Bh 107 264
Boron B 5 10.81
Bromine Br 35 79.90
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41
Calcium Ca 20 40.08
Californium Cf 98 251
Carbon C 6 12.01
Cerium Ce 58 140.12
Cesium Cs 55 132.91
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45
Chromium Cr 24 52.00
209

Cobalt Co 27 58.93
Copper Cu 29 63.55
Curium Cm 96 247
Dubnium Db 105 262
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5
Einsteinium Es 99 252
Erbium Er 68 167.26
Europium Eu 63 151.96
Fermium Fm 100 257
Fluorine F 9 19.00
Francium Fr 87 223
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25
Gallium Ga 31 69.72
Germanium Ge 32 72.64
Gold Au 79 196.97
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49
Hassium Hs 108 277
Helium He 2 4.00
Holmium Ho 67 164.93
Hydrogen H 1 1.01
Indium In 49 114.82
Iodine I 53 126.90
Iridium Ir 77 192.22
Iron Fe 26 55.85
Krypton Kr 36 83.80
Lanthanum La 57 138.91
Lawrencium Lr 103 262
Appendix E 211
List of Elements

Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.941
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31
Manganese Mn 25 54.94
Meitnerium Mt 109 268
Mendelevium Md 101 258
Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24
Neon Ne 10 20.18
Neptunium Np 93 237
Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Nitrogen N 7 14.01
Nobelium No 102 259
Osmium Os 76 190.23
Oxygen O 8 16.00
Palladium Pd 46 106.42
Phosphorus P 15 30.98
Platinum Pt 78 195.08
Plutonium Pu 94 244
Polonium Po 84 209
Potassium K 19 39.10
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.91
Promethium Pm 61 145
Protactinium Pa 91 231.04

Radium Ra 88 226
Radon Rn 86 222
Rhenium Re 75 186.21
Rhodium Rh 45 102.91
Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Rutherfordium Rf 104 261
Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Seaborgium Sg 106 266
Selenium Se 34 78.96
Silicon Si 14 28.09
Silver Ag 47 107.87
Sodium Na 11 22.99
Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Sulfur S 16 32.07
Tantalum Ta 73 180.95
Technetium Tc 43 97.90
Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Terbium Tb 65 158.93
Thallium Tl 81 204.38
Thorium Th 90 232.04
Thulium Tm 69 168.93
Tin Sn 50 118.71
Titanium Ti 22 47.87
Tungsten W 74 183.84
Uranium U 92 238.03
Appendix E 213
List of Elements

Vanadium V 23 50.94
Xenon Xe 54 131.29
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Zinc Zn 30 65.39
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
APPENDIX F
Chemical Formulas and Equivalent Weights
COMPOUNDS
Formula Weight Equivalent Weight

Item Formula
(grams/mole) (grams/mole)
Alum (Aluminum Al2(SO4)3 18H2O 666 111
Sulfate)
Ammonia NH3 17 17
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 100 50
Lime Ca(OH)2 74 37
Quicklime CaO 56 28
Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 136 68
22 to CO3−2
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44
44 to HCO3−
Ferric Chloride FeCl3 6H2O 270 90
Ferric Sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 400 67
Hydrochloric Acid HCl 36 36
Magnesium
MgCO3 84 42
Carbonate
Magnesium
Mg(OH)2 58 29
Hydroxide
Oxygen O2 32 16
Sodium Aluminate NaAlO2 82 82
Soda Ash (Sodium Na2CO3 106 53
Carbonate)
Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3 84 84
Caustic Soda NaOH 40 40
Sodium Chloride NaCl 58 58
Sodium Sulfate Na2SO4 142 71
49 to SO4−2
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 98
98 to HSO4−
215
CATIONS

Item Formula
Aluminum Al+3 27 9
Ammonium NH4+ 18 18
Calcium Ca+2 40 20
+3
Ferric Fe 56 19
Ferrous Fe+2 56 28
+
Hydrogen H 1 1
+2
Magnesium Mg 24 12
Sodium Na+ 23 23
ANIONS

Item Formula
Bicarbonate HCO3−2 61 61
Carbonate CO3−2 60 30
Chloride Cl− 35 35
−
Hydroxide OH 17 17
−
Nitrate NO3 62 62
Bisulfate HSO4− 97 97
−2
Sulfate SO4 96 48
APPENDIX G
Abbreviations
Abbreviation Term
ac acre
ac-ft acre foot
bhp or bHp brake horsepower
cc cubic centimeter
cf or ft3
cubic foot
cfs cubic feet per second
cm centimeter
dm decimeter
DT detention time
fps or ft/sec or ft/s feet/second
ft feet
g gram
gal gallon
gpcd gallons per capita per day
gpd gallons per day
gpg grains per gallon
hp or Hp horsepower
hr hour
in inches
kg kilogram
km kilometer
km/hour kilometers per hour
217
Abbreviation Term
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt-hours
L liter
lbs pounds
m meter
m 3
cubic meters
mg milligram
mg/L milligrams per liter
mgd million gallons per day
mhp or mHp motor horsepower
mi mile
min minute
mL milliliter
mph miles per hour
oz ounce
pi or π 3.14159
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch
Q flow
sec or s second
sf or ft2
square foot
SS suspended solids
TSS total suspended solids
whp or wHp water horsepower
yd yard
μg microgram
APPENDIX H
Glossary
Item Definition
absolute pressure The sum of atmospheric pressure plus the pressure
within a closed container or pipe.
accuracy The closeness of a measured value to a true value.
acidic solution A solution that contains predominantly H+ ions.
acre-foot A volume of water that covers one acre to a depth
of one foot. Equal to 43,560 cubic feet.
alkaline solution A solution that contains predominantly OH− ions.
alkalinity A measure of the capacity of water to neutralize
acids, due to the presence of naturally available
bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide ions. Also
known as buffering capacity. Expressed as mg/L of
CaCO3.
aluminum sulfate (alum) A common coagulant used in water treatment
available in liquid or dry form. Lowers pH and
reduces alkalinity.
anionic Having a negative ionic charge.
aqueous A water-based solution or a solution containing
water.
atom The smallest component of an element having the
chemical properties of the element
atomic mass unit (AMU) A unit of mass used for expressing masses of atoms
or molecules
atomic number The number of protons in an element.
atomic weight The average mass of the atoms of an element. Also
called atomic mass.
available chlorine A measure of the amount of chlorine available in
hypochlorite compounds and other materials that
are used as a source of chlorine when compared
with that of elemental (liquid or gaseous) chlorine.
219
Item Definition
average The sum of a set of N numbers divided by N. Also
called the mean or arithmetic mean.
backwashing Removing the contaminants in a filter by reversing
flow through the filter.
brake horsepower The horsepower available at the output shaft of a
motor.
breakpoint chlorination The addition of chlorine to water until the
chloramines have been destroyed. Further addition
of chlorine results in a free residual chlorine.
buffer A solution whose chemical makeup neutralizes
acids or bases without a significant change in pH.
buffer capacity A measure of the capacity of a solution or liquid to
neutralize acids or bases. The capacity of water to
offer a resistance to changes in pH.
C- factor A value used to indicate the relative smoothness of
the interior of a pipe. Smoothness increases with
increasing C-factor.
C x T value Residual disinfectant concentration (mg/L) times
disinfectant contact time (minutes). Minimum C x
T values are required for proper disinfection.
calcium carbonate A white precipitate that can form in water and
cause scaling of distribution mains and equipment.
calcium hypochlorite Chlorine in powder or granular form containing
approximately 65% available chlorine.
capacity A measure of the volume of a container. Can be
expressed as a space (cubic feet) or a liquid
(gallons).
carbonate hardness A form of hardness containing carbonate in the
form of calcium carbonate and magnesium
carbonate.
cationic Having a positive ionic charge.
chlorine A gas or liquid used in water treatment for
disinfection and taste/odor control.
Appendix H 221
Glossary
Item Definition
chlorine demand The amount of chlorine consumed. The difference
between the amount of chlorine added and the
amount of chlorine remaining after a given contact
time.
circumference The perimeter of a circle.
clarification A water treatment process designed to settle out
and remove coagulated solids.
coagulation A water treatment process using chemicals that
destabilizes the electric charge of colloidal sized
particles, allowing the particles to attract and form
larger particles.
coefficient In scientific notation format, the number between 1
and 10 that is multiplied by the power of 10. In the
expression 2.3 x 105, 2.3 is the coefficient
combined chlorine residual The concentration of residual chlorine which is
combined with ammonia and/or organic nitrogen
in water. Referred to as chloramines.
common denominator A multiple of the denominator of two or more
fractions.
common factor A number that is a factor of two or more numbers.
compound A substance of two or more elements in fixed
proportions.
concentration A measure of how much of one substance is
contained in another substance. Commonly
expressed in mg/L or ppm.
cone A three dimensional figure with a circular base
tapering to an apex.
constant A term or expression that does not change. The
term Pi or π is a constant.
converting Changing the units of a term or measurement but
not its value.
corrosivity An indication of the corrosiveness of water.
Characterized by the waters’ pH, alkalinity,
hardness, temperature, total dissolved solids,
dissolved oxygen concentration and Langelier
Saturation Index.
Item Definition
cross-multiplying A method for solving and checking proportions.
The cross-products in a proportion are always
equal.
cross-product The numerator of one fraction in a proportion
multiplied by the denominator of the other fraction
in a proportion.
cylinder A three dimensional figure with parallel and equal
bases. If the bases are circular and at 90° to the
height the figure is called a right circular cylinder.
decimal A number expressed in the base 10.
decimal point The period in a number separating the whole
number from the fraction of the number.
denominator The bottom part of a fraction. In the fraction x/y, y
is called the denominator
density The mass per unit volume of a substance.
detention time The amount of time that a volume of a substance
will remain in a three-dimensional space such as a
tank or pipe. Calculated by dividing the volume by
the flow.
dewater To remove or separate a portion of the water
present in a sludge or slurry. To dry sludge so it can
be handled and disposed.
diameter The length of the line segment between two points
on a circle or sphere which passes through the
center.
digits The symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 used to
write numbers. The digits in the number 4,210 are
4, 2, 1 and 0.
disinfectant contact time The time that it takes for water to move from the
point of disinfectant application to a point where a
residual disinfectant concentration is measured.
disinfection A water treatment process designed to deactivate
disease causing organisms in water.
dosage The amount of a chemical substance added to water
and expressed as a concentration, typically in terms
of mg/L or ppm.
Appendix H 223
Glossary
Item Definition
efficiency The ratio of the output to the input of a system.
efficiency (overall pump) The combined efficiency of a pump and motor
together. Also called the wire-to-water efficiency.
effluent The water discharged from a reservoir, basin or
treatment process.
electron A negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus
of an atom.
element A substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances without changing its chemical
characteristics.
end point Samples are titrated to reach an end point. A
chemical is added, drop by drop, to a sample until a
change in the sample occurs (typically a color
and/or pH change).
energy grade line A line that represents the elevation of the energy
head of water flowing in a pipe, conduit or channel.
Equal to the hydraulic grade line plus the velocity
head (V2/2g).
equation A mathematical expression using an equal sign
where the value on the right side of the equal sign
equals the value on the left side of the equal sign.
The equal sign indicates that the two values are
equal.
equivalent weight The molecular weight of a compound divided by its
positive valence.
exponent A number indicating how many times the base
number is used as a factor. In the expression 24, 4
is the exponent and 2 is the base number.
filter backwash rate An operational and design parameter of filters
calculated by dividing the backwash flow by the
surface area of the filter. Typically expressed as
gpm/ ft2.
filter flow rate or filtration An operational and design parameter of filters
rate calculated by dividing the flow by the surface area
of the filter. Typically expressed as gpm/ ft2.
Item Definition
finished water Water that has passed through a water treatment
plant and is ready to be delivered to consumers.
flocculation A water treatment process following coagulation
that aggregates solids under quiescent flow
conditions.
flow A volume of fluid that moves from one position to
another in a given time.
fluoridation A water treatment process where fluoride is added
to the water to improve dental health.
force The push or pull applied to an object.
formula An expression showing the relationship among
variables and constants. In chemistry, an expression
showing the chemical composition of a compound.
formula weight The sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a
compound. Same as molecular weight.
fraction A mathematical term where one number (the
numerator) is divided by another number (the
denominator). The term 2/5 is a fraction where 2 is
divided by 5.
fraction of a number The number to the right of the decimal point when
the number is expressed in decimal format.
friction losses The energy lost by water flowing in a pipe or
channel as a result of the roughness of the pipe,
channel walls and other restrictions caused by
structures and fittings.
gauge pressure The pressure within a closed container or pipe as
measured with a gage.
gram A unit of mass equivalent in volume to one milliliter
of water at 4 degrees Celsius.
halogen A series of chemical elements, including chlorine,
bromine and iodine that are used as disinfectants.
hard water Water high in mineral content that can interfere
with some industrial processes and prevent soap
from lathering.
Appendix H 225
Glossary
Item Definition
hardness A measure of the amount of dissolved minerals
found in water, primarily calcium and magnesium
salts. Typically expressed in grains per gallon or
mg/L of CaCO3.
head loss The total energy lost by water flowing in a pipe or
channel.
hectare A measure of area in the metric system.
horsepower A measure of power equal to 746 watts.
hydraulic grade line The surface of flowing water. In a pipe under
pressure, the hydraulic grade line is at the level
water would rise in a vertical tube connected to the
pipe.
hypochlorinators A system designed to dispense chlorine solutions
for the disinfection of water supplies.
hypochlorites Chemical compounds containing available chlorine
and used for disinfection. Available as liquids
(sodium hypochlorite or bleach) or solids (calcium
hypochlorite).
ion An electrically charged atom, radical or molecule
formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
ion exchange softening A method of water softening where hardness
causing ions are exchanged with sodium ions.
kilowatt A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts and
1.34 horsepower.
kilowatt-hour A basic unit of electric energy used for billing
purposes and equal to an average of one kilowatt of
power applied over one hour.
Langelier Saturation Index An index that measures the tendency of a water
solution to precipitate or dissolve calcium
carbonate.
launders Water conveying troughs and discharge channels
located in sedimentation basins and sand filters.
least common The least common multiple of two or more
denominator denominators.
Item Definition
lime softening A method of water softening where chemicals are
added to the water to precipitate hardness causing
substances which are then removed by
sedimentation or filtration.
linear Having one dimension such as a straight line.
mass The amount of matter in an object. Mass is
independent of the gravitational field exerted on an
object.
mean The sum of a set of N numbers divided by N. Also
called the average or arithmetic mean.
median The middle number of a set of numbers arranged
from highest to lowest value. If the set has an even
number of data, the median is the average of the
two middle numbers.
metric system A system of measurements in which the units are
based on multiples of 10. The basic units are the
gram for weight and the meter for length.
molar solution An aqueous solution that contains 1 mole of solute
in 1 liter of the solution.
molarity The number of moles of a compound dissolved in
one liter of solution.
mole The molecular weight of a substance expressed in
grams.
molecular weight The sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a
compound. Same as formula weight.
molecule The smallest division of a substance that has all the
properties of the substance.
motor efficiency The output horsepower of the motor (break
horsepower) divided by the input horsepower of
the motor, expressed as a percentage.
motor horsepower The horsepower at the input shaft of the motor.
neutral Having a pH of 7.
normal solution An aqueous solution containing one gram
equivalent of a substance in one liter of the
solution.
Appendix H 227
Glossary
Item Definition
normality The number of equivalents of a substance
dissolved in one liter of solution.
numerator The top part of a fraction. In the fraction x/y, x is
called the numerator.
parts per million A measurement of concentration on a weight or
volume basis. This term is comparable to milligrams
per liter.
per capita Per person.
percentage A proportion, fraction or ratio multiplied by 100.
perimeter The distance around the outside of a plane figure.
periodic table A chart where the elements are organized into
periods and groups according to their properties.
pH An expression of the intensity of the basic or acid
condition of a liquid. Defined as the logarithm of
the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration.
phenolphthalein alkalinity The alkalinity in a water sample measured by the
(P - alkalinity) amount of acid required to lower the pH to a level
of 8.3, as indicated by the change in color from
pink to clear.
Pi or π The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter. Approximately 3.14159.
plane A flat surface having two dimensions.
polymers High molecular weight synthetic organic
compounds used as coagulants, coagulant aids and
sludge conditioners in water treatment processes.
potassium permanganate A strong oxidizing agent available in granular or
liquid form used for iron and manganese removal
and taste and odor control.
precipitate An insoluble substance which is a product of a
chemical reaction in an aqueous solution.
pressure The force applied to a unit area of surface.
product A quantity obtained by multiplication. The product
of 2 and 4 is 8.
proportion An equation stating that two ratios are equal.
Item Definition
pump efficiency The output horsepower of a pump divided by the
input horsepower of the pump expressed as a
percentage.
radius The length of a line segment joining any point on a
circle or sphere to the center. One-half of the
diameter
ratio One number or expression divided by another
number or expression. 3/5 is a ratio.
raw water Water in its natural state, prior to any treatment.
Usually the water entering the first treatment
process of a water treatment plant.
rearranging equations A mathematical technique where an equation is
manipulated to isolate the unknown so the equation
can be solved. Rearranging equations consists of
performing the same mathematical functions on
both sides of the equation.
recarbonation The final stage in the lime-soda ash softening
process in which carbon dioxide is added to the
water to lower the pH.
rectangle A box shape on a plane surface with four sides and
all interior angles at 90°.
residual chlorine The amount of free and/or available chlorine
remaining after a given contact time.
rounding A method for approximating a number using a
nearby number.
salometer A hydrometer used to measure the density of a
sodium chloride brine solution.
saturation A stable condition in water where neither corrosion
nor deposition will occur.
scientific notation A method of expressing a number as the product of
a power of 10 and a number between 1 and 10.
2.34 x 103 is a number expressed in scientific
notation.
sedimentation A water treatment process following coagulation
and flocculation where solid particles settle out of
the water.
Appendix H 229
Glossary
Item Definition
short-circuiting A condition in a treatment process where the actual
detention time is significantly less than the
theoretical detention time.
significant figures A way of describing how precisely a number or a
measurement is written.
sodium hydroxide A liquid corrosion control chemical that increases
pH and alkalinity.
sodium hypochlorite Chlorine in liquid form containing 5% to 15%
available chlorine. Commonly called bleach.
sodium silicate A liquid corrosion control chemical that increases
pH and forms a protective coating for distribution
system mains.
softening A water treatment process where calcium and
magnesium are removed.
solution A liquid mixture of dissolved substances.
specific capacity or A water well measurement calculated by dividing
specific yield the well yield in gallons per minute by the
drawdown in feet.
specific gravity The weight of a substance in relation to the weight
of an equal volume of water.
square root One of the two equal factors of the number. The
square root of 25 equals five because 5 x 5 = 25.
static head The vertical distance from a specific point to the
water surface in a static or non-moving condition.
static pressure The pressure exerted by a column of water in a
static or non-moving condition.
surface loading rate An operational and design parameter of treatment
processes calculated by dividing the flow by the
surface area of the process unit. Typically expressed
in gpd/ft2.
suspended solids (SS) Solids that either float on the surface or are
suspended in water and can be removed by
laboratory filtering.
T alkalinity Determined by titration to the methyl orange
(Total alkalinity) endpoint of pH 4.3. Also referred to as M alkalinity.
Item Definition
titration The process of adding a chemical reagent in small
increments until the completion of the reaction is
indicated by an end point.
total dissolved solids All of the dissolved solids in a water. TDS is
(TDS) measured on a sample of water that has passed
through a very fine filter to remove suspended
solids.
total dynamic head (TDH) The total energy required by a pump to transport
water from one location to another location.
total residual chlorine The amount of available chlorine remaining after a
given contact time. The sum of the combined
available residual chlorine and the free available
residual chlorine.
unknown The value or term in an equation that is not known
and can be calculated if the other values and terms
are known.
variable A term in an equation that can change or that may
take on different values.
velocity The distance traveled per unit of time.
velocity head The amount of energy required to accelerate water
to a given velocity. Expressed as V2/2g.
volume The amount of space occupied by a three
dimensional object.
water horsepower The horsepower at the discharge of a pump that is
delivered to the water.
weight The downward force exerted on an object by
gravity.
weir A wall or plate placed in an open channel used to
control and/or measure the flow of water.
weir overflow rate An operational and design parameter of
sedimentation tanks calculated by dividing the flow
by the length of the tank overflow weir. Typically
expressed in gpd/ft.
Appendix H 231
Glossary
Item Definition
whole number The number to the left of the decimal point when
the number is expressed in decimal format.
wire-to-water efficiency The combined efficiency of a motor and pump
system expressed as a percent. Calculated by
multiplying the motor efficiency by the pump
efficiency.

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Math Handbook for

Water System Operators

Outskirts Press, Inc.

Math Handbook for Water System Operators

Cover Image © 2006 JupiterImages Corporation

Outskirts Press and the “OP” logo are trademarks belonging to

Printed in the United States of America

Chapter 1: Basic Math Functions and the Calculator

Chapter 2: Basic Math Principles

Chapter 3: Working with Equations

Chapter 4: Linear, Area and Volume Computations

Chapter 6: Water System Concepts

Chapter 7: Problem-Solving Methods

Appendix A – Answers to Review Problems....................................................................145

Appendix B – Solutions to Chapter 6 Review Problems............................................... 149

Appendix C – Common Formulas.................................................................................... 195

Appendix D – Conversion Tables ..................................................................................... 203

Appendix E – List of Elements ......................................................................................... 209

Appendix F – Chemical Formulas and Equivalent Weights ......................................... 215

Appendix G – Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 217

Appendix H – Glossary....................................................................................................... 219

 use a calculator to perform basic math functions,

BASIC MATH FUNCTIONS AND THE CALCULATOR

 Multiplication “brackets” ()() expressed as (2) (3)

Multiplication “dot” • expressed as 2 • 3

 Division “Slash” ⁄ expressed as 8 ⁄ 2 or 8

Fractions and Decimals

Separator Decimal Point

Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 1. Enter 345.

Step 1. Enter 123.34.

Step 5. Enter 346.5.

Step 1. Enter 78.

Addition and Subtraction

Step 1. Enter 1245.63.

Step 3. Enter 62.

Step 1. Enter the first number.

Step 1. Enter 23.94.

Step 1. Enter 12.12.

Step 1. Enter the number to be divided.

Step 1. Enter 54.3.

Step 1. Enter 525.

Step 2. Enter the ÷ key.

Multiplication and Division

Step 2. Enter the x key.

Calculation 1 (Multiply 7 by 19)

Calculation 2 (Multiply 24 by 6.4)

Calculation 3 (Divide the results of Calculation 1 by the results of Calculation 2.)

Step 1. Enter 6.34.

Basic Rules for Calculations

1. Multiplication and division calculations should be performed before

2. If there are brackets present, the calculations in the brackets should be

 Perform the multiplication function first.

 Then subtract 2 from 42.

 Perform the subtraction shown in the brackets.

(23.45 x 12.12) + (12.3 x 45.33) + (56.78 – 34.72) (2.5)

 Perform the calculations within the three brackets.

(23.45 x 12.12) = 284.214

(12.3 x 45.33) = 557.559

use a calculator to perform basic math functions,

Multiplication “brackets” ()() expressed as (2) (3)

Division “Slash” ⁄ expressed as 8 ⁄ 2 or 8

Perform the multiplication function first.

Then subtract 2 from 42.

Perform the subtraction shown in the brackets.

Perform the calculations within the three brackets.

Perform the multiplication calculation remaining on the right hand expression.

Add the remaining three numbers.

If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round the

If the digit you are rounding to is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, round the

5,337 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 5,340.

5,337 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,300.

5,337 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 5,000.

65 rounded to the nearest tens digit is 70.

5,828 rounded to the nearest hundreds digit is 5,800.

10,754 rounded to the nearest thousands digit is 11,000.

12.9145 rounded to the nearest tenth digit is 12.9.

1.8627 rounded to the nearest hundredth digit is 1.86.

2.4578 rounded to the nearest thousandth digit is 2.458.

0.00012 has 2 significant figures. (Leading zeros are not significant.)

Add the three repair lengths. The answer is 2,124.85 feet.

The area, expressed in two significant figures, is 10. square feet.

22 equals 2 times 2 and can be written as:

42 equals 4 times 4 and can be written as:

33 equals 3 times 3 times 3 and can be written as:

50% converts to 0.50.

120% converts to 1.2.

0.33% converts to 0.0033.

7.5 converts to 750%.

0.65 converts to 65%.

1.0 converts to 100%

Since the cross products are equal, the proportion is valid.

The cross products are equal, therefore:

To solve for Y, divide 90 by 6. Y = 15

The sum of these numbers is 500.

Divide 500 by 8. The average is 62.5.

Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.

Since 12 is the middle value of this group, it is the median.

Arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest.

The middle pair of this group is 22 and 30.

The calculator display shows 1.0000000 and an error message.

This same number expressed in scientific notation format is

This same number expressed in scientific notation format is

If these numbers were multiplied on a calculator, an error message would appear.

(1.24509 x 107) x (8.5 x 101) = (1.24509 x 8.5) x (107 + 1) = 10.583265 x 108