Learning Module - 1 - Only

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Title: Settlements and Rate of Consolidation
Topic: Theory of Consolidation, Settlements and Rate of Settlements of foundation
Time frame: 13.5 hours
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of structures to remain functional as designed, must satisfy not only strength
state limits but also the serviceability limits such as load bearing capacity and settlements. Any stress
increase caused by the construction of structures above ground compresses soil layers which result to
settlements in the soil mass. Excessive settlements in soil would lead to cracking of walls, bending of
beams, tilting of buildings and/or worst scenario the collapse of structures. Thus to learn the theory of
compression and consolidation in soils that discusses settlement behavior of soil subjected to structural
loads is imperative. The theory of consolidation by Terzhagi is the foundation of knowledge behind
settlement and rate of settlement in soil. Through the theory of one dimensional consolidation of
Terzhagi the derivation of the formula that predicts the rate of settlement in fined grained soils was
developed. Generally, the settlements caused by loads follows three stages and divided into three broad
categories: elastic settlement – an elastic deformation in dry, moist and saturated soil without changes
in the moisture content; primary consolidation settlement – a volume change in saturated soil because
of the expulsion of water that occupies the void spaces; and secondary consolidation settlement -
additional form of settlement/creep that occurs in cohesive soils and organic soils due to the plastic
adjustments of soil fabric under a constant effective stress. This topic presents the fundamental
principles for estimating the elastic and consolidation settlements of soil layers under superimposed
loadings.
Objectives:
a. Explain the theory of consolidation and how soil settlement is achieved;

2. Estimate the consolidation and rate of settlement;
3. Show accurateness in processing and interpreting consolidation test data.
Pretest:
Review on the concept of stress in soil and index properties are relevant in this section. This exercise is
provided as a requirement to master prior knowledge required for the topic. Take time to answer this
exercise below.
1.) A soil in its natural state has a moist unit weight of 18 KN/ m3 and a dry unit weight of 15.99 KN/ m3.
The soil has been tested in the soil laboratory and registers a porosity of 0.398. Compute the specific
gravity of the soil if it has a degree of saturation of 51.7%.
2.) The wet weight of a soil specimen is 207g. The dried weight of the specimen is 163g. If the volume
of the specimen is measured before drying is 110 cubic centimeter, determine the following: a.)
CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 1

Engr. Richard A. Badiola
Void ratio if sp.gr. of solids is 2.68, b.) Relative density if the void ratios at the densest and loosest
state of this soil are 0.51 and 0.87, and c.) the Bulk specific weight.
3.) A soil stratum has two layers a 4m-thick dry sand underlain by a 5m–thick saturated sand. Dry unit
weight and saturated unit weight of sand are respectively 16.21 KN/m 3 and 20.88 KN/m3.
a. What is the total stress at the bottom of the soil stratum?
b. How high in m should the GWT rises from the top of the saturated sand layer so that
the effective stress at the bottom of that same layer is 104 kPa?
c. What is the change in effective stress at the bottom of the saturated sand after the rising?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY: THE PAUSE PROCEDURE
At teacher discretion at every important part of the lesson there will be pauses to allow students to
discuss among students to clarify important points discussed, make journal, raised questions and/or
solved problems posed by the teacher. The key to participate well in the activity is to read in advance
the topic at hand.
I. Compression and Consolidation Model in Soil
Compression and Consolidation are two interrelated soil behaviors that occur at different
conditions. During early stage of soil formation, the soil has been compressed because of loads of recent
soil deposits and/or changes in moisture conditions. Gradually overtime, the soil further have undergone
particle adjustments, as the soil is subjected to constant stress which result to more compression and
eventually lead to consolidation. Similarly, building loads or any structures on top of a soil mass will
cause compression and follows consolidation processes, thus must be anticipated. Both these processes
may cause settlement too large that could endanger the structures to collapse. Therefore it is highly
important to investigate the mechanism of compression and consolidation in soils and use the concept
of compression/consolidation for the benefits of soil improvement.
To model these soil behaviors at laboratory setting and understand its distinction, figures 1 and
2 show an analogy using a cylinder filled with water and a spring connected to a piston. The chamber
is equipped with valve at the bottom and a piezometer to monitor the pressure in the water (or pore
pressure). The spring represents the soil skeleton and its stiffness models the compressibility of soil.
Figure 1. Compression Model

While the water represents pore water, the flow of water in and out of the chamber is controlled by the
valve. Meanwhile the valve represents resistance of flow past the soil grains and the degree of opening
of the valve models the permeability of soil.
How these model works to model compressive and consolidation behaviors? First, the force P
provides the total compressive stress on the spring (soil) which causes pore pressure u in the water.
Total stress in this case is both carried by the spring and water so the net force on the spring is termed
as the effective stress. Upon the application of the load P before draining, the pore pressure (u = hgw)
develops causes rising of water in the piezometer past the water level in the cylinder. Consequently,
when the soil is compressed by loads pore pressure increases that would result to increase of effective
stresses in the soil skeleton. Second, when the water is allowed to drain thru the valve, because of
gradient (unbalance heads), pore pressure dissipates from the cylinder leading to compressing the
spring, and eventually settlement of the spring take place. In short, compression in soil happens during
the application of the load and water flows out from the soil, until soil reaches equilibrium overtime. In
consolidation, the load in the soil facilitate the soil particle re- arrangement by pressing the soil to
remove the water in the void spaces but this process takes a longer time. Third point, a unit volume
change during the load application P is numerically equivalent to change of the water volume. This
volume change leads to spring deformation and changes in the internal stresses in the spring. How much
deformation occur in the spring can be related to volume of water that is removed. Similarly, the soil in
the field is allowed to deform vertically under the action of external loads because the soil being a
particulate material, it allows water to flow through the soil pores which makes soil a compressible
material like what is modelled in the test. The internal stress increase in soil is attributed to more transfer
of external stresses to the soil particles alone because the water has been removed.
Figure 2. Consolidation Model
Compression in soils occurs as effective stress changes brought about by volume change
in soil but consolidation process is achieve through gradual volume change of soil. The volume change
of soil alongside with change of effective stress is totally independent with time, this is the mechanism
of compression. However, consolidation is the gradual change of volume of soil as the water is squeezed

from the soil pores. Figure 2 illustrates the consolidation process in soil. At time zero (figure a), water
is not allowed to drain, valve is close in the cylinder. Load P is applied and it made the pore pressure to
increase yet without volume change. At undrained condition, simultaneously both water and spring
carry the load P. Then, water dissipates at time t1 (figure b) as soon as the valve is open which result to
the settlement of the spring. At that stage, the soil is compressed while the excess pore pressure drops.
Moreover, further increase of load through infinite time period while the valve is open eventually the
system reach equilibrium at same time the pore pressure approaches zero and the largest settlement is
achieved. Likewise, when the soil in the field is subjected to increment of stress excess pore pressure
develops slowly in the soil pores. This pore pressure will dissipate only if the pore water is allowed to
drain or squeezed out from the pores. If the pore pressure dissipates slowly with time due to gradual
drainage, the volume change of soil is time dependent. The time dependent volume change of soil as
the water is squeezed from the soil pores is called consolidation. Fine grained soils exactly follows
consolidation process, thus it is very important to consider the effect of consolidation to structures
founded on fine grained soils.
As a review….Can you explain the distinction between two soil behaviors

the compression and consolidation? What type of soil will undergo compression
and/or consolidation?
Key idea:
Any volume changes in the soil is attributed to changes in the effective stress, pore pressure
condition and flow characteristics. When the volume of soil changes so other properties will change
such as effective stress, hydraulic gradient and flow rate with time. In other words to determine the
variation of volume with time, such factors as pore pressures, compressibility, seepage and effective
& total stresses interrelationships are relevant.
The response of soil to compression depends on how it is loaded…..next is

the type of loading conditions.
II. Isotropic and Anisotropic Compression
Soil is loaded either isotropically or anisotropically depending on the magnitude and path of
loading. The path of loading is described by the stress path which is defined as the line joining all the
points of instantaneous state of stress. In terms of loading condition, isotropic compression has uniform
Figure 3. Loading Conditions for Isotropic and Anisotropic Compression
stress whereas anisotropic compression horizontal stress differs with vertical stress (See figure 3).
Anisotropic compression simulates the compression of soil deposit that extends infinite laterally, so it
will deform only vertically under its own weight. Example of anisotropic compression is the one

dimensional compression that is without lateral deformation and the movement is vertical only. This
can be modeled by triaxial apparatus.
How to understand the internal stress condition of the soil? You must
investigate the stress path..see next section.
Plotting all the instantaneous stresses - the deviator stresses

and effective mean stresses in one single graph will show
the behavior of soil. Mean stress is defined as p’ in terms
of the mean of vertical and horizontal stresses in soil. They
are the internal stress condition in the soil that causes measura-
ble deformations and effective stress changes. While the
deviator stress q is the difference of total vertical and hori-
zontal stresses. It’s the deviator stress which the external
loads introduces to soil.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between volume changes

of soil and effective stresses. The blue curve is the plot of
isotropic compression while the red curve is the plot of ani-
sotropic compression. These curves underscore that the in-
crease of effective stress will causes deformation as observed Figure 4. Void ratio Vs Mean Stress P’
by the decrease of void ratio/ degree of compactness.
Consequently, the increase of load q

(external load) in soil, there will be
corresponding increase of effective
stresses (See figure 5). However, soil
undergoing isotropic conditions will
result to weaker soil unable to hold
external loads, and the curve is flat.
But soils under anisotropic stress
conditions appears to be stronger
because the more soil is loaded the
greater is the effective stress. Thus
soil that experiences greater stress in
Figure 5. Relationship Between q and p’ the past has the tendency to withstand
higher deviator stress and the curve is
inclined.
What happens to soil during loading and unloading?...Observe the behavior of soil..
In the field the soil may experience loading and unloading and this cycle of repetitive loading
may or may not have benefits to the properties of the soil. But definitely, with time the soil behaves
inelastically and not linear in terms of its stress-strain behavior. Figure 6 emphasizes that the model

Figure 6. Compression and Swelling behavior of Soil
compression in the figure the soil has nonlinear and not fully reversible behavior between loading and
unloading. The compression line (blue line) introduces the concept of compression/consolidation
because during increased of loading, the soil will deform (decrease of void ratio) resulting to settlement.
At some point of time, the load is removed and the soil swells in the presence of water. Swelling line
(red line) indicates the response of soil during unloading which shows irreversible properties. The
properties of soil during which it has been loaded cannot be recovered anymore instead the soil follows
a different path. Nevertheless, upon reloading at same magnitude of loading the soil may not deform as
high as when it was loaded initially. Recall that as pore pressure dissipates from the soil during loading
and unloading and because of this pore pressure removal the soil has achieved a degree of compaction
and will not return to its original properties.
There are two stages of compression/consolidation that the soil may have undergone in the past
or still undergoing at present – normal consolidation and over consolidation. The blue curve in figure 7
Figure 7. Normal Consolidation and Over consolidation
describes normal consolidation that is for soil undergoing high deformation as a consequence of greater
load application. Upon unloading or when the load is reduced the effective stress- void ration curve
bounced back as seen in the red curve in the same figure 7 because the water in the void spaces allow
soil to expand. Nevertheless, even though the soil loading is increased again the soil may have little

settlement and will not return to its original normally consolidation behavior as along as the rate of
loading does not exceed the previously applied loading. This stage of bouncing back of the curve
characterizes an over consolidation state of soil.
What is the effect of normal consolidation and over consolidation to the

horizontal and vertical stresses? Aren’t these stresses important to understand the
strength of soil?
During loading it is the first time for the soil experience that stress, the horizontal and vertical
stresses in the soil are proportional, thus slope of the blue curve in figure 8 is constant for the normal
consolidation. This proportionality explains that as the vertical stress increases the corresponding
horizontal effective stress will also increase. During unloading the horizontal stress becomes higher
than the horizontal effective stress when it was loaded at normal consolidation. Therefore for over
consolidation (red curve), the soil has higher horizontal effective stress/lateral strength.
Overconsolidated soil is stronger than a normally consolidated soil since it has higher lateral strength.
The higher the lateral strength the higher the bearing capacity of soil.
Figure 8. Variation of Ko in Laboratory test (Oedometer test)
Before going further….discuss the mechanism of normal and over

consolidation. How the engineering properties of soil are affected by compression?
Which soil are stronger a normally consolidated soil or over consolidated soil? Why?
Consolidation process usually is critical to fine grained soils

compared to coarse grained soils. Next section discusses consolidation of
fined grained soil….

III. Consolidation of Fine grained soils
3.1 The Consolidation Test
Consolidation of soil can be modelled in the laboratory through the consolidation

test/oedometer test. The consolidation test equipment comprises the consolidometers and the loading
system. There are two common types of consolidometers being used in geotechnical engineering at
present – fixed ring and floating consolidometers as shown in figure 9. Floating ring consolidometer
Figure 9. Types and Set – up of Consolidometers
design eliminates friction between soil specimen and ring. To observe the consolidation behavior of a
soil, a saturated soil specimen is placed in the consolidometer in between porous stones, piezometer
may be added for permeability observation and incremental loadings are applied through the loading
apparatus (see figure 10). For the complete procedure for conducting the consolidation/oedometer test,
consult references such ASTM D -2435, AASTHO T – 216 and/or BS 1377.
What are the basic requirements in conducting consolidation test?
The basic material and data needed for consolidation test:
1.)Basic routine tests required are moisture content, unit weight and specific gravity tests.

Figure 10. Lever Arm Type Loading System
2.)Void ratio (e) as a function of the basic index properties of soil.

3.)Range of loading requirements for the soil under investigation.
4.) Undisturbed soil specimen taken from Shelby tube samplers.
5.) Water content of the compressed specimen.
The Normal Consolidation line is the key to consolidation analysis…..
Civil/geotechnical engineer must have knowledge on how to plot and interpret consolidation line.
Consolidation line expresses the relationship between void ratio (e) and normal pressure at different
Figure 11. Actual and Approximate Consolidation Line
stages of loading. Important parameters for estimating the amount of consolidation settlement are
derived from this plot of consolidation line. Basically, based on the graphical relationships,
consolidation follows three (3) stages: first, initially, elastic settlement occur that is the immediate
elastic deformation of the soil as it response to load (initial flatter curve); second, primary settlement,
where the biggest deformation/settlement occur (biggest drop of curve); and third, secondary settlement
the additional settlement or creep under sustained soil stress (flatter tail of curve).
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is an index parameter that determines the consolidation condi-

tion of the soil which is based on comparing the present normal pressures (svo) to the maximum past
pressures. Maximum past pressures (svm) is the greatest external pressures (soil and external loads) that
Figure 12. Maximum Past Pressure Determination
the soil experiences in the past. The plot of consolidation line again prove its utility since maximum
past pressure can be determined from this plot of consolidation line. Based on figure 12, maximum past
pressure is the pressure at the intersection of the initial curve and the primary consolidation line. The
slope of the initial curve is recompression index (Cr) whereas the slope of the primary consolidation
line is the compression index (Cc). These recompression index (Cr) and compression index (Cc) are
important parameters that dictate the amount of consolidation settlement in soils. Figure 13 next shows
the result of one dimensional consolidation test. The result presents the consolidation line and all the
consolidation parameters needed for analysis. It further tells that the soil is over consolidated since the
OCR > 1. The result of the test is plotted in a semi-logarithmic graph, x axis in logarithmic values and
the y at normal intervals.
What was the importance of consolidation test and the parameters gathered
in this test? What is the use of overconsolidation ratio (OCR)?

Figure 13. Sample One – Dimensional Consolidation Result
Parameters Cc and Cr are taken from the void ratio – pressure plot but correlations are also
available in literatures to estimate CC and Cr.

How to plot the consolidation curve? The next section introduces

the procedure highlighting the principle behind the plotting the curve.
IV. Void Ratio – Pressure Plot (Braja, Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 2012)

Sample Problem (Void ratio-pressure plotting)


Next to plotting the consolidation curve is to determine the

settlement of a given load….
V. Derivation of One Dimensional Settlement (Primary consolidation)

(Braja, Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering)
Considering a saturated clay layer of thickness H and cross-sectional area A under an existing
average effective overburden pressure, svo as shown in figure 14. Because of an increase of effective
pressure on the soil, let the primary settlement be Sc. The change in volume (∆V) can be given by
∆V = Vo-V1
Vo = initial volume before settlement

V1 = final volume after settlement
However, the change in the total volume is equal to the change in the volume of voids, ∆Vv. Hence
Figure 14. Sample One – Dimensional Consolidation Result

Thus, the one dimensional consolidation/primary consolidation, Sc
Where ∆e the change on void ratio taken from the plot of consolidation line which depends on the
magnitude of present overburden stress in comparison with the maximum past pressure. With varying
magnitude of overburden stress, there arise three (3) cases.
Three (3) Cases for Settlement Calculation (OCR based)
1.)Case 1: Over consolidated ratio = 1
This case is normally consolidated condition, the maximum past pressure is equal to the
overburden pressure. The total effective stress s’vf (overburden stress plus change of stress due to loads)
is greater than the maximum pressure so it falls in the primary consolidation line. The change of void
ratio (∆e) in this case is taken from the plot of consolidation line.
Figure 15. Case 1: OCR = 1
2.)Case 2: Over consolidated ratio >1.0 and svf < svm
This case the soil is overconsolidated that is the maximum past pressure is greater than the
overburden stress (OCR > 1). Also the total effective stress is less than the maximum past pressure so
the stress falls in the recompression line (initial portion of the curve) between overburden stress and
maximum past pressure. To determine the change of void ratio (∆e), make use of the recompression
line between the overburden stress and past pressure (see figure 16).
3.) Case 3: Over consolidated ratio >1.0 and svf > svm
This is also an over consolidated condition, maximum past pressure exceeds the overburden
pressure of soil. But the total effective stress on soil exceeds the maximum past pressure (see figure
17). In this case the stress falls in the primary consolidation line. Thus the change void ratio to be used
for settlement calculation covers recompression line and primary consolidation line (within blue lines).

Figure 16. Case 2: OCR > 1
Figure 17. Case 3: OCR > 1
Solve some example settlement problems……
Sample problem (Settlement calculation):

Figure 18. Soil Profile Sand Underlain by Clay

Can you explain the derivation of primary consolidation settlement?

What are the cases of primary settlement?
VI. Secondary Settlement
The third stage of consolidation is the secondary settlement or creep, which takes place under
a constant vertical effective stress. The physical reasons for secondary compression in soils are not fully
understood. One plausible explanation is the expulsion of water from micro pores; another is viscous
deformation of the soil structure.
To determine the secondary settlement, a plot of the logarithm of time versus void ratio from
an experimental data is needed. Primary consolidation is assumed to end at the intersection of the
projections of the two straight parts of the curve.
Figure 19. Secondary Compression

Sample Problem : (Secondary Settlement Calculation)

Knowing the settlement is not enough…In practice it is also important to

know the rate at which settlement will occur – important in estimating the
construction time. Next section will focus on the time at which settlement is
achieved or the time rates of consolidation.
VII. Time Rates of Consolidation
The total settlement caused by primary consolidation resulting from an increase in the
stress on a soil layer can be calculated by the use of one of the three equations discussed earlier.
However, those equations do not provide any information regarding the rate of primary consolidation.
Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-dimensional consolidation for
saturated clay soils. The mathematical derivations are based on the following six assumptions (also see
Taylor, 1948):
a.) The clay–water system is isotropic and homogeneous.

b.) Saturation is complete.
c.) Compressibility of water and soil is negligible but soil grains rearrange.
d.) The flow of water is in vertical direction only (that is, in the direction of compression).
e.) Darcy’s law is valid.
7.1 Derivation of One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory
Consider the element of soil at a depth z in figure 20,

it has a cross-sectional area A, thickness dz; and the flow of
water through the element is one-dimensional and vertical for a
wide loading.
The time rate of change of volume of soil element
is equal to the difference between the rate of inflow and the
rate of outflow expressed as:
The pore pressures (u) also vary incrementally between top Figure 20. Flow in Soil Element

and bottom since the pore pressure at the top dissipates ahead than the bottom. Initially before pore
pressure dissipates right after load application the pore pressure is equal to the external pressure (∆s)
at top. Change in pore pressure has corresponding change in effective stress and the change in effective
stress ∆s’v correspond to the pore pressure the dissipates at the soil element as shown in figure 20.
From Darcy’s Law:
Figure 21. Constitutive Relations
The constitutive relation:
The effective stress principle:

One dimensional consolidation equation
= rate of change of void ratio with respect to effective stress = ∆e/∆s’
Terzhagi’s one dimensional consolidation equation can be solved using the following boundary
conditions:
The solution yields:
Figure 22. Isochrones of 1D Consolidation

The solution of the one dimensional equation expresses that the excess pore pressure (u) at any depth z
and any time t is a function of change of effective stress (∆s’) and certain time factor Tv. The time
factor Tv yields the essential property of soil, the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) and factors such as
time of settlement and the longest path of drainage (Hd). At any particular time down to the soil the
excess pore pressure varies with depth and pore pressure decreases with time until it’s negligible. The
relationship between excess pore pressure as a function of time and depth follows a family of curves
called isochrones.
Figure 23. 1D Consolidation Isochrones for One way and Two-way Drainage
Figure 23 is the representation of the isochrones for one way and two way drainage. Drainage path (Hd)
is the longest path the flow can take as the water dissipates from the void spaces during compression.
The full thickness of the clay layer is assumed for Hd of a one way drainage consolidation, while half
of the clay thickness is the Hd for two way drainage consolidation. One way drainage will occur on a
layer of consolidating soil overlying rock where the pore water can only seep upwards. If the layer
overlies a very permeable deposit, water may seep upwards and downwards, this is a case of a two-way
drainage.
7.2 Average Degree of Consolidation
The average degree of consolidation, which has taken place at a time t, is defined as,

in terms of the ratio of the change of effective stress at time t to the total effective stress. Average degree
of consolidation is also expressed in terms of the ratio of the change of excess pore pressure to the initial
pore pressure prior to consolidation. It can be determined also from the ratio of the shaded diagram to
the whole diagram (see figure 24). By integrating the formula it can yield a solution of the average
degree of consolidation in terms of time factor.
Figure 24. Average Degree of Consolidation of the Whole Stratum
A well-known formula for average degree of consolidation as a function of time factor Tv is the one
developed by Sivaram and Swamee on 1977.
The values of the time factor and their corresponding average degrees of consolidation may
also be approximated by the following relationship:

Average degree of consolidation can also be approximated from the given relation:
Recall the important concepts…What are the limitations of the one dimensional
consolidation theory of Terzhagi? Identify and describe the important parameters for
calculating the rates of consolidation?
Let us practice solving problems…
Sample problem 1

Sample Problem 2. (Refer to Sample problem 1)
Sample Problem 3

Sample Problem 4

Notice that one very important parameter that influence the rate of
consolidation is the coefficient of consolidation, Cv. Next section is devoted
to different graphical methods for finding Cv based from the result of
consolidation test.
7.3 Coefficient of Consolidation


Note: To capture the true Cv use the Average C = (C + C ) /2

v v90 v50


Sample Problem


SELF – EVALUATION
Direction: Check your knowledge gained in this topic if you can still remember important concepts and
be able to apply to deal with problems.
1. A clay layer of thickness 5.8 m is underlain by an impermeable layer of shale and overlain by
moderately permeable sand. The loading will be such that the effective stress in the clay will be
increased uniformly over its whole thickness over a wide area. In a laboratory oedometer test, a
specimen of the clay of thickness 20 mm when subjected to the same level of effective stress showed a
change in void ratio from 0.827 to 0.806. It was also observed that, after 30 minutes had elapsed, 65
percent of the consolidation took place.
a. Calculate the expected ultimate amount of consolidation settlement. b. Calculate the time required
for:
i) half, and
ii) three quarters of ultimate settlement to take place. Refer to Table 1 for Tv values for Case 0.

2. The following results recorded during an oedometer test when the applied stress was increased from
100 kPa to 200 kPa. After 24 hours the thickness was 17.58 mm. Using the a) root-time method and the
b) logtime method, determine the coefficient of consolidation.
3. A water reservoir is to be constructed at a site whose soil profile is shown below. The reservoir will
be founded on a 20m by 20m mat foundation. The base of the mat will be 1.0m below ground surface.
The properties of the soil are shown in the accompanying soil profile. Using Boussinesq method,
calculate the stress increase at the midheight of each clay layer. Assuming a bearing pressure of 60 kPa
at the base of the mat, predict the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layers below the center
of the mat. Use average values of soil properties. Assume that the unit weight of groundwater is 9.81
kN/m3.


REVIEW OF CONCEPTS
The time dependent volume change of soil as the water is squeezed from the soil pores is called
consolidation.
Compression in soils occurs as effective stress change brought about by volume change in soil.
The path of loading is described by the stress path which is defined as the line joining all the points of
instantaneous state of stress
In terms of loading condition, isotropic compression has uniform stress whereas anisotropic
compression horizontal stress differs with vertical stress.
There are two stages of compression/consolidation that the soil may have undergone in the past or still
undergoing at present – normal consolidation and over consolidation.
Consolidation line expresses the relationship between void ratio (e) and normal pressure at different
stages of loading.
The slope of the initial curve is recompression index (Cr) whereas the slope of the primary
consolidation line is the compression index (Cc).
Maximum past pressures (svm) is the greatest external pressures (soil and external loads) that the soil
experiences on the past.
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is an index parameter that determines the consolidation condition of
the soil – the ratio of Maximum past pressures (svm) to overburden stress (s’v).
Thus, the one dimensional consolidation/primary consolidation, Sc
The third stage of consolidation is the secondary settlement or creep, which takes place under a
constant vertical effective stress.
REFERENCES
Budhu, Muni. 2000. Soil Mechanics and Foundations.
Das, Braja. 1999. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering.
Bowles, Joseph. 1997 .Foundation Analysis and Design. 5 th Edition.

Clay


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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Title: Settlements and Rate of Consolidation

Topic: Theory of Consolidation, Settlements and Rate of Settlements of foundation

Time frame: 13.5 hours

a. Explain the theory of consolidation and how soil settlement is achieved;

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 1

ACTIVITY: THE PAUSE PROCEDURE

I. Compression and Consolidation Model in Soil

Figure 1. Compression Model

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 2

Figure 2. Consolidation Model

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 3

As a review….Can you explain the distinction between two soil behaviors

The response of soil to compression depends on how it is loaded…..next is

II. Isotropic and Anisotropic Compression

Figure 3. Loading Conditions for Isotropic and Anisotropic Compression

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 4

Plotting all the instantaneous stresses - the deviator stresses

Figure 4 shows the relationship between volume changes

Consequently, the increase of load q

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 5

Figure 6. Compression and Swelling behavior of Soil

Figure 7. Normal Consolidation and Over consolidation

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 6

What is the effect of normal consolidation and over consolidation to the

Figure 8. Variation of Ko in Laboratory test (Oedometer test)

Before going further….discuss the mechanism of normal and over

Consolidation process usually is critical to fine grained soils

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 7

III. Consolidation of Fine grained soils

3.1 The Consolidation Test

Consolidation of soil can be modelled in the laboratory through the consolidation

Figure 9. Types and Set – up of Consolidometers

What are the basic requirements in conducting consolidation test?

The basic material and data needed for consolidation test:

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 8

Figure 10. Lever Arm Type Loading System

2.)Void ratio (e) as a function of the basic index properties of soil.

The Normal Consolidation line is the key to consolidation analysis…..

Figure 11. Actual and Approximate Consolidation Line

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 9

Figure 12. Maximum Past Pressure Determination

CE 112 – Geotechnical Engineering II 10

Figure 13. Sample One – Dimensional Consolidation Result

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How to plot the consolidation curve? The next section introduces

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Sample Problem (Void ratio-pressure plotting)

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Next to plotting the consolidation curve is to determine the

V. Derivation of One Dimensional Settlement (Primary consolidation)

Vo = initial volume before settlement

Figure 14. Sample One – Dimensional Consolidation Result

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Thus, the one dimensional consolidation/primary consolidation, Sc

Three (3) Cases for Settlement Calculation (OCR based)

1.)Case 1: Over consolidated ratio = 1

Figure 15. Case 1: OCR = 1