Cognitive and language development

 Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky

 Piaget’s stages

 Limitations of each
Piaget: Piaget doesn’t take into account the social environment and
focuses on performance, not competence. His study was based on his
children, which doesn’t reflect all individuals relevant to the study.
Vygotsky: he did not address the cognitive processes that play a part
in child development. He also emphasized on culture and social
processes and didn’t consider other methods or possibilities
concerning cognitive development.
Information-processing approach- An approach to cognitive development
that begins with an analysis of the particular cognitive processes involved in
cognitive tasks and then examines how these processes change and develop
with age.

Erikson
He argued that:
* Successful psychosocial outcomes in infancy and childhood would
help to create positive identity formation (Berk, 2013)
* Erikson’s psychosocial theory has 8 different stages in which a basic
psychosocial conflict has to be resolved for an individual to achieve
positive social development

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial stages are:

Basic Trust VS. Mistrust Birth – 1 year
Autonomy VS. Shame and doubt 1 – 3 years
Initiative VS. Guilt 3 – 6 years
Industry VS. Inferiority 6 – 11 years
Identity VS. Role Confusion Adolescence
Intimacy VS. Isolation Young adulthood
Generativisty VS. Stagnation Middle adulthood
Integrity VS. Despair Old age
Language Development
Three Approaches (p. 234)
Aspects of Language acquisition (p. 243)
 
Approaches
Nativist Approach
Supported by the fact that virtually all children exposed to adult speech will
acquire speech. The complexity of a child's culture and social interactions
does not relate to complexity of speech (a child in a low socioeconomic will
have the same level of language as a child in a higher socioeconomic
situation).
Strongest Evidence: Studies showing that young children learning sign
language will impose their own grammatical rules, even though they've
never been exposed to such rules. It neglects development of aspects of
language unrelated to grammar.
Environmental-Interactionist Approach
Three environmental-interactionist approaches:
1. Child-Parent
Takes place between the child and parent and questions the nativist
approach. Believes parents have a high impact upon language
stimulation and development.

2. Functionalist
Basic motivation for learning language is to understand and
communicate to those around the child.

3. Statistical learning approach

Assumes all languages contain certain statistical regularities (certain
words, sounds and word combinations are used with more frequency
than others). Children can extract these sounds, words and
combinations to learn the basic functions of language.

Cognitive-development approaches
Emphasis on cognitive and language interactions. In order to learn the
meaning of words and sentences, children first need to have a concept of
the things being referred to. Focus on the period between 18 months and 2
years when toddlers begin to combine words into phrases and begin to
acquire certain basic concepts of object permanence.

Aspects of Language Development

Early gestures and nonverbal responses:
 Some theorists speculated that human speech evolves from gestures

 Infants use gestures for around 8-10 months

 From about 12-19 months, children combine gestures with some form
of vocalisation. Certain noises eventually become associated with
 certain gestures (a child pointing at a book may associate the book
with 'boo')

Early word recognition:

 Express recognition of a name by turning to appropriate person
(beginning at about 7 or 8 months)

 Infants' repetitive vocabulary grows slowly over the next 12 months

Early word production:

 At around 12 months of age most children can speak their first word

 'Babbling' or nonsense sounds may not be considered to be words,

however the child is still using these sounds in word-like ways

 The view that early development of productive language is a

continuous process is supported by the fact that children learn words
more quickly if they contain sounds that the infant has heard or used
frequently (statistical learning approach)

'The vocabulary explosion':

 Children reach 20-70 words by 18 months

 By the age of 6, children have achieved a vocabulary of about 14,000

words (about 6 new words a day)

 Children generally begin with nouns (particularly the names of

objects)

 Children may make overextensions of some objects (a child who

learnt 'hose' from a garden hose may then call a water can or
sprinklers a hose)

 Children may make underextensions (a child who applies 'shoes' to his

mother's shoes, but only when they are in the mother's wardrobe)

 Children may use holophrases (single words used to communicate

more complex messages)

 First word combinations generally begin at the age of 2, and are

usually two-words ('mummy eat', ' hurt finger', etc.) known as
telegraphic speech. Then they move to three-word and more complex
utterances.
Spiritual, moral, ethical, religious, aesthetic,
imaginative and creative: Beyond social exchange:
‘Playing in the in-between’

 Two theorists that deal with this concept are Piaget and Vygotsky
 Both focus on social exchange
 Social exchange is when each person is aware of the separate identity
of the other person and this recognition continues throughout the
exchange.
 Play can be a collaborative co-construction in which each person
gains from the other. If the balance is not maintained then
interactions devolve into a situation of domination and assertion.
(Related to unknowing)
 Being fully present is about the compulsion to be involved in play in
such a way that the child is physically, emotionally, and cognitively
immersed in the activity in a state that nothing else matters
 The concept of unintegration and the holding space help clarify what
being fully present means.
 Unintegration: explains how unnecessary things are no longer a
distraction. Everyone involved in the play can be themselves in a
relaxed and authentic way.
 Sense of trust in setting that is secure and dependable supporting
opportunities for unintegration.
 The idea of the holding space details the way the setting needs to be
structured and dependable in order for all participants to be open to
new possibilities.
 The capacity for imaginative thought is held in high regard in
education in life.
 While it is valued it is at the same time challenging to create
educational settings that are imaginative learning environments. -To
identify key issues a distinction is drawn between the imagination and
imaginative education. -Mark Frein explains it should be a part of
education and not just a creative process.
 This chapter argues that imaginative ways of being are part of
relational circumstances, times of wonder that are profound while at
the same time taken for granted. -Such authentic effortless times are
inherently social and seemingly predictable in their simplicity so they
are often overlooked. This article looks at three main sections:
 The first examines the current educational focus on social exchange
and the logic of identities, and how this approach can constrain
opportunities for imaginative education. Play is a social exchange.
 The second section proposes a new approach to social interactions
entitled 'Playing in the In-between'. This concept has three elements:
being fully present; un-knowing; and mutuality through love. This
section shows how relational times involve our imagination and
imaginative capacities.
 The third section includes an example of 'Playing in the In-between'.
In this example a two year old child and parent are part of a creative,
imaginative dramatic play event. -Bandura and Kohlberg

 UNKNOWING: -Unknowing is a crucial aspect of the in-between

because of the absence of things. -There is a lack of set expectations,
of social exchange and opposition. So much is learnt by all, but not
through adult-directed instructions.

 At each stage of the play, the child and the parent/teacher faces
uncertainty about the next movement or moment. This un-knowing
allows for dramatic play as unstructured and the play transpires as a
relation between child, other and environment. **It differs from other
forms of play because there is not a ‘knower’
(parent/teacher/respected other) and a learner, and so the child
does not seek confirmation of the learning experience from the
‘knower’.

 The un-knowing of the in-between is not a situation that is

specifically designed to build intellectual, emotional and social skills.
Those involved are changed and learn in more open ways through
being in relation to one another and through the imaginative
capacities that transpire.

 Being beyond voluntary recall is also a key aspect of un-knowing.

They do not need to relate what they are playing about to past
knowledge or an experience. -It is not about specific teaching, rather
it arises from the wholeness of relation; from imaginative
circumstances where teachers and children are both learning and
both teaching. -Responsiveness and the capacity for imagination are
evident as children and teachers become part of things and in this
way information is not acquired as isolated fragments. Holistic
(means considering the mind, body and spirit) knowledge is gained.
 Lack of relevant theoretical approaches
 Best known theorists, like Kieran Egan, are not common outside of
enthusiasts
 Within integration there is an identifiable apparently coherent
subject, and there is clarity of action that allows set tasks to be
achieved.
 Imaginative capacities develop when there is less set focus on a
particular action or required tasks
 Winnicott (2005) explains how unintegration is about playfulness and
how through this: “the individual child or adult is free to be creative
and to use the whole personality, and it is only in being creative that
the individual discovers the self”
Mutuality through love
 In-between
o A cross over of two unrelated events
o Being engrossed in your play so much so you forget about the
around world
 Love is not a form of behaviour that can be contained and controlled;
rather it is a complete response, part of being in relation.
 I-Thou – relation between child and a mutually respected individual
involved in the play

 I-It – relation between child and object of desire

 Teachers can become part of this love through their responsiveness to
others using the concept of I-Thou. ‘Metcalfe and Game 2006’
 Distinction between ‘familial or erotic situations’, these are the types
of love that are assumed when the word is used and a more about
social exchange; rather than a mutuality that is open and complete.

Orphanage Studies

 Provide the earliest evidence of the importance of practice

 Dennis (1960)
o Became aware of the interaction between learning and
maturation  Children need to have access to stimuli and
opportunities to explore their world as they mature in order to
learn and develop their motor skills
 Children who spent most of their first two years lying
flat on their backs, rarely played with, never placed in a
sitting position  none could walk at age 2 and less
than half could sit unassisted
 15% of the 3-4 year olds could walk well alone
o Maturation is necessary but not sufficient for motor
development  children need opportunities and exposure to
practice and develop these skills
 Even though they have physical capabilities to produce
these movements, they need to be able to practise
these skills to be proficient at them
o Maturation alone does not guide development
  Michael Rutter, et al. (2004)  significant physical and cognitive
deficits in children raised in such situations, the likelihood of
recovery is inversely relate to the length of time spent in such
deprivation
o Not only deprived of the opportunity to practise movement,
also deprived of sensory and social stimulation

Cross-cultural Studies

 Wayne and Marsena Dennis (1940) – motor development of Hopi Indian

children
o First three months bound to a cradleboard carried on mother’s
back  no significant retardation in motor development as the
binding was relatively short and wasn’t 24/7 – also restriction
was also on movement, still had social and sensory
environmental stimuli
 Different for another group reported by Jian Mei (1994)
o Children from parts of Northern China studied in 1989
o Due to extremely dry climatic conditions (resulting in severe
shortage of water), use of conventional nappies had been
abandoned
o In place of nappies, children as young as 10 days were placed
in a bag filled with sand that was changed daily
 Only contact with mother was during breast feeding
 Movement was restricted except for arm movement
 Other contact was discouraged and crying infants were
ignored
 These sandbags were used for at least a year and up to 2
years in some cases
 At least 16 hours a day for at least 12 months
 Like orphanage studies, movement was severely
restricted for an extended period of infancy and this
 was accompanied by considerable social and sensory
deprivation
 Sandbag children showed retarded motor development
with a significant number failing to achieve a number of
developmental milestones in comparison to the control
group of children never placed in sandbags
 Also tested as less intelligent
o Mei concluded that “for optimal development the child, in the
first two years of life, needs freedom of movement,
environmental stimulation and interaction with the physical
and social environment”.
 Contrast to studies of cultures that restrict early movement 
Hopkins (1991) on the child-rearing practices of Jamaican mothers
o Jamaican mothers followed traditional routines for handling
infants and nurturing motor development  included
massaging the infants, stretching their limbs and holding them
by the arms while gently shaking them up and down
o These infants developed motor skills such as sitting and
walking at an earlier age than “traditionally” reared English
infants
 Hamilton (1981) made a similar observation in Australian tribal
Aboriginal children from Arnhem Land
 Thelen (1995)  transactions with the environment play a crucial
role in the timing of motor skill acquisition

Peterson (269 - 270) – Link Between Cognitive and Physical Development

 Rapid spurt of brain development in infancy before it tapers of in

early childhood
o However, remains 'plastic' and open to change throughout early
childhood and adulthood
 Myelination - used to enhance the transmission speed of neural
messages
  Due to specific myelination in the later years of primary school
children may experience changes in attentiveness
 Jay Giedd (2004) - by the end of middle childhood, there were
correlations between motor and sensory functions and the brains
myelination
 Physical abuse victims show changes in brain wave functioning
o Example: The motor skill of catching a ball is linked to the
cognitive processes of anticipation and prediction

Physical and motor development

“Physical development provides children with the abilities they need to

explore and interact with the world around them. A young child's physical
growth first begins as muscles gain strength and children gradually develop
coordination. The development of muscular control is the first step in this
process.

Think about the words physical development. They encompass so many

different tasks and abilities. The term motor development refers to physical
growth, or growth in the ability of children to use their bodies and physical
skills. Motor development often has been defined as the process by which a
child acquires movement patterns and skills.

Genetics, size at birth, body build, nutrition and culture can all influence
motor and physical development.”

Different stages of development: Lecture 5

Laura Berk (2013) states that during the first two decades of life the human
body changes continuously and dramatically. The average individuals height
multiplies more than threefold, and weight increases as much as 15-20 fold.

It is not just about becoming larger and taller but rather involves changes in
body size, proportion and composition.
Overview:

Physical development involves changes in:

 Body size
 Body proportion
 Body composition
 Motor development
 Skeletal growth

Changes in muscle-fat makeup:

 Body fat reaches peak at 9 months of age.

 During the second year the child becomes more slender and muscle
then accumulates throughout infancy and childhood.

Changes in body size:

 During infancy- rapid changes

 By the end of the first year the infant’s height is 50% greater that it
was at birth
 By two years it is 75% greater
 By 5 months the birth weight has doubled

Changes to body proportion:

 Overall size increases-different parts of the body grow at different

time
 During infancy the head and chest have a growth advantage
 Growth begins at the centre of the body and moves outwards
 Head, chest, trunk grow first.
 Arms and legs grow next
 Feet and hands are the last to grow
Motor development:

 Gross motor skills: large muscle movements e.g walking, running,

throwing
 Fine motor skills: fine muscle movement e.g drawing, threading,
writing

Changes to gross motor skills:

 Size
 Proportion
 Muscle strength
 Support and explosion of new gross motor skills.
 As the body becomes more streamlined and less top-heavy, their
centre of gravity shifts downward towards the trunk
 The resulting improvement in balance paves the way for new motor
skills involving large muscles
 By age two, (their) gait becomes smooth and rhythmic-secure enough
that soon they leave the ground, at first
 Running and jumping and then between 3 & 6 years hopping,
galloping and skipping
 During the school years, improved
o Balance
o Strength
o Agility and flexibility
 Support refinements in
o Running
o Jumping
o Hopping
o Ball skills
Changes to skeletal growth

 Children of the same age differ in the rate of physical growth

 The best estimate of a child’s physical maturity is skeletal age  A
measure of development of the bones of the body
 Skeletal age
o Skeletal age can be estimated by X-raying the bones
o Such X-rays are then compared with the norms for bone
maturity (Berk 2013, p. 178)

Changes in body size

 take place rapidly in infancy,

 Slowly during childhood and
 Rapidly again in adolescence ...
 Different body systems follow unique, carefully timed patterns of
maturation.

Processes underlying motor development:

 The physical maturity of the body

 Environmental support
 Task demands

Dynamic systems theory:

 Explains the way the different domains interact

 Views the child as part of changing system that involves
o Mind
o Body
o Physical world
o Ethical environment
Physical development:

 Size (height/weight)
 Strength
 Sensory/perceptual

Motor development

Milestones

 Reflexes
 Gross motor/fine motor skills

Experiential factors that affect this development are

 Deprivation
 Stimulation
 Cross-cultural

Arnold Gesell described a normative-descriptive approach of what happened

when in physical development. This was based on a maturation view as to
what children should be doing physically at certain ages. Other researches
such as Shirley (1933), Bayley (1935) and McGraw (1945) as well as Gesell
with their descriptive work based on naturalistic observation provided the
basis of what we understand about the sequence of motor acquisition.

Children are born with a large variety of natural reflexes that are designed
to help keep them alive. They range from sucking, blinking and rooting;
other reflexes that aren’t as survival based are swimming, stepping, palm
grasping etc.
Not only does maturation drive motor/physical development but also
repetition of movements helps strengthen neural pathways in the brain that
improves coordination in the form of gross and fine motor skills. This
process begins at a very young age and stays with people for the majority of
their lives. That is why people are able to become better are certain
activities through practice and repetition. The age (7-17) is marked as the
age of the largest improvement in motor development as the body goes
through large developing stages including puberty. After 30 there is a
gradual decline in strength and this results to around 25-30 loss in strength
between the ages 30-70.

Dynamic systems theory on physical/motor development:

‘The dynamic system approach recognizes that movements are always a

product of not only the CNS but also the biomechanical and energetic
properties of the body, the environmental support and the specific demands
of the particular task.’ Locomotive actions such as crawling are preformed
by infants across all cultures in the world at around the same age and are
seen as preprogrammed by theorists such as Gesell; dynamic systems
theorists would argue that this is not the case and this is not hard-wired or
preprogramed and despite their apparent inevitability they are dynamic and
changeable. To dynamic system theorists crawling has a large attractor
state, it is infants using their limited locomotive skills to have a desired
item such as a toy or an object. Take the objects away and all stimulation
and the rate of crawling will decrease which will affect their motor
development. Crawling is a response to stimuli according to dynamic
systems theorist. There are also a number or different ways that children
can get a toy such as scooting, swinging their legs and touching etc., this is
the infant testing out what they are able to do in order to satisfy their need
of stimulation.

Cognitive Development (Piaget & Vygotsky)

 Two concepts that link to Piaget:

 - Constructivism: Children learn through active personal
engagement
- Structuralist View: Considers intellectual growth in
terms of a series of operations and stages

 Argued that children form and re-form ideas as they explore the
world through SCHEMAS:
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Adaption
 Stages of Development:
- Sensorimotor: Birth to 2 yrs
- Preoperational: 2 to 7 yrs
- Concrete operational: 7 to 12 yrs
- Formal operational: 12 to adult

Vygotsky

 Play- source of development

 Theory- sensitive to social environment
 Type of leading- not teaching or instructing= more about play
 Play with another- parent/peer- enables new skills
 New abilities to develop- open and social nature of play
 Children- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- perform better and
achieve great cognitive skills when scaffolded by an adult or with
other peers