Establishing a Littoral Rainforest on the

Coastal Sand on the Spit, Gold Coast

(RE 12.2.2)
Melisa Iglic
Griffith School of Environmental Sciences
Introduction

Littoral rainforests are a rare and critically endangered habitat that houses significant and
threatened species. Approximately 0.6 hectares of this habitat remain on the Gold coast. It
is critical for this habitat to be preserved and if possible restored as it acts not only as a
habitat for endangered species but also functions as a buffer to coastal erosion and wind
damage (Council of the City of Gold Coast, n.d.). Within the target area (outcome 3.6), a
long strip of littoral rainforest used to exist between Main Beach and Broadbeach, however
it has been reduced to small pockets along the east coast (Council of the City of Gold Coast,
n.d.). One of these pockets has been deemed by the Queensland Government as a possibly
suitable restoration site. This habitat is characterised by a closed canopy structure highly
influenced by the ocean and its proximity. It supports a large diversity of both flora and
fauna species and often includes threatened or priority species that are not limited to
rainforest species. Sclerophyll species such as Banksia integrifolia and Eucalyptus
tereticornis regularly thrive in littoral rainforests, dominating the canopy (Office of
Environment and Heritage NSW , n.d.). Vines are also a major component of littoral
rainforests, creating dense thickets and increasing the concentration of understory canopy.
They tend to occur in areas where there are sand dunes present and rocky, underlying soils
(Office of Environment and Heritage NSW , n.d.).

The spit began to form in the late 1890’s as a result of multiple storms and large wave
activity caused a new sea passage to emerge from Moreton Bay (Council of the City of Gold
Coast, n.d.). This passage caused erosion to the southern tip of South Stradbroke island and
as a result the town of Moondarewa was relocated. Frequent tidal action began to gradually
form and shape the north of the Spit and eventually established a stable landmass. Once the
Gold Coast Seaway and Sand pump was constructed in 1987, a permanent land structure
remained, and vegetation communities were able to become established (Council of the
City of Gold Coast, n.d.). The formation of the Spit created a calm harbour, sheltered from
ocean tidal action and new boating facilities in the area flourished.
This created multiple businesses such as the trawlers, Southport Yacht Club and John
Humphrey’s Engineering work shop which further boosted traffic and tourism in the area
(Council of the City of Gold Coast, n.d.). Permanent vegetation has only established itself on
the Spit within the last 70 years with multiple developments such as Sea World and several
hotels affecting the biodiversity and land available to support a continuous habitat.

Several obstacles must be overcome if a self-sustaining littoral rainforest is to be achieved,

these include components such as a closed canopy, weed removal and prevention and the
planting of native species. The objective of the project is outlined in The Spit Mater Plan
2019, focusing on objective 3.6 which is to ‘establish a littoral rainforest which preserves the
endangered ecological community for the benefit of future generations’ (Queensland
Government, 2019). The site is a conservation zone that is aimed to provide low impact
recreation and public education as well as to protect and monitor local and threatened
species. This is to be achieved by monitoring and implementing new strategies to assess the
success of constructing a littoral rainforest using native species, as well as identifying and
eradicating threatening weeds that will impact on the overall growth and therefore success
of the constructed flora community.

Methodology
Site Description
The site is located on Lot 2 Seaworld Drive Main Beach 4217, area 3.6 as outlined in the Spit
Master Plan 2019 and is located across from Muriel Henchman park. The site is surrounded
by dirt trails along the inner edges that are often used by mountain bikers and pedestrians.
On the left hand side, the site runs along the Sea World Drive road with a distance of
approximately 5 metres from the tree line to the beginning of the asphalt road and
approximately 2 metres of this distance is roadside dirt that functions as parking space for
cars and experiences varying influxes of motor traffic.
On the western side of the site it is approximately 80 metres from the tree line to the
waterline of Main Beach waterways with the closest point measuring at 64 metres from the
site. The eastern side is 155 metres from the coastal waterline which contains multiple
accumulations of sand banks. Approximately 80-85% of the site has no canopy cover and is
colonised by mostly understory and ground cover vegetation. However, there are 3
significant points of established canopy vegetation along the lower eastern side, lower left-
hand corner of the western side, adjacent to the entrance to the site and a narrow strip of
trees along the entire eastern roadside. Majority of the land is covered with grass species,
mostly weeds with scattered native species in between.

The entire east coastline of the surrounding area consists of coastal habitats and foredune
complexes that protect the site from tidal wave action (Brown, 2018). Immediately
surrounding the site is more ecosystem complexes similar to the proposed littoral rainforest
site that is segmented by the Federation Walk. These paths are regularly used by mountain
bikers and pedestrians. Approximately 500 metres from the site is the Sea World Marine
Park that is subject to large quantities of tourists and is also used as a marine research
facility.

Topographically a potable water connection is available to the area

(Brown, 2018). There is also a local water main that can be accessible to
the site, this will be crucial in providing the water needed to successfully
sustain a littoral rainforest. A storm water catchment runs along the
eastern boundary of site 12.2.2. Having access to this catchment is crucial
in providing the necessary resources needed to sustain a rainforest
environment. Majority of the soil on the site contains acid sulphate soils
(land at or below 5AHD). Small pockets of acid sulphate soils at or below
20m AHD in the upper left-hand corner and middle right of the area. The
local legislation outcome 8.2.1-1 as outlined in the Gold Coast City Council
City Plan overlay codes– Areas containing acid sulphate soils cannot be
excavated or removed. It also cannot fill land where soils at or below 5
Figure 1. Representation of
AHD results in acid sulphate soils moving below the water table or the Acid Sulphate Soils
Present on the Site
becoming aerated.
 Figure 2. Gold Coast City Council City Planner Interactive Map Highlighting Outcome 3.6

Desk – Top Study

The information regarding the vegetation, zone use, and overlays was gathered using the
Gold Coast City Plan Interactive mapping (Version 7). Using the interactive mapping tools
several contours and overlay maps were identified as having a significant impact or posing a
risk to the site. The interactive planner mapped out the acid sulphate soils, flood risk,
bushfire hazard and environmental species overlays. These contours in particular were used
to obtain data in regard to the risks that may affect the restoration site as well as identifying
significant flora species. Spit Master Plan (pages 56-59) proposed by the Gold Coast City
Council provided information on the objectives of the project, including the proposed
littoral rainforest vegetation restoration. Only 0.6 hectares of the proposed littoral
rainforest remains on the Gold coast. The government website PLANTET was used in order
to correctly identify the species found during the field.
Field Assessment
The Field assessment was conducted on Tuesday the 2nd of July 2019 with a group of Gold
Coast Griffith University botany students. The field site was located along SeaWorld Drive,
Main Beach, across from Muriel Henchman Park on The Spit Gold Coast. The aim of the
assessment was to identify as many species as possible that occurred within the site as well
as to make observations on the topography and any other notable features that may be
helpful or become obstacles when conducting the restoration plan. A species list of known
plants that were identified by the Gold Coast City Council was printed out and used as a
guide to cross reference any species found at the spit. The Mangroves to Mountains Guide
by Dennis Cox et al. as well as a copy of the Gold Coast City Council weed identification
booklet was used to help identify key species. Furthermore, The Key to the Wattles of
Greater Brisbane and the Key to Eucalypts of greater Brisbane, published by the Queensland
Herbarium were also beneficial in identifying the species documented.

Results

Desk – Top Study

There are several vegetation communities that were identified during the field assessment,
these include foredune complexes, grassland, littoral forest and woodland. There is no
remnant vegetation or threatened ecological communities, according to the Gold Coast City
Council Interactive Mapping, as a result of the Sea way and wave break island which has
highly modified the vegetational ecosystem.

Field Assessment
No tree hollow habitats were identified within the area, although multiple species such as
the Acacia sophorae and Casuarina equestifolia were seen to house a variety of species of
birds. The site is highly degraded, with the presence of understory weeds such as the
Ipomoea cairica and Ipomoea indica dominating the understory. Several Poaceae species
such as the Cenchrus echinatus have overrun the groundcover species, particularly along
the inner portion of the site where the presence of tall canopy trees is not present.
The largest amount of canopy cover is along the western boundary of the site, with a slightly
dense population concentrated in the south west corner adjacent to the entrance of the
site. The western corridor along the Seaworld Drive roadside was dominated by Eucalyptus
species, this site along with the dense canopy adjacent to the entrance to the site are the
most likely locations to begin establishing littoral rainforest species.

The vegetation species identified during the field assessment are list in Table 1 below, a
total of 51 species were identified. 23 of those species were littoral rainforest species such
as Macaranga tanarius, Lomandra longifolia, Lophostemon confertus, Banksia integrifolia
and Callistris columellaris. 35 out of the 51 species identified were native species and 12 of
those species which occurred are not part of the proposed species for the littoral rainforest,
these include the Spinifex sericeus, Carpobrotus glaucescens (Anular Sea-Fig), Ipomea pes-
carprae (Beach Morning Glory), Ficinia nodosa (Knobby Club Rush) and Acacia longifolia
(Coastal Wattle). 17 out of the 51 species found were introduced species, many of which
were weeds. The most dominant species were Ipomoea cairica (Mile-a-Minute Vine),
Cenchrus echinatus, Paspalum notatum and Melinis repens. All 4 of these species are weeds
with the last 3 belonging to the Poaceae family. These grass species are very dominant
groundcover that have overtaken all areas with little or no canopy cover. None of the
species identified were part of the threatened or significant species list according to the
Gold Coast City Council Priority Species Survey.
Table 1. List of Vegetation Species Identified During the Field Assessment to the Spit (Outcome 3.6)

FAMILY TAXON COMMON NAME

Aizoaceae Carpobrotus glaucescens Angular sea-fig

Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolius

Asparagaceae Asparagus aethiopicus Sprenger’s asparagus

Asteraceae Ageratum houstonianum

Asteraceae Hypochaeris radicata

Byttneriaceae Commersonia bartramia Scrub Christmas tree

Caesalpiniaceae Senna pendula var. glabrata Easter cassia

Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia Coastal she-oak

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea cairica Mile-a-minute vine

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea indica

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. Beach morning glory

brasiliensis

Cyperaceae Ficinia nodosa Knobby Club Rush

Cyperaceae Ptilothrix deusta

Dilleniaceae Hibbertia scandens Guinea Flower

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus reticulatus

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cyathophora Painted Spurge, Dwarf Poisettia

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga tanarius

Fabaceae Acacia longifolia var. sophorae

Fabaceae Crotalaria pallida

Fabaceae Macroptilium atropurpureum

Lauraceae Cassytha filiformes

Laxmanniaceae Lomandra longifolia

Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus

Menispemaceae Stephania japonica

Mimosaceae Acacia sophorae

Moraceae Ficus rubiginosa

Myrtaceae Corymbia intermedia

Myrtaceae Corymbia tesselaris

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus fibrosa

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus robusta

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus tereticornis

Restoration Strategy

Any changes to the current use of land and restoration procedures to be implemented must
be carefully considered in order to ensure that any significant species not yet identified are
not disturbed, as well as to ensure important littoral rainforest species are not removed or
compromised of their current state. Storm water runoff may be an issue for the current
area, the topography of the land includes several areas where water retention can cause
local flooding (Brown, 2018). Figure 3 highlights the current flood risk zones, as outlined by
the Gold Coast City Planner Map Overlays. The current risk areas include a portion of the
upper left corner where several Eucalyptus species, among others are already established.
There was also a portion of land, marked by the blue X where a drain was present, and a
notable amount of water had collected.
As suggested by Peter Breen and Stephanie Brown in The Spit Master Plan Background
Study - Environment and Ecology (2019) report, storm water runoff could significantly
impact the vitality of existing vegetation and improvements to reduce these impacts should
be considered. In order to reduce the effects of storm water damaging existing vegetation
and threatening newly planted species, techniques such as passively irrigating trees and
vegetation is a viable option for regulating and reducing the impact of damaging existing
and newly planted species (Brown, 2018). Irrigating water along the entire site is vital to
successfully maintaining the water requirements of a littoral rainforest in order to thrive.

Environmental weeds include native and introduced species

that have flourished outside of their natural range and may
threaten the locally native species (Council of the City of
Gold Coast, 2019). Weeds are problematic as they reduce
the biodiversity of native species, increase competition for
resources and space as well as causing potential risk to both
native animals and people (Council of the City of Gold Coast,
2019). Several control methods must be implemented such
as low volume spot spraying of invasive weeds such as the
Cenchrus echinatus, Paspalum notatum and Melinis repens
Poaceae species (Council of the City of Gold Coast, 2019).
Majority of the land has little or no canopy cover which has
allowed these species to flourish and as a result, native
species have decreased in abundance. Larger species of
vegetation such as established invasive shrubs and trees may Figure 3. Image of the Flood Risks to the Site (Outcome
3.6)
be treated by stem injection, this method focuses on the
individual plant and reduces negative impacts to surrounding flora that should not be
disturbed (Council of the City of Gold Coast, 2019).
Multiple Littoral Rainforest species have been identified by the Gold Coast City Council as
suitable subjects for the restoration of The Spit (outcome 3.6). Table 2 below highlights all
the suitable species for south East Queensland, 23 species on the list are currently
established within the site and cover multiple levels of vegetation such as groundcover,
canopy and understory. These include trees such as the Lophostemon confertus ,
Macaranga tanarius and Ficus rubiginosa. Other suitable species for the restoration include
several native species such as the Harpullia pendula, Syzygium luehmannii and Cryptocarya
triplinervis. Two shrub species, Exocarpus latifolius and Sterculia quadrifida were present on
the site. However, more species must be included to increase the understory density such
as the Cordyline rubra and Eupomatia laurina. These species are important for groundcover
species to successfully grow as well as to reduce environmental conditions favourable for
weed species such as light availability. Vines are a prominent feature of littoral rainforest
and provide support for other vegetation, these include Hibbertia scandens and Stephania
japonica which were identified on the site. Plant species to be considered include the Hoya
australis and Pandorea pandorana. Several species known as transformer weeds (Table 2)
were present on the site such as the Ipomea carica and Lantana camara. These species have
been acknowledged as introduced weeds and should be assessed for coverage percentage
over the site to determine if they should be controlled and removed. Designating separate
restoration areas is an easy method to ensure these species are growing successfully
(Brown, 2018). Areas for focal restoration include the western corridor where a small
amount of canopy has established itself and therefore provides protection for selected
species. Planting species with varying ages also ensures that young plantings are not all
effected by potential disturbances such as disease, parasites and trampling from
pedestrians.
Success of restoring the site to achieve the outcome of creating a littoral rainforest heavily
depends on implementing the correct monitoring techniques. One technique that can be
used is photo monitoring. This method is quick and efficient, with minimal disturbance to
the designated regeneration areas (Council of the City of Gold Coast, 2019). Designated
restoration areas should be marked for easy identification and photos should be taken
regularly to assess the success of the restoration techniques (Council of the City of Gold
Coast, 2019), it will highlight and improvements or complications in the focal area which can
then be reassessed, and new measures taken to improve the site. Another technique is plot
monitoring, which involves fixed quadrants and photo monitoring (Council of the City of
Gold Coast, 2019). Using both of these techniques allows for more accurate measurements
and assessment of selected species. This technique also increases the accuracy of identifying
problems which may affect the new plantings such as growth of invasive weeds.

Therefore, a combined effort of carefully selecting littoral rainforest species, designated

restoration sites, monitoring techniques and methods of weed control is crucial to ensuring
the effective restoration of the Spit. These variables must be considered in order to achieve
outcome 3.6 as outlines in The Spit Mater Plan (2019) in order to create a littoral rainforest
habitat for the establishment and restoration of native species as well as providing
recreation and education to tourists and safe reservations for increasing the biodiversity of
native flora and fauna.
Table 2. List of Littoral Rainforest Species Proposed for The Restoration of the Spit (Outcome 3.6)
References

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