SOCIAL GROUP:

A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. UTTAM KUMAR PANDA MUSKAN
KHATRI
ASSITANT PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY ROLL NO. 87
M.A., M. Phil, Ph.D, UGC-NET SECTION B
SEMESTER-1
B.A. L.L.B.(HONS.)

HIDYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

UPARWARA POST, ABHANPUR, NAYA RAIPUR.
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that project work entitled “social
group : a sociological analysis” submitted to HNLU
Raipur, is record of an original work done by me under
the able guidance of Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda, assistant
professor at HNLU Raipur.

Muskan Khatri
 ROLL NO. 87
SECTION B

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to almighty who gave me strength to accomplish the

project with sheer hard work and honesty. This research
venture has been made possible due to generous co-operation
of various persons. To list them all is not practicable, even to
repay them in words is beyond the domain of my lexicon.

This project wouldn’t have been possible without the help of

my teacher Dr. UTTAM KUMAR PANDA, Assistant
professor at HNLU, who had always been there by my side
whenever I needed some help regarding any information.
The technology and library facility also helped me a lot for
the completion of this project. I would also like to thank social
media for their services.

Introduction
Famous Sociologist H.M. Johnson remarked that, “Sociology is the science that deals with
social groups”.
This shows the importance of social groups in sociology. Human beings never live in
isolation. He rarely exists alone. Human life is essentially a group life. As a social animal he
always lives in group. He begins his life as a participating member of the group i.e. family.
He born, live, grows and dies in group. He forms group to fulfill his different needs and to
attain common goals. Groups play an important role in shaping personality, in the
development of social organization and socialization.
The term social group consists of two terms i.e. social and group. Ordinarily by social group
we mean a collection of human beings. But the term social refers to social relationships or
shared behaviors, i.e. contact and communication. The member of the group stimulate and
respond to one another in some meaningful way. This mutual interaction and response of
individuals and groups is “social interaction”. Social interaction is the most elemental social
phenomenon from which spring all other social phenomena. When interaction recurs often
enough so that wecan perceive a pattern of behavior, a social relations exists. Social relations
may be friendly or unfriendly intimate or nonintimate , inclusive or non inclusive, specialized
or nonspecialized in character.
The term GROUP lacks precision :
The word GROUP is very loosely used. Sometimes , the word group is used to refer to
entire human group. Sometimes it is used to mean a small group which consists of two (dyad)
or more individuals. The term group is not used with any specifications. Hence, it is difficult
to give a single satisfactory definition to concept of group.

Objectives
1. To understand what is social group?
2. To know the different classification of social groups?
3.
 SOCIAL GROUPS

In the social sciences, a social group is two or more humans who interact with one another,
share similar characteristics, and have a collective sense of unity. This is a very broad
definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. A society can be
viewed as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller. Society can also
be viewed as people who interact with one another, sharing similarities pertaining to culture
and territorial boundaries.
A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection
or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop or people waiting in a line.
Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations,
ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. One way of determining if a collection of
people can be considered a group is if individuals who belong to that collection use the self-
referent pronoun “we;” using “we” to refer to a collection of people often implies that the
collection thinks of itself as a group. Examples of groups include: families, companies,
circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious
congregations.
Renowned social psychologist Muzafer Sherif formulated a technical definition of a social
group. It is a social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other with
respect to:
1. common motives and goals;
2. an accepted division of labor;
3. established status relationships;
4. accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group; and
5. the development of accepted sanctions, such as raise and punishment, when norms
were respected or violated.
6. The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for
the formation of social groups is awareness of a common category membership.
7. The social cohesion approach: More than a simple collection or aggregate of
individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line.

“A group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with
one another .”
MacIver and Page

“Whenever two or more individuals come together and influences one another they may be
said to constitute influences one another they may be said to constitute Social Group”
Ogburn and Nimkoff

“A social group is a number of people who define themselves as members of a group; who
expect certain behaviour from members that they do not expect from outsiders and who
mothers define as belonging to a group”
Robert K. Merton
 CHARACTERISTICS

Collection of Individuals:

Social group consists of people. Without individuals there can be no group. Just as we cannot

have college and university without students and teachers we cannot have group in absence of

people.

Interaction among members:

Social interactions id the very basic of group life. Hence, mere collection of individuals doent

make a group. The members must have interaction. A social group,is in fact a system of

social interaction. The limit of social groups are marked by the limits of social interaction.

1. Mutual Awareness:
The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A more aggregate of

individuals cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exist among them.

Mutual attachment, is therefore, regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It forms an

essential feature of a group.

2. One or more Common Interests:

Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. The individuals who form a

group should possess one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for the

realization of common interests that they meet together. Groups always originates, starts and

proceed with a common interests.

3. Sense of Unity:

Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of sympathy for the development of a

feeling or sense of belongingness. The members of a social group develop common loyalty or

feeling of sympathy among themselves in all matters because of this sense of unity.

4. We-feeling:

A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify

themselves with the group. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the

members belonging to other groups as outsiders. They cooperate with those who belong to

their groups and all of them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling generates sympathy,

loyalty and fosters cooperation among members.

5. Similarity of Behaviour:
For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a group behave in a similar way.

Social group represents collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the members on a

group are more or less similar.

6. Group Norms:

Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the members are supposed to follow

these. He who deviates from the existing group-norms is severely punished. These norms

may be in the form of customs, folk ways, mores, traditions, laws etc. They may be written or

unwritten. The group exercises some control over its members through the prevailing rules or

norms.

Size of the group:

Every group involves an idea of size. Social groups vary in size. A group may be as small
as that of dyad (husband and wife) Or as big as that of a political party having lakhs of
members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group.
Groups are dynamic:
Social groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or or
rapid. Old members die and new members are born. Whether due to internal or external
pressures or forces, groups undergo changes.
Stability:
Groups are stable or unstable: permanent or temporary in character. Some groups like the
crowd , mob, audience, spectators group etc are temporary and unstable. But many groups are
relatively permanent and stable in character.
Influence on personality:
Social groups directly or indirectly shape the personality of their members. They also provide
opportunities for the expression of individuality.
 Importance

I. Enhancement in Individual's capacity :

In social life, many jobs cannot be done by an individual and he needs the help of others. The
bringing up of children and their care cannot be done by an individual alone for whom family
came into existence and this increased the individual's capacity. In agriculture. no man can do
the job alone because some of heavy jobs of carrying stones is not possible for an individual
where two or more persons can do this job easily. That is why, family is given importance in
the society. Because this group provides manpower for agriculture and is also helpful in
fighting being strong physically.

2. Fulfillment of Basic Needs :

A lonely person is helpless and this obliged him to lead a group life. A man not only is a living
creature or has biological needs for his satisfaction but also he has social and psychological
needs. Therefore, needs can be divided into three kinds:

i. Biological needs: Hunger, thirst, sleep and sexual satisfaction.

ii. Sociological needs: Desire for wealth, honour and social status.
iii. Psychogenic or Psychological needs: Love, friendship and ego passions.
The completion of all of these needs is not possible individually and only group life plays an
important role for these achievement. The primary group of family does play its part in
providing love, sexual satisfaction, food etc. Primary, secondary and reference groups play
their parts for behaviour, tendency correction and building of personality. In-group provides
recognition and self-bring. Thus, all groups play their parts according to the expectations of the
society to complete the basic needs of an individual.

3. Personality Development :
A man is a clot of blood at the time of his birth. It is group life that teaches him language and
tells him the ways of living. He begins his life from the primary group where he is brought up.
He learns family ways and then interacts with other groups which include friends, neighbors.
Their ways affect his habits and life  style and his personality. Afterwards, school, college,
office affects him by  contact with secondary groups. His personality is improved by discipline
and  rules. His way of living becomes mature. Reference Group helps him to compare his
personality with those of others to make it better. Formal and Informal Group interaction gives
a chance to express his personal abilities and their promotion and all of these help him to
become the best of all the creatures.

4. Transmission of Culture :
    Groups play a part in transmitting culture from one race to another race.  Primary group as
family, friends and neighbors make the individual learn norms of life, customs, traditions,
values and habits. Similarly, language, dress transmits  knowledge; experience through formal
and informal education to a new race. In-
group and Informal Group transmit recreation, games and stories of wars to a new race which
are adopted by the new race to harmonies with the culture and also to guarantee the security
of the culture.

5. Social Control :
    The most important function is social action in the group dynamics. Primary group is an
informal manner that manages for social control. Good manners and informal sanctions make
the character of an individual according to the expectation of the society and traditions. Values
and customs create materiality in the expected character and there is a harmony between the
trends and behaviour of the society. Secondary Group makes the individual abide by the rules
and regulations. Formal Group produces some prestige in interaction through status degree.
Formal Group also helps in adopting sanctions for achieve of specific objectives. In this way,
discipline finds a way in life. Deviation in manners is decreased which in turn,
decreases mutual dispersion and social stability is promoted.

6. Possibility of Achievement of Collective Aims :

    In social life, some human needs are such which cannot be got by individual efforts. For
example, construction of houses, festivals of grief and happiness, building of places of
worships are collective aims and their achievement is only possible through different groups.
Recreation is a collective aim and it needs the
participation of primary and secondary group. Similarly, protecting society from crimes is a
collective aim. This can be achieved by formal and secondary groups with the help of primary
group. In the modern and urban life, the collective aims—electricity, water supply, roads,
dams, law and order are not possible without the secondary and formal groups like Highways
authority, police and administration. This shows that the collection aims are only to be
achieved through social groups.
Classification

Social groups are not only innumerable nut also diverse. It is not possible to study all the
groups. A systematic study of groups demands a scientific classification is difficult to be
made because of the very complex nature of the group. sociologists have not been successful
in providing a satisfactory classification while others have given an elaborate classification
scheme.

The criteria of classification

Classification of any kind in any field is always made on some basis. But social groups are
classified not on the basis of any one factor, but on several factors. Different sociologists
have classified social groups on basis of different criteria. Groups have been classified
variously on basis of factors such as- racial features, religious beliefs, territory, nature off
government, size, caste , sex ,age, class, occupation, blood relationships, degree of
organisation, nature of social interaction, range of group interests, permanent or temporary
nature, degree of mobility and so on. A single criterion may be taken or a combination of
some factors may be preferred for a classification.
The following are some of main classifications. Of course, they are not mutually exclusive
and they do overlap.

Classification by MacIver and Page

According to MacIver and Page, Groups are classified on the basis of:
1.Size
2.Quality of Social Interaction
3.Degree of intimacy
4.Range of group interests
5.Duration of Interests
6.Degree of Organization

Classification by Sorokin
According to Sorokin, social groups are divided into two major types:
Vertical and Horizontal
1. Vertical groups are large inclusive groups, such as Nations, Religious Organisations,
Political Parties etc.
2. Horizontal groups are smaller divisions such as economic classes which give the
individual the status and rank in society.

Classification by Sumner
According to Sumner, in his “folkways”, social groups are divided into two major types:
In Group and Out Group
1.The groups with which the individual identifies himself are his in groups for instance, his
family, friends and peers etc.
2.The groups to which the individual does not belong. For instance, other sex, others’
families, other Nations etc are secondary Groups.

Classification by Charles A. Ellwood,

According to Charles in his “psychology of human society” has mentioned three categories.
Involuntary groups include the groups such as family, The state , community caste race etc.,
and the voluntary groups include political parties, trade unions, youth associations, religious
associations, cultural associations and so on, Institutional groups are mostly permanent in
nature and include church, state , caste, the school and so on while the non-institutional
groups are temporary in nature and include groups such as crowds , mobs, public, audiences
and so on.
Territorial groups and non-territorial groups:
Classification by park and burgess have distinguished between territorial groups (e.g.,
communities and states) and non-territorial groups (e.g., classes, castes, crowds and public)

Social groups, social category and Statistical aggregate:

Social groups are those which are characterized by some established pattern of interaction.
Example- peer groups, classroom groups, family, political party etc
A social category refers to people who share a common status. Example- bank officials,
soldiers teachers ,farmers, women etc
A statistical aggregate include people who share similar interests. Example cricket fans,
subscribers of magazines.

Genetic groups and congregate group.

F.Q. Giddings has introduced this classification. Genetic group are involuntary in nature and
individuals are born in them. Congregate group are voluntary in nature and the individual are
at liberty to join them or not. Family groups, racial groups, ethnic groups are genetic groups,
political parties, trade union, etc are congregate groups.

Tonnies classification of groups:

A german sociologist FERDINAND TONNIES has classified communities into
“Gemeinschaft” and “gesellschaft”. These two terms have been translated into emglish as
“community” and “association” respectively. Tonnies made the distinction between
community and association at two levels. The distinction was applied to both :
To the social groups within a society
To societies themselves
Gemeinschaft (“community”) is an association in which individuals are mainly oriented to
the will of the larger group, generally more than their own self-interest. Their activities are
regulated by common mores or beliefs about the appropriate behavior and responsibilities of
members of the association. These associations are marked by what Tönnies called “unity of
will. ” He saw the family as the most perfect expression of Gemeinschaft; however, he also
expected that Gemeinschaft could be based on shared place and shared belief as well as
kinship, and included globally dispersed religious communities as possible examples of
Gemeinschaft.
Gemeinschaft community involves ascribed status, meaning a fixed status given by birth. For
example, an individual born from farmers will come to occupy their parents’ role until death.
Gemeinschaften (“communities”) are broadly characterized by a moderate division of labor,
strong personal relationships, strong families, and relatively simple social institutions. In such
societies, there is less of a need to enforce social control externally due to a collective sense
of loyalty individuals feel for society.

Gesellschaft

In contrast, Gesellschaft (“society”) describes associations in which the larger association

never takes precedence over the individual’s self interest, and these associations lack the
same level of shared social mores. Gesellschaft is maintained through individuals acting on
their own self-interest. A modern business is a good example of Gesellschaft: the workers,
managers, and owners may have very little in terms of shared orientations or beliefs, or they
may not care deeply for the product they are making, but it is in all their self interest to come
to work to make money, and, therefore, the business continues.
Gesellschaft society involves achieved status, or a status reached by education and
professional advancement. Unlike Gemeinschaften (“communities”), Gesellschaften
(“societies”) emphasize secondary relationships rather than familial or community ties, and
there is generally less individual loyalty to the larger community. Social cohesion in
Gesellschaften typically derives from a more elaborate division of labor. Such societies are,
therefore, potentially more susceptible to class conflict, as well as racial and ethnic conflicts.

Other classifications:
1. Organised Groups and Unorganised Groups
 2. Congregated groups and Dispersed Groups
3. Majority and Minority groups
4. Open and Closed groups
5. Independent and Dependent groups
6. Formal and Informal groups.

Primary Groups
A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal,
enduring relationships.
Sociologists distinguish between two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A
primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal,
enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities
and culture, and long periods of time spent together. The goal of primary groups is actually
the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and close
friends are examples of primary groups.

Charles Cooley

The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the
Chicago School of sociology, in his book Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind
(1909). Primary groups play an important role in the development of personal identity.
Cooley argued that the impact of the primary group is so great that individuals cling to
primary ideals in more complex associations and even create new primary groupings within
formal organizations. To that extent, he viewed society as a constant experiment in enlarging
social experience and in coordinating variety. He, therefore, analyzed the operation of such
complex social forms as formal institutions and social class systems and the subtle controls of
public opinion.
Functions of Primary Groups

A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such as love, caring,
concern, support, etc. Examples of these would be family groups, love relationships, crisis
support groups, and church groups. Relationships formed in primary groups are often long
lasting and goals in themselves. They also are often psychologically comforting to the
individuals involved and provide a source of support and encouragement.
Characteristics of a Primary Group:

Primary Group possess certain essential traits. The following are the characteristics
of Primary group.

1. Closeness or Physical Proximity:

Physical proximity or presence provides an opportunity for the development of

intimate and close relations. In order that relations of the people may be close, it is
necessary that their contacts also should be close.

Seeing and talking with each other makes exchange of ideas and thoughts easy. It
is because the members of primary group meet and talk frequently that a good
feeling and a sense of identify develop among them quickly. Prof. K. Davis
remarked that physical proximity or face-to-face relation is not indispensable for
establishing close contact or intimacy.

For example, we may have face-to-face relations with our barbers or laundrymen;
there may not be intimacy or primary group relationship with them. On the other
hand, we may establish contact with our close friends through the correspondence
of letter even though we may not have seen for many years. Relationships among
primary group members are based on intimacy not on contractual obligations.

2. Smallness:

Primary groups are smaller in size. The smaller the size of the group, the greater
will be the intimacy among its members. Relationship can be intimate and personal
only in a small group. It is a fact that intimacy declines as the size of the group
increases. The limited size of the group facilitates the participation of all its
members in its common activity. Better understanding and fellow felling among
the members can be possible only when the group is small in size.

3. Durability:

Primary group is relatively, a permanent group. Intimacy between the members

becomes deeper because they meet frequently and are closely associated with one
another. The longer the duration of the acquaintance, the greater the intimacy. All
the members of the primary group try to fulfill the condition of continuity or
durability of relationship.

4. Identity of Ends:

Members of a primary group have similar attitudes, desires and objectives. They all
work together for the fulfillment of their common end. Every member tries to
promote the common welfare of his group. The experiences, pain and pleasure,
success and failure, prosperity and adversity of an individual member are shared by
all the members of the group.

The interests of one are the same as the interests of other. Kingsley Davis has
rightly remarked “the child’s needs become the mother’s ends”. Such a complete
and mutual identity of ends is seldom found.

5. Relationship is an end in itself:

The Primary relationship is regarded not as a means to an end but rather as an end
itself. If the people make friends for specific purpose or means, we cannot regard
their friendship as genuine. A genuine friendship or true love is not formed for a
purpose. It is above the consideration of any selfish interest or interests. Friendship
is a source of pleasure, it is intrinsically enjoyable. The primary relations are
voluntary and spontaneous because they possess intrinsic value.

6. Relationship is Personal:

The primary relationship is a matter of persons. It exists because of them and it in

sustained by them. It should be noted that this relationship comes to an end as soon
as one of the partners disappears from the primary group. The personal relationship
is non transferable and irreplaceable.

One individual cannot be substituted by another individual in the same

relationship, for example, no one can take the place of our dead friend. The
vacuum created by his death cannot be filled in, nor can anybody establish and
continue the same kind of relationship with us after his death. If the particular
person in whom our interest is centered disappears, the relationship also disappear.
Such are the relationships between friends, husband and wife.

(vii) Relationship is Inclusive:

In the primary group, we face our fellows as total human beings. A person comes
to know his fellow in all the details of his life, as a whole being. A person in the
primary group is not merely a legal entity, an economic cipher or a technological
Cog. He is all of these rolled into one. He is the complete concrete person.

It thus becomes clear that primary relationships are non-contractual, non-

economic, non-political and non-specialised; they are personal, spontaneous,
sentimental and inclusive

Importance of Primacy Group:

The primary group is considered to be equally important both for the individual
and society.
Individual point of view:

The primary group plays a commanding role in the development of human

personality. It is fundamental in forming the social nature and ideal of the
individual. It is regarded as a nursery of human nature. The development of “self’ –
the core of personality depends on close, intimate and personal contacts.

It is in the primary group – the family – that the individual in his formative stages
identifies himself with others and takes over their attitudes. In the family the child
acquires all his fundamental habits-those of his bodily care, of speech, of
obedience or disobedience, of right or wrong, of sympathy, of love and affection.

Similarly, in the primary group – the play group, the child learns to give and take
with other children. The play group affords him early training in meeting his
equals, learning to cooperate, to compete and to struggle. The primary groups, such
as family or the play group, are preeminently the agencies of socialization. That is
why the family is often said to be the foundation of society and the play group, the
best school for the future citizen.

The primary groups not only satisfy the human needs but also provide a stimulus to
each of its members in the pursuit of interest. The face-to-face association-ship or
the close physical presence of others acts as a stimulus to each. One feels that he is
not alone pursuing the interest but there are many others who along with him are
devoted to the same pursuit. “Through participation of all, the interest gains a new
objectivity”. This feeling stimulates one to keener efforts, by enlarging and
enriching the character of the interest.

Societal point of view:

Primary groups are important not only from the individual’s point of view, they are
equally important from societal point of view. Primary group acts a an agency of
social control. It not only provides security to the members but also control their
behaviour and regulate their relations.

The primary groups, such as the family or the play group, are preeminently the
agencies of socialization. They transmit culture and in this respect they are
irreplaceable. They help the individuals to acquire basic attitudes towards people,
social institutions and the world around him.

The attitude of kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help and sacrifice
which provide the cementing force to social structure are developed in the primary
groups. From such experiences and attitudes spring the desire for democracy and
freedom.

The members are taught by the primary groups to work in the society according to
their roles with efficiency. In this way, primary groups run the society smoothly
and maintain its solidarity. “It is the first and generally remains the chief focus of
our social satisfactions.”
Secondary Groups
Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented;
their relationships are temporary.
Unlike first groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal
and goal oriented. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a
primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long lasting. Some
secondary groups may last for many years, though most are short term. Such groups also
begin and end with very little significance in the lives of the people involved.
Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one
another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don’t have the goal of maintaining
and developing the relationships themselves.

Charles Cooley

The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles
Cooley. He labeled groups as “primary” because people often experience such groups early in
their life and such groups play an important role in the development of personal identity.
Secondary groups generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on
one’s identity.

Functions

Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, people’s roles are more
interchangeable. A secondary group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on
interests and activities. They are where many people can meet close friends or people they
would just call acquaintances. Secondary groups are also groups in which one exchanges
explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these
would be employment, vendor-to-client relationships, a doctor, a mechanic, an accountant,
and such. A university class, an athletic team, and workers in an office all likely form
secondary groups. Primary groups can form within secondary groups as relationships become
more personal and close.

Characteristics:
The characteristics of secondary group are as follows:

1. Large in size:

Secondary groups are relatively large in size. These groups comprise a very large
number of persons. For example, a political party, a trade union, international
associations, such as Rotary Club, Lions Club, the Red cross Society which
consists of thousands of members scattered all over the world.

2. Formality:

The relations of members in a secondary group are of a formal type. It does not
exercise primary influence over its members. Secondary groups exert influence on
the members indirectly. They are controlled by formal rules and regulations.
Informal means of social control are less effective in regulating the relation of
members.

Formal social controls such as law, legislation, police, court etc. are very much
important for the members. Moral control is only secondary. A formal authority is
set up with designated powers in secondary groups. Here man is a legal and not a
human entity.

3. Impersonality:

Secondary relations are impersonal in nature. In the large scale organisation, there
are contacts and they may be face-to-face, but they are, as says K. Davis, of “the
touch and go variety.” Here contacts are chiefly indirect. The two persons may
never see each other. Relations among them are impersonal, because members are
not very much interested in other members as ‘persons’.

They are more concerned with their self-centered goals than with other persons.
There is no sentiment attaching to the contacts. It is not required that the parties
know each other. For example, in the large scale factory organisation, the members
are known to each other as the boss, the foreman, skilled workers, ordinary
workers etc. The secondary relations are viewed as a means to an end and not an
end in itself.

4. Indirect Cooperation:
Indirect cooperation is another characteristic of secondary groups. In it, members
do different things interdependently. Ali contribute to the same result, but not in
the same process. They do unlike things together. In the large scale organisation
where division of labour is complex, the members have not only different functions
but different powers, different degrees of participation, different rights and
obligations.

5. Voluntary Membership:

The membership of most of the secondary groups is not compulsory but voluntary.
Individuals are at liberty to join or to go away from the groups. It is not essential to
become the member of Rotary International or Red Cross Society. However, there
are some secondary groups like nation or the State whose membership is almost
involuntary.

6. Status depends upon Role:

In secondary groups the status or position of every member depends on his role.
The determination of his status is not influenced by ascription or by his birth or
personal qualities but by the achievement or the role he plays. For example, the
status of the President in a trade union depends upon the role he plays in the union
and not upon his birth.

Importance of Secondary Group:

The secondary groups occupy a dominant place in modern civilised and industrial
societies. Where life is relatively simple or where the number of people is small,
the face to face group may be sufficient for most purposes. But as the society
expands demanding more and more division of labour and specialization of
functions, the large-scale secondary groups become necessary. The small
communities have now given way to large communities.
In place of cottage industry we have now grant corporations employing thousands
of people. Population has moved from the village to the city. The changing trends
of modern society have swept away primary groups. Man now depends more on
secondary groups for his needs. The child was formerly born in the warm
atmosphere of the family, now he is born in the cold atmosphere of the hospital.

The followings are the advantages of secondary groups:

1. Efficiency:

The secondary group helps its member to improve their efficiency in their specific
field of activity and in consequences, they become experts. The emphasis is on
getting the job done. Sentiment, emotion is subordinated to achievement. A formal
authority is set up with the responsibility of managing the organisation efficiently.
The secondary relationships are instrumental in accomplishing certain specific
tasks. In this sense, they may be regarded as functional in character.

2. Wider Outlook:

The secondary group broadens the outlook of its members. It accommodates a

large number of individuals and localities which widens the outlook of its
members. It is more universal in its judgement than the primary group.

3. Wider Opportunities:

The secondary groups have opened channel, of opportunities. A large number of

professions and occupations are opening the way for specialised careers.
Secondary groups provide a greater chance to develop individual talents. The
talented individual can nor rise from an unknown background to the highest
position in business, industry, civil and technical services.
The functions of secondary groups are essential for our society if we wish to enjoy
our current life styles. The people are becoming more and more dependent on these
groups. The tremendous advances in material comfort and in life expectancy in
modern world would be impossible without the rise or goal-directed secondary
groups.

Reference Group:

The term ‘reference group’ was coined by Herbert Hyman (1942) to apply to the
group against which an individual evaluates his or own situation or conduct. He
distinguished between membership group to which people actually belong and a
reference group which is used as a basis for comparison.

A reference group may or may not be a membership group. The term reference was
introduced into the literature on small group by Muzaffar Sheriff in his book “An
Outline of Social Psychology”. The concept was subsequently elaborated by R.K.
Merton and Turner.

Strictly specking, a reference group is one to which we do not actually belong but
with which we identify ourselves or to which we would like to belong. We may
actually belong to a group, yet we accept the norms of another group to which we
refer but to which we do not actually belong. L Merton writes, individual in the
society choose not only reference group but also reference individual. Reference
individual has often been described as “role model”. The person who identifies
himself with a reference individual will seek to approximate the behaviour and
value of that individual in his several roles.

According to Sherif, “A reference group is one to which the individual refers and
with which he identifies himself, either consciously or sub-consciously. The
central aspect of the reference group is psychological identification.”
According to Shibutani, “A reference group is that group whose outlook is used by
the act or as the frame of reference in the organization of his perceptual field.

As Horton and Hunt have pointed out, “A reference group is any group to which
we refer when making judgements – any group whose value-judgements become
our value-judgements”. They have further said, “Groups which are important as
models for one’s ideas and conduct norms…”can be called reference groups.

Ogbum and Nimkoff say, “Groups which serve as points of comparison are known
as reference groups”. They have further added that the reference groups are those
groups from which “we get our values or whose approval we seek”.

An individual or a group regards some other group as worthy of imitating, such

group is called 7 reference and the behaviour it involves is called the reference
group behaviour. It accepts the reference group as model or the ideal to imitate or
to follow. Reference groups, therefore, can be numerous- some may begin
imitating, other may be potential imitators and some others may be aspiring to
imitate.

The importance of the reference group concept is highlighted by R. Moerton in his

theory of “relative deprivation” and “reference group”. He argues that we orient
our behaviour in terms of both membership and non-membership, i.e. reference
groups.

When our membership group does not match our reference group, we may
experience a feeling of relative deprivation- discontent which arises from
experiencing the gap between what we have (the circumstances of our membership
group) and what we believe we should have (the circumstances of our reference
group). Feelings of relative deprivation provide fertile soil for collective behaviour
and social movements.
Reference groups serve as models for our behaviour. We assume perspectives of
these groups and mould our behaviour accordingly. We adopt value judgements of
these groups. Depending on what groups we select to compare ourselves with, we
either feel deprived or privileged, satisfied or discontented, fortunate or
unfortunate. For example, when a student gets 2nd Division in the examination, he
or she can either feel terrific in comparison to 3 rd Division students or inadequate/
bad compared to 1st Division students.

The reference group is not synonymous with the membership group. The
individual may identify himself with groups of which he is not a member, but of
which he aspires to be a member. The ambitious clerk may identify himself with
the board of directors of the bank. He interacts on a face-to-face basis with his
fellow clerks, but he may think of himself in a more exalted company.

Identification with groups of which one is not a member is characteristic of a

society where the opportunities for advancement are great and the choice of group
participation is wide. In a simpler society, the individual rarely identifies himself
with groups to which he does not belong, but is content with his own position. The
individual evaluates his own situation and behaves with respect to three reference
group situations:

1. The group in which he is a member and has direct contact.

2. The group to which he aspires to be a member but does not yet have direct
contact; and

3. A group in which he is not a member and does not aspire to membership.

The individual’s social participation and functioning, then operates under a

continuing series of adjustments depending on individual’s perception of three
kinds of reference groups.
Objectives of Reference Groups:

Reference groups have two basic objectives:

Reference groups, as Felson and Reed have explained, perform both nor motive
and comparative functions. As we aspire to membership of a certain group, we take
on the group’s norms and values. We cultivate its life styles, food habits, musical
tastes, political attitudes, and marriage pattern in order to view ourselves as being
members in good standing.

We also use the values or standards of our reference group to evaluate ourselves –
as a comparative frame of reference against which we judge and evaluate our
speech, dress, ranking and standards of Irving.

By making such comparison we may strive to be like the members of the reference
group in some respect or to make our membership group like the reference in some
respect. Or, as Johnson points out, we may simply appraise our membership group
or ourselves using reference group as a standard for comparison, without aspiring
to be like or unlike the reference group.

Types of Reference Group:

A reference group can be, but is not necessarily, one ‘of a person’s primary groups.
At times the In-Group and the reference group may be the same, as when the
teenager gives more importance to the opinions of the peer group than to those of
his teachers. Sometimes an Out-Group is a reference group. Each sex dresses to
impress the other sex.

Newcomb distinguishes between positive and negative reference groups. A

positive reference group is “one in which a person is motivated to be accepted and
treated as a member (overtly or symbolically), whereas a negative reference group
is one “which the person is motivated to oppose or in which he does not want to be
treated as a member.”

By comparing ourselves with negative reference groups we emphasize the

differences between ourselves and others. The significance of negative groups thus
lies in strengthening social solidarity; the negative reference group is an instrument
by which a community binds itself together. For example, Hindus constitute
negative reference groups for Muslims and vice versa.

The reference group is, in summary, “a group with which the individual feels
identified, the norms of which he shares and the objectives of which he accepts.”
(Hartley and Hartley, 1952). The reference group provides many of the standards
that guide behaviour, even when the standards are contrary to those of earlier
membership groups.

The boy who identifies himself with a criminal gang will try to follow its
standards, even when they conflict with those of his family. The delinquent boy
“refers” himself to the gang, even though he “knows” that he is acting in conflict
with the membership groups of his family, school and religious institution. To
understand the behaviour of an individual, we must, therefore, refer to his
reference group as it helps us in understanding the interaction between the
individual and the group.