Class 12 NCERT History Chapter 4

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

• Vedic Sanskrit: A special kind of Sanskrit in which hyms and
verses were composed.

• Rajsuya Yajna: A special kind of yajna in which sacrifi ces are

performed by chiefs and kings who depended on the Brahaman
to conduct these rituals.

• Tripitaka: Three books of Buddhist sacred text.

• Sanghe: Monastic order.

• Tirthankar: A great teacher in Jainism.

• Stupa: A Sanskrit word which means a heap. Stupa originated

as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called ande.
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Key concepts in nutshell
• Buildings of Sanchi Kannakkheda are the most wonderful
ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal.
• Buddhist, Jaina and Brahamanical text, monument and
inscription are the some of the important historical sources
of the age of C 600 BCE-600CE, which help in
reconstructing Indian history.
• Many was provided by rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum
and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum to preserved the
ancient sites.
• The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, praise of many deities
like Agni, Indra, Soma etc.
• The basic philosophy of Jainism already existed in north
India even before the birth of vardhamana Mahavira.
• Tha Bhuddha was the most influential teachers of his times.
• Two traditions were including in modern Hinduism –
Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Instagram
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A detailed study:
1. A Glimpse of Sanchi
• Nineteenth-century Europeans were very
interested in the stupa at Sanchi.

• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her

successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money
for the preservation of the ancient site.

• One of the most important Buddhist centres, the

discovery of Sanchi has vastly transformed our
understanding of early Buddhism. Today it stands
testimony to the successful restoration and
preservation of a key archaeological site by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Instagram
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2) Buddhist tradition: Sacrifices and Debates
• The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning
point in world history as it saw the emergence of
thinkers. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence
and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic
order.
• This was also the time when new kingdoms and cities were
developing and social and economic life was changing in a
variety of ways in the Ganga valley.
• The early Vedic traditions, religious belief and practice were
known from the Rigveda, compiled between c.1500 and
1000 BCE.
• Rigveda consisted of hymns, which were chanted when
sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for cattle,
sons, good health, long life, etc.
• At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later (c. 1000
BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were performed by the heads
of households for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
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• More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha, were
performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to
conduct the ritual.
• Many ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards)
show that people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of
life after death and rebirth.
• Thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the nature
of the ultimate reality.
• On the other hand, people outside the Vedic tradition began speculating
on the significance of the sacrificial tradition and questioned the
existence of ultimate reality..
• Buddhist texts mention as many as 64 sects or schools of thought.
• Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed
roof – or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
• Mahavira and Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
• They also emphasised individual agency – suggesting that men and
women could strive to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations of
worldly existence.
• This was a sharp contrast to the Brahmanical position, where an
individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her birth in
a specific caste or gender. Instagram
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3) The Message of Mahavira
• The philosophy of the Jainas already existed before the birth of
Mahavira in the sixth century BCE.
• Vardhamana who came to be known as Mahavira, was preceded by 23
other teachers or tirthankaras, according to Jaina tradition.
• Tirthankaras are the teachers who guide men and women across the
river of existence.
• The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated:
even stones, rocks and water have life.
• The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark
on Indian thinking as a whole.
• According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped
through karma.
• Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of
karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world.
• Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing
and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing
property.
• Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars
produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages – Prakrit,
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4) The Buddha – His Enlightenment & Teachings
• The teachings and message of Buddha spread across the subcontinent
and beyond – through Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and
through Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and
Indonesia.
• According to Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha, as the Buddha was
named at birth, was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a
sheltered upbringing within the palace but he was deeply anguished
when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.
• He also saw a homeless mendicant, who, it seemed to him, had come
to terms with old age, disease and death, and found peace.Siddhartha
decided that he too would adopt the same path. He then left the palace
and set out in search of his own truth.
• He meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After
this he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.
• For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.
• His teachings: The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from
stories, found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka.
• Some stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the
Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather
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• According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and
constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing
permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is
intrinsic to human existence.
• It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and
self-indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
• The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather
than of divine origin. So he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane
and ethical.
• The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the
means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and
nirvana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire – and thus end
the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.
• Buddha’s last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as
all of you must work out your own liberation.”
• His Followers: As the  number of disciples of the Buddha increased and
he founded a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became
teachers of dhamma
• These monks lived on alms, and so they were known as bhikkhus.
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• Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later
women also came to be admitted. The Buddha’s foster
mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be
ordained as a bhikkhuni.
• The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups.
They included kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, and
also humbler folk: workers, slaves and craftspeople.
• Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal,
having shed their earlier social identities on becoming
bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
• Buddhism grew rapidly as it appealed to many people
dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused
by the rapid social changes taking place around them.
• The importance attached to conduct and values rather
than claims of superiority based on birth drew men and
women to Buddhist teachings. Instagram
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Stupas
• In Buddhist ideas and practices, people tended to regard certain
places as sacred. These included sites with special trees or unique
rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with small
shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas.
• Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places
associated with the Buddha’s life – where he was born (Lumbini),
where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his first
sermon (Sarnath) and where he attained nirvana (Kusinagara). Each
of these places came to be regarded as sacred.
• About 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at
Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.
• Besides, there were some places where relics of the Buddha such as
his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried there. These
were mounds known as stupas.
• According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka
distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and
ordered the construction of stupas over them.
• By the second century BCE a number of stupas, including those at
Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built. Instagram
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• Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record
donations made for building and decorating them. Bhikkhus and
bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.
• The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a
simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda.
Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing
round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a
balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
• Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often
surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a
railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
• The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for
the stone railings. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be
elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati,
and Shahji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).
• Each stupa has a history of its own. Sculptures of stupas were
removed from stupas and transported all the way to Europe.
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Sculpture
• The Buddhist sculptures were beautiful and valuable. The sculpture in
Sanchi seems to depict a scene from the story of Vessantara Jataka.
• Symbols: Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human
form – instead, they showed his presence through symbols. The
empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and
the stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinirvana. Another
frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first
sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
• Popular traditions:  A sculpture of a beautiful women swinging from
the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree was the representation
of shalabhanjika.
• According to popular belief, shalabhanjika was a woman whose
touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was
regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration
of the stupa.
• The shalabhanjika motif on most of the Buddhist sculptures suggests
that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own
pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
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• There are other motifs as well. Some of the finest
depictions of animals are found there. These animals
include elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle. While the
Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted
at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals were
carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers.
• Animals were often used as symbols of human attributes.
Elephants, for example, were depicted to signify strength
and wisdom.
• Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses
and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water on her
as if performing an abhisheka or consecration.
• The serpent motif is also found on several pillars. One of
the earliest modern art historians, James Fergusson,
considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent
worship. Instagram
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New Religious Traditions
• Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort
in achieving nirvana. Buddha was regarded as a human being who
attained enlightenment and nirvana. Gradually the idea of a
saviour emerged.
• Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed.
Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who
accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to attain
nirvana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others. The
worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an
important part of this tradition.
• This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the
“great vehicle”. Those who adopted these beliefs described the
older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.
• The notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism, it was also a
part of Hinduism. Sects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism emerged in
Hinduism, in which there was growing emphasis on the worship of
a chosen deity.
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• Vaishnavism – is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was
worshipped as the principal deity and Shaivism is a tradition within
which Shiva was regarded as the chief god. In such worship the bond
between the devotee and the god was visualised as one of love and
devotion, or bhakti.
• In Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or
incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars were recognised within the
tradition. Different avatars were popular in different parts of the country.
• Some of the avatars were represented in sculptures. For example,
Shiva was symbolised by the linga.
• All such representations depicted a complex set of ideas about the
deities and their attributes through symbols.
• Much of what is contained in the Puranas evolved through interaction
amongst people who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and
beliefs.
• Early Temples: The early temple was a small square room, called the
garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer
worship to the image.
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• Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built
over the central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated
with sculpture.
• Later temples became far more elaborate – with assembly
halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for
supplying water.
• One of the unique features of early temples was that some
of these were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial
caves. The tradition of building artificial caves was an old
one. Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the
third century BCE on the orders of Asoka for renouncers
who belonged to the Ajivika sect.
• This tradition evolved through various stages and
culminated much later – in the eighth century – in the
carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnatha (a
name of Shiva). Instagram
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Reading the unfamiliar
• The European scholars were horrified by what seemed
to them grotesque figures, with multiple arms and heads
or with combinations of human and animal forms (of
gods and goddess).

• They compared and often found early Indian sculpture

inferior to the works of Greek artists, they were very
excited when they discovered images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattas that were evidently based on Greek
models. These were, more often than not, found in the
northwest, in cities such as Taxila and Peshawar, where
Indo-Greek rulers had established kingdoms in the
second century BCE. As these images were closest to
the Greek statues these scholars were familiar with, they
were considered to be the best examples of early Indian
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1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and
materialists? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer

The ideas of the upanishadic thinkers are not much different from those of the fatalists and
materialists. This is brought out by the following argument.

(i)The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before
the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.

(ii)Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of jainism.But this also from the
basis thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both streams
of religion.

(iii)Upanishad believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act
and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without
thinking of the consequences. Thus, there is a lot similarity between the two.

(iv) Both fatalist and materialists believe that human beings are made of fur elements, earth,
water, sky, air and fire.

Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers is not much different
from that of the fatalists and materialists. Instagram
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2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

Answer

The main teaching of Jainism is as follows:

(i) The entire world is animated. Life exits even in rocks and stones normally considered non-living.

(ii) The principle of non-violence is practised in extreme from in Jainism. No harms should be caused
to animals, plants and insects and other living beings that may include rocks and stones too. This is
notable that Jains are forbidden to eat late night lest they kill insects by mistake.

(iii) The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. If one is to escape this cycle of karma,
one must practise ascetics and penance. It is possible when one renounces the world. So one has to
live in monastery to attain salvation.

(iv) Jain monks have to take vows to observe the following:

      (a) Not to kill anyone

      (b) Not tell lies

      (c) Not to posses property

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3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.

Answer

Begums of Bhopal made a great a contribution to the preservation of stupa of

Sanchi. Following Are the Major Contribution Made By them.

(i) Shahjahan Begum And her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the
rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of
Sanchi.

(ii)A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial
support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum.

(iii) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.

(iv) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas
to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They Also Contributed
Financially To Preserve The Stupa. Instagram
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4. Read this short inscription and answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month
of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s
dau ghter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the
Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.

(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?

(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?

(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?

(d) What Buddhist text did she know?

(e) From whom did she learn this text?

Answer

(a) Dhanavati Dated Her inscription That She Placed The inscription At Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot
season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.

(b) I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisattva to Show That Mahayana Sect of
Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during
the reign of the Kushana rulars.

(c) She knew the Tipitaka.

(d) She has mentioned her own mothers sisters name Buddhamita. The Lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also Mentioned
Bhikkuni Bala and her Parents.

(e) She learns the text from Bhikkuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the BALA. Instagram
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5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?

Answer

The main reasons why men and women join Sanghas could be as follows:

(a) Many of them wanted you renounce the worldly pleasures.

(b) They could study the Buddhist literature and philosophy by staying in the
company of others monks.

(c) Many people entered sanghas to become priests and teachers of Buddhism.

(d) All were considered equal and the previous social identity was to be
renounced.

(e) The environment of sanghas was democratic. The decision making within
sanghas was based on voting. This attracted many and they took to the life of
sanghas. Instagram
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6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the
sculpture at Sanchi?

Answer

Bhuddhist literature help us up to some extent in understanding the sclupture at

Sanchi. It is important that the sculpture at Sanchi depicts the teaching of Buddha
only. The teachings of Bhudda are captured in the literature.

It is notable that Bhudda used to roam around among people, preaching them on his
teachings. However, he did not claim supernatural power. He told us that the world is
ever changing. It is full of sorrows. Sorrow flows out of desire. Buddha asked the
followers to take the middle path, not too much of penance, nor too much of
indulgence.

The literature of Buddhism is useful for the interpretation of the sculpture at Sanchi.
People are shown in difference moods and that Buddhist literature throws valuable
light on the sculptures of the Sanchi.
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8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism
and Shaivism.

Answer

• Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord
Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief
deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the
love and devotion of the devotee to the God.

• This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and
sculpture. The temples developed the house deities .The initial temples were small and simple. It
was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it explained, a tall structure was built on the
gerbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon
temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for tea comfort of visitors.

• Many of these were temples were carved out of the rocks. These artificial caves were turned into
temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important
were the Ajivikas that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the
rock–cut temple is the Kailash Nath Temple of the 8th century. It was carved out of a single piece
rock. There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Elloa wherein the Sculptor exclaims,
how did I make it.

Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in
Sculpture.
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9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.

Answer

• About 200 years after the time of Bhuddha King Ashoka erected a pillar At Lumbini.
This was to announce the visit of Bhuddha to this place.

• Stupas were the moulds put on the bodily remains of the body of Lord buddha or of
any object that was used by him. At the place of Stupas such objects were buried. These
were places of great respect under the tradition of Bhuddhism, as they had the relics of
Bhuddha. As gave Bhuddha relics to all major cities. Later on such places were put. The
most important stupas are at Sanchi, Bharhut, Saranath.

• The structure of Stupa is like dome or hemisphere. On the top of it there would be a
balcony called Hermick.  This balcony represent abode of god. The Harmik was covered
with an umbrella. There used to be railings around the balcony.

• The construction of Stupas was made possible by the contribution of many. On the
forefront were the Monarchs. The Satvahan Kings Offered huge amount for the
construction of stupas. Apart from the monarchs, merchants, artisans and common men
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