History

Early cultures Science (from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a
systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.
Classical antiquity The earliest roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia in around 3500 to 3000 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical
antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in
the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman
Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe
during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages but was preserved in
the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of
Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century
revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific
Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed
from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a
greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many
of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape;
along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science."
Medieval science Modern science is typically divided into three major branches
that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which
study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics,
psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal
sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study
abstract concepts. There is disagreement, however, on whether the formal sciences
actually constitute a science as they do not rely on empirical evidence.
Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as
engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.
Renaissance and early modern science Science is based on research, which is
commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in government
agencies and companies. The practical impact of scientific research has led to the
emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by
prioritizing the development of commercial products, armaments, health care, and
environmental protection.
Age of Enlightenment Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in
many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and
successful in its results, so it now defines what science is in the strictest sense
of the term. Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge,
rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it
was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share. For
example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before
recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is
shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous
plants edible, public works at a national scale, such as those which harnessed the
floodplain of the Yangtse with reservoirs, dams, and dikes, and buildings such as
the Pyramids. However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between
knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of
communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems. Metallurgy was known in
prehistory, and the Vinča culture was the earliest known producer of bronze-like
alloys. It is thought that early experimentation with heating and mixing of
substances over time developed into alchemy.
19th century Neither the words nor the concepts "science" and "nature" were part
of the conceptual landscape in the Ancient Near East. The ancient Mesopotamians
used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing
pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing; they also
studied animal physiology, anatomy, and behavior for divinatory purposes and made
extensive records of the movements of astronomical objects for their study of
astrology. The Mesopotamians had intense interest in medicine and the earliest
medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112
BCE – c. 2004 BCE). Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest
in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering
information and mainly only studied scientific subjects which had obvious practical
applications or immediate relevance to their religious system.
20th century In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analog of a modern
scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male
individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford
the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (ancient
Greek phusis) by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to
describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for
example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed these
men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to
clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention.":209 Natural philosophy, the
precursor of natural science, was thereby distinguished as the knowledge of nature
and things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized
pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy – the realm of the first philosopher-
physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in
astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature
(artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more
appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.
21st century The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was
founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and
Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying
on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy:467–68
and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.:465 The
theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student
Democritus. The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic
medical science and is known as "The Father of Medicine".
Branches of science A turning point in the history of early philosophical science
was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters,
including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge
itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic
method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily
identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. This was a reaction
to the Sophist emphasis on rhetoric. The Socratic method searches for general,
commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their
consistency with other beliefs. Socrates criticized the older type of study of
physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. Socrates was
later, in the words of his Apology, accused of corrupting the youth of Athens
because he did "not believe in the gods the state believes in, but in other new
spiritual beings". Socrates refuted these claims, but was sentenced to death.:30e
Natural science Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological
philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials
already in things, according to what types of things they are. In his physics, the
Sun goes around the Earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that
they are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause, a final cause, and a role in a
cosmic order with an unmoved mover. The Socratics also insisted that philosophy
should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a
human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).
Aristotle maintained that man knows a thing scientifically "when he possesses a
conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that
conviction rests are known to him with certainty".
Social science The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE) was the
first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center
and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it
was believed to violate the laws of physics. The inventor and mathematician
Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus and
has sometimes been credited as its inventor, although his proto-calculus lacked
several defining features. Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who
wrote the seminal encyclopedia Natural History, dealing with history, geography,
medicine, astronomy, earth science, botany, and zoology.
Other scientists or proto-scientists in Antiquity were Theophrastus, Euclid,
Herophilos, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and Galen.
Formal science Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire due to the
Migration Period an intellectual decline took place in the western part of Europe
in the 400s. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire resisted the attacks from invaders,
and preserved and improved upon the learning. John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar
in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics and to note its
flaws.:pp.307, 311, 363, 402 John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles
of physics served as an inspiration to medieval scholars as well as to Galileo
Galilei who ten centuries later, during the Scientific Revolution, extensively
cited Philoponus in his works while making the case for why Aristotelian physics
was flawed.
Scientific research During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the
Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomena was used. Aristotle's four
causes prescribed that four "why" questions should be answered in order to explain
things scientifically. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in
obscurity, during the fall of the Western Roman Empire and periodic political
struggles. However, the general fields of science (or "natural philosophy" as it
was called) and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained
preserved through the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like Isidore of
Seville. However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western
Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the
only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural
philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages. Another original
work that gained influence in this period was Ptolemy's Almagest, which contains a
geocentric description of the solar system.
Scientific method During late antiquity, in the Byzantine empire many Greek
classical texts were preserved. Many Syriac translations were done by groups such
as the Nestorians and Monophysites. They played a role when they translated Greek
classical texts into Arabic under the Caliphate, during which many types of
classical learning were preserved and in some cases improved upon. In addition, the
neighboring Sassanid Empire established the medical Academy of Gondeshapur where
Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians established the most important medical center
of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries.
Verifiability The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq,
where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished. Al-Kindi (801–873) was the
first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to
introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world. The Islamic Golden
Age flourished from this time until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Ibn
al-Haytham (Alhazen), as well as his predecessor Ibn Sahl, was familiar with
Ptolemy's Optics, and used experiments as a means to gain knowledge.:463–65 Alhazen
disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision, but did not make any corresponding changes to
Aristotle's metaphysics. Furthermore, doctors and alchemists such as the Persians
Avicenna and Al-Razi also greatly developed the science of Medicine with the former
writing the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia used until the 18th century
and the latter discovering multiple compounds like alcohol. Avicenna's canon is
considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both
contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical
trials and experiments to back their claims.
Role of mathematics In Classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that
dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in Middle Ages it changed:
medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de
Luzzi (c. 1275–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human
dissection.
Philosophy of science By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become
Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological
developments and agricultural innovations were made which increased the food supply
and population. In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from
Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in
Western Europe.
Certainty and science By 1088, the first university in Europe (the University of
Bologna) had emerged from its clerical beginnings. Demand for Latin translations
grew (for example, from the Toledo School of Translators); western Europeans began
collecting texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek,
Arabic, and Hebrew. Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated
across Europe before 1240,:Intro. p. xx as evidenced by its incorporation into
Vitello's Perspectiva. Avicenna's Canon was translated into Latin. In particular,
the texts of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Euclid, preserved in the Houses of Wisdom and
also in the Byzantine Empire, were sought amongst Catholic scholars. The influx of
ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a
synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western
Europe, which became a new geographic center of science. An experiment in this
period would be understood as a careful process of observing, describing, and
classifying. One prominent scientist in this era was Roger Bacon. Scholasticism had
a strong focus on revelation and dialectic reasoning, and gradually fell out of
favour over the next centuries, as alchemy's focus on experiments that include
direct observation and meticulous documentation slowly increased in importance.
Scientific literature New developments in optics played a role in the inception of
the Renaissance, both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as
well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as
the camera obscura and the telescope. Before what we now know as the Renaissance
started, Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology
upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception
of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle. A model of vision later known
as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance. This
theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material, and final.
Practical impacts In the sixteenth century, Copernicus formulated a heliocentric
model of the solar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's Almagest. This
was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their
orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with
Ptolemy's model.
Challenges Kepler and others challenged the notion that the only function of the
eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the
propagation of light.:102 Kepler modelled the eye as a water-filled glass sphere
with an aperture in front of it to model the entrance pupil. He found that all the
light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of
the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina at the back of the eye.
Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus' heliocentric model through
the discovery of Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Kepler did not reject
Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the
Spheres.
Replication crisis Galileo made innovative use of experiment and mathematics.
However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about
the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the
voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems", which greatly offended Urban VIII.
Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science In Northern Europe, the new
technology of the printing press was widely used to publish many arguments,
including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature. René
Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new
type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes emphasized individual thought and
argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study
nature. Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon
further questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and
promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as
heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "formal cause", of
each complex type of thing. This new science began to see itself as describing
"laws of nature". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as
mechanistic. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at
practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.
Scientific community As a precursor to the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as
classical mechanics, which could be confirmed by experiment and explained using
mathematics (Newton (1687), Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica). Leibniz
also incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, but now being used in a new non-
teleological way, for example, "energy" and "potential" (modern versions of
Aristotelian "energeia and potentia"). This implied a shift in the view of objects:
Where Aristotle had noted that objects have certain innate goals that can be
actualized, objects were now regarded as devoid of innate goals. In the style of
Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to
the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each
type of thing. It is during this period that the word "science" gradually became
more commonly used to refer to a type of pursuit of a type of knowledge, especially
knowledge of nature – coming close in meaning to the old term "natural philosophy."
Scientists During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became
producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the
materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's
words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life
with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing
intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little
to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation".
Women in science Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific
societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of
scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the
backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important
development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate
population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most
notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire
as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator of Newton's Principia.
Learned societies Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in
the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the
practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological
taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of
chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
Science and the public Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of
scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides
and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural
law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of
history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.
Science policy The nineteenth century is a particularly important period in the
history of science since during this era many distinguishing characteristics of
contemporary modern science began to take shape such as: transformation of the life
and physical sciences, frequent use of precision instruments, emergence of terms
like "biologist", "physicist", "scientist"; slowly moving away from antiquated
labels like "natural philosophy" and "natural history", increased
professionalization of those studying nature lead to reduction in amateur
naturalists, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society,
economic expansion and industrialization of numerous countries, thriving of popular
science writings and emergence of science journals.
Funding of science Early in the 19th century, John Dalton suggested the modern
atomic theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called
atoms.
Public awareness of science Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized
methodology: the latter coined the term scientist. When Charles Darwin published On
the Origin of Species he established evolution as the prevailing explanation of
biological complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a natural
explanation of how species originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a
century later.
Science journalism The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum
and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be
little loss of resources. With the advent of the steam engine and the industrial
revolution, there was, however, an increased understanding that all forms of energy
as defined in physics were not equally useful: they did not have the same energy
quality. This realization led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in
which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy
of a closed universe increases over time.
Politicization of science The electromagnetic theory was also established in the
19th century, and raised new questions which could not easily be answered using
Newton's framework. The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom
were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays
inspired the discovery of radioactivity. In the next year came the discovery of the
first subatomic particle, the electron.
See also Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum
mechanics led to the replacement of classical mechanics with a new physics which
contains two parts that describe different types of events in nature.
Notes In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and
artificial fertilizer made global human population growth possible. At the same
time, the structure of the atom and its nucleus was discovered, leading to the
release of "atomic energy" (nuclear power). In addition, the extensive use of
technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions
in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space
race, and a nuclear arms race.
References The molecular structure of DNA was discovered in 1953. The discovery of
the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady
State theory of the universe in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.
Further reading The development of spaceflight in the second half of the century
allowed the first astronomical measurements done on or near other objects in space,
including manned landings on the Moon. Space telescopes lead to numerous
discoveries in astronomy and cosmology.
External links