Catanduanes State University-Panganiban Campus

College of Agriculture

Learning Materials
in

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 2
(Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation)

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 Disclaimer

This learning material will be used in compliance with the flexible learning approach as directed by
CHED (Commission on Higher Education) in response to the COVID19 pandemic, that has globally affected
educational institutions. The authors and publishers from where the contents were derived are well
acknowledged. As such, the college and its faculty do not claim ownership of all sourced information. This
learning material will solely be used for instructional purposes not for commercialization.

Agriculture Department-CatSU PC

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 PREFACE

This learning material has been designed to conform with the changing times and technology. Its goal is to give
the student an up-to-date background for planning irrigation system and to manage water resources. As global
population continues to increase, it creates greater pressure on available water supplies for human consumption,
industrial production, agricultural production and sanitation. Also, flood results in property damage and loss of
life. Pollution of both surface and groundwater reduces the available supply of potable water for many uses.

Efficient water management today is necessary to ensure the availability of adequate water supplies in
the future. Agriculture students should have a background on how to manage water resources and irrigation.
This learning material - Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation is to adequate students in water
management and irrigation as one of the subjects offered in the curriculum.

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STUDY GUIDES and HOUSE RULES

The key to a successful learning DEPENDS on YOU. This instructional material for AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING II (Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation) was prepared for you to learn
INDEPENDENTLY. CONGRATULATIONS, you are selected to be on third year.

Knowledge on water management and irrigation will help you prepare to become an Agriculturist, Agri-
entrepreneur, farmer.

The following guides and house rules will help you further to be on track.

1. Schedule on how you can manage to do the activities of this learning material in consideration of your
other learning materials from other courses. Place it in a conspicuous space so that you can always see
it.
You may follow the schedule on top of each topic so that you may not get overwhelmed by a lot of
reading materials
2. If you do not understand the material and other task, re-read. Focus. If this will not work, look for other
resources (internet, books) You may also ask other family members to help you. If this will not work
TEXT ME at 09498590689 so that I can call or text you back for assistance. DO NOT HESITATE to
contact me for assistance
3. There is an assessment after each chapter, these are GRADED ASSESSMENTS so please do your
BEST on answering it.
4. Do NOT miss reading every part of this learning material.
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 5. Do NOT miss as well to answer the non-graded assessments. Though these are not graded, you still
need to answer it
6. On September 7, you will be asked to send back through correspondence the accomplished learning
activity to me. Make sure you will follow it up through text or any other media available for you.
7. In answering all the assessment and evaluation activities, write legibly. You must remember that all
activities in the learning material are academic activities, which mean that the relevant academic
convention apply. Think before you write.
- Short and concise
- No abbreviations

EVALUATION

To pass the course, you must

1. Read all topics s and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment , reflection , discussion
activities. Missing any of those activities will be tagged as INCOMPLETE.
2. Do the midterm and final examination

GRADING SYSTEM

Mid-Term Examination/ Final Examination 50%

Student Output (Assessments) 50%
TOTAL 100%

Distribution of Weight for the Overall/Final Grade

Mid-Term Grade 50%
Final Grade 50%

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Prayer Before Study

Creator of all things, true source of light and wisdom, origin of all being, graciously let a ray of your light
penetrate the darkness of my understanding.

Take from me the double darkness in which I have been born, an obscurity of sin and ignorance.

Give me a keen understanding, a retentive memory, and the ability to grasp things correctly and fundamentally.

Grant me the talent of being exact in my explanations and the ability to express myself with thoroughness and
charm.

Point out the beginning, direct the progress, and help in the completion.  I ask this through Jesus Christ our
Lord.   Amen. 
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                                                                         -Saint Thomas Aquinas, OP (patron of scholars)

Learning Outcomes
After successfully completed this learning material, you will be able to:

1. Internalize the importance of water management in irrigation system and in the future of agriculture as a
whole.
2. Compute for water requirements of crops in an irrigation system
3. Design irrigation system in an agroecosystem
4. Apply the principles of water management and irrigation in an agroecosystem
5. Integrate soil and water conservation in agricultural production system

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August 25-28, 2020

PRE-TEST
Direction: This is NOT GRADED. Choose the best answer. Write the letter of your answer on a sheet of paper.

C 1. The application of engineering principles to the solution of soil & water management
problems, or any method used to fully utilize and conserve soil & water.
a. erosion control measure c. soil water conservation
b. sustainable agriculture d. none of the above

D 2. Is the science that treats of the waters of the earth, their occurrence, circulation, and
distribution, their chemical and physical properties and their reaction with their environment
a. biology b. climatology c. chemistry d. hydrology

C 3. The passage of water into the soil surface is called

a. erosion b. precipitation c. infiltration d. evaporation

A 4. Is the detachment and transport of soil particles from the land by wind and water action
a. erosion b. flash flood c. sedimentation d. suspension
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 D 5. Which is/are the effects of soil erosion
a. loss of soil fertility c. damage to agricultural lands
b. silting of reservoir d. all of the above

B 6. The application of water to the soil for the purpose of supplying moisture essential for plant
growth

a. Watering b. irrigation c. flooding d. raining

D 7. In planning an irrigation system, one should consider
a. Type of crop to be planted c. soil type and structure
b. weather and climate d. all of the above

D 8. The purpose of irrigation

a. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts
b. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil
c. To soften tillage pans
d. All of the above

B 9. The size of the area to be irrigated is usually determined by

a. The source of water b. the farmer c. the rainfall d. the
type of crop

C 1O. Termed as the removal of excess water in the soil to create condition suitable for plant
growth.
a. Irrigation c. drainage
b. Precipitation d. percolation

C 11. The passage of water into the soil surface is called

a. erosion b. precipitation c. infiltration d. evaporation

A 12. The downward movement of water within the soil is called

a. percolation b. infiltration c. evaporation d. condensation

A 13. A topographically delineated area, which drains into a reference point in the stream or river.
a. watershed b. river stage c. forest d. field

D 14. The common losses of water in an irrigation system is/are…

a. Seepage b. Evaporation c. percolation d. all of them

D 15. Which of these is not a function of having adequate drainage in the field…
a. Improves soil structure c. shortens the crop growing season
b. Increases the depth of root zone d. leach excess salts from the soil

Module/Concept Map

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Water Management Irrigation

Sources and Storage of

Hydrologic Cycle Irrigation Water

Precipitation Basic Soil-Water Relations

Infiltration, Evaporation and

Transpiration Measurement of Soil Moisture

Runoff (components, Consumptive Use of Water

properties)
Irrigation Period and Interval
Erosion and Sediment
Transport
Methods of Irrigation Water Application
Erosion Control Measures

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Definition of Key Terms
Soil and Water Conservation - The application of engineering principles to the solution of soil & water
management problems, or any method used to fully utilize and conserve soil & water.

Hydrology – is a science that treats of the waters of the Earth, their occurrence, circulation, and distribution,
their chemical and physical properties, and their reaction with their environment.

Soil Erosion – is the detachment and transport of soil particles from the land by water or wind action

Erosivity – potential ability of the rain to cause erosion

Erodibility – vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion

Infiltration – the passage /entry of water into the soil surface

Consumptive use – defined as the sum of the volumes of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area
for transpiration and building of plant tissues

Watershed – a topographically delineated area which drains into a reference point in the stream

Percolation – downward movement of water within the soil

Irrigation – the application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying moisture essential for plant growth

Irrigation Interval – the span of time from one water application to the next

Irrigation Period – time spent in one water application

Infiltration rate – the time rate at which water will percolate into the soil.

Field Capacity – (1) the amount of water a soil profile will hold against drainage by gravity at a specified time
after a thorough wetting. (2) the moisture content of the soil when gravitational water has been removed
after irrigation

Permanent wilting point – the soil moisture content when plants permanently wilt

Evapotranspiration – is the sum of transpiration and water evaporated from the soil, or exterior portions of the
plants where water may have accumulated from irrigation, rainfall, dew, or exudation from the interior of
the plant.

Transpiration – the process by which water vapor escapes from living plants principally by leaves and enters
the atmosphere.

Drainage – the removal of excess water in the soil to create condition suitable for plant growth.

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August 31-September 4, 2020

Perspectives and General Concept of Water Management and Irrigation

Humans cannot produce their own food, but depend on the plant community for their
food and fiber, directly and indirectly. Plants can produce their own food by using the natural
resources such as soil, water, air, and sunlight. They can also produce more than they need
for their survival and reproduction. Plants cannot survive and produce their food without
water. One of the main factors for the intensification of the agricultural production of plants is
irrigation (artificial application of water to the plants’ root zone).
Irrigation raises the productivity of land directly by providing sufficient water supply to
raise the yield per hectare per crop and by allowing a second crop to be grown during the dry
season when yields are potentially higher. But the development of irrigation facility in itself
(consequently the productivity and profitability) depends on several factors, which should be
understood clearly and which are essential for the successful operation of an irrigation system

Historical Perspective of Irrigation and Water Resources Development

The use of irrigation technology in aid of growing crops is a practice older than
recorded history. Irrigation is an ancient art. Based on age-old written records, civilization has
followed the development of irrigation. It is this evidence how important irrigation to society as
a whole.
Areas requiring irrigation are very extensive and encompass portions of every
continent of the world. The dry regions or the arid regions are located on the western part of
the United States and Mexico, across Spain, southern France, Italy and Greece into the Asia
over most of India and into China. Irrigation is no longer a regional practice of arid countries
but has become a basic part of well-developed agriculture throughout the world.
With the rapid increase in population and industrialization, the demands on available
water resources have increased in both the quantity of water required and the quality
standard. Increased demands currently being placed on water supply have necessitated
broader concepts in the application of engineering principles than those originally envisioned.
In recent times, some of the fundamental aspects are: ways to obtain knowledge of specific
processes within a complex system of interacting and interdependent phenomena, and then
to reintegrate such knowledge so as to obtain a comprehensive and accurate solution of the
phenomena.

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Soil and Water Conservation
Soil and water conservation engineering is the application of engineering and biological
principles to the solution of soil and water management problems. Conservation implies
utilization without waste so as to make possible a continuous high level of crop production
while improving environmental quality.
The problems involved in soil and water conservation are: erosion control, irrigation,
drainage, flood control, and water resource development and conservation. Erosion problems
are caused principally by human exploitation of natural resources and the removal of the
protective cover of natural vegetation. Erosion control is essential to maintain the crop
productivity of the soil as well as to control sedimentation and pollution in streams and lakes.
These are more serious today because of high population density and severe changes in land
use.
Irrigation and drainage involve water and its movement on the land surface or through
the soil mass to provide optimum crop growth. In order to provide water at places and times at
which it is naturally available, surface reservoir and other storage facilities. In water-short
regions, soil water should be conserved by modified tillage and crop management techniques,
level terracing, contouring, pitting, reservoirs, and other physical means of retaining moisture
on the soil and reducing evaporation losses from the soil surface.

Self-Assessment 1
What is the role of water to plant?

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops .Plants need it
continuously during their life and in huge quantities. It profoundly influences photosynthesis,
respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides
some other processes.

Why do we need to study water management in relation to crop production?

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops .Plants need it
continuously during their life and in huge quantities. It profoundly influences photosynthesis,
respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides
some other processes._

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 Role of water on Plants
Water and Nutrient Supply
Optimum soil-water supply (i.e., good irrigation practices) are critical to maintain a good crop
growth and facilitating effective uptake of nutrients. As the plants use passive transport to
transfer water and nutrients from their roots to the leaves, water supply is essential to growth.
Water is considered by most plant biologists and forest scientists to be the single most
important environmental factor influencing plant growth and distribution. Water plays an
important role in plants. It maintains the turgor pressure in the cells, and it cools the leaves as
it evaporates. Water is the largest component of plants. Actively growing tissue (leaves, root
tips) can be 80–90% water. Woody parts of trees are a much lower percent of water ranging
between 45 and 60% water by weight. Water serves as the solvent which transports minerals
and dissolved carbohydrates throughout the plant.
Water is the scarcest resource. Importance of judicious use of water in agricultural sector for
sustaining agricultural growth and to retard environmental degradation needs no elaboration.
Judicious use of water for crop production requires knowledge of weather, soil, crop, water
quality, and drainage situation.

Weather: A Driving Force in Determining Irrigation Demand

Weather and climate are important factors in determining day-to-day and long-term activities
in agriculture. Productivity of a crop is a function of number of input variables, out of which
weather is most important. Crop water demand in an area is largely determined by weather
variables. Rainfall is the leading weather variable that affects agricultural cropping pattern,
irrigation planning, and water resources development planning. In addition, climatic forecast
can help to reduce human vulnerability to agricultural impacts of climate variability through
improved decision making, to either prepare for expected adverse conditions or take
advantage of expected favorable conditions. Crops have their critical and optimum climatic
requirements. Analysis of climatic elements is useful for the solution of practical agricultural
problems. The climatic information serves not only as guide to the selection of the proper
sites for a given crop (or the crop for a given site) but also the most desirable period for
sowing and harvesting. After all, yield potential of a crop in a given area is determined by
thermal and radiative energy budget. Thus, climatological studies can provide basic
information in the deliberation and adoption of agricultural technologies.
The weather is the set of all external phenomena in a given atmosphere at a given time. The
term usually refers to the activity of these phenomena over short periods (hours or days), as
opposed to the term climate, which refers to the average atmospheric conditions over longer
periods of time (normally 25 years or more). There is a wise saying that the climate is what
we expect and the weather is what we get.

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The major weather/climatic elements important for agriculture are
- solar radiation,
- rainfall,
- maximum temperature,
- minimum temperature,
- humidity,
- sunshine duration,
- photo-period or maximum possible sunshine hour, night temperature,
- wind speed.

Importance of Weather in Agriculture and Water Management

Weather is a primary determinant of agricultural production. Even under improved
management practices, most of the variations in crop yield can be explained by the use of
analysis of weather elements. All crops have their critical and optimum climatic requirements.
Analysis of climatology at regional scale is most useful for the solution of practical agricultural
problems. Without such analysis, the adoption of farming system or an agronomic technology
to an area can not be assured of success. The climatic information serves not only as guide
to the selection of the proper sites for a given crop but also as the most desirable period for
sowing and harvesting. Since agricultural experimentation is expensive and time-consuming,
the climatological information may help a great deal to consider extrapolation of research
results to a particular region – having “climatic analogues.” Climatic analogues are “areas
sufficiently alike with respect to certain major weather characteristics that techniques and
materials developed for one area have applications and chance of success when transferred
to its climatic counterpart” (Nuttonson 1947). In some cases, the ecological limits of a crop
may be imposed by the incidence of pests and diseases, which are often related to micro-
meteorological variations.
Yield potential of a crop in a given area is determined by thermal and radiative energy budget.
Productivity of plants depends on net carbon dioxide uptake by the shoot, which is influenced
by the plant water status, soil nutrient status, ambient air temperature, and the absorption of
the photo-synthetically active radiation. Crop water demand of a region is also influenced by
weather factors. Thus, climatological studies can provide basic information in the deliberation
and adoption of agricultural technologies. Irrigation needs for crop production depend on the
interaction of climatic parameters (that determine crop evapotranspiration, ET) and water
supply from precipitation. Sustainable food production depends on the judicious use of water
resources, that is, more effective use of water in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture is
essential. Options to increase water use efficiency include the rainwater harvesting,
conservation, and proper crop planning based on probable rainfall. This necessitates detail
analysis of rainfall, which will help in conjunctive water use planning. The monsoon rainfall
influences agriculture in many ways, and its distribution in space and time determines the
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strategy for planning of crop production. The parameters such as amount, intensity,
distribution of rainfall, and number of rainy days are being used to characterize rainfall.
Among them, rainfall distribution has profound effect on performance in rain-fed agriculture.
Long-term probability analysis can provide a basis for planning cropping pattern and water
management strategy (Ali et al. 2005). For planning an irrigation water supply system, the
irrigation water requirement during different months of the year is a function of rainfall deficit
in those months. Thus, rainfall deficit information (under different probability or risk) for
different areas and periods can greatly help in determining optimum water release from a
reservoir or source in accordance with demand. Rainfall prediction under different
expectations (or probability) can help farmers in evaluating alternative cropping pattern,
selecting best adapted plant species, the optimum time of plowing and seeding, soil–water
management planning, planning supplemental irrigation schemes, and selection of
appropriate harvest time. The long-term pattern of monthly total rainfall and rainfall intensity is
required in many areas of water resource management and engineering design such as for
surface drainage system, levee design, flood routing, budgeting optimum water use for
optimum crop yield, selecting areas for profitable rain-fed farming, and developing possible
means for utilization of excess rain-water (e.g., rain-water harvesting) during monsoon
season. It may also help in identification of appropriate crops and cropping sequence that
match the water-availability period and ensure increased and stabilized crop production. The
compilation, processing, and analysis of weather information will therefore be helpful in
developing strategies to optimize crop production and to introduce effective water
management practices.

September 7-11, 2020

Earth-Sun Relationship
Basic Mechanism of Weather Variabiity

Sun-Earth Geometry
The planet “Earth” is nearly spherical with a diameter of about 12,700 Km. The earth makes
one rotation about its axis every 24 h, and completes a revolution around the sun in a period
of 365.25 days approximately. The shape of the earth orbit around the sun is about elliptical in
nature (Fig. 3.1). The mean distance of the earth from the sun is 1.5 108 Km. On 21st
December, the earth is closest to the sun (Winter Solstice in north and Summer Solstice in
south), while on 21st June it is most remote (Summer Solstice in north and Winter Solstice in
south hemisphere), being about 3.3% farther away. On March 21st and September 21st, the
earth is equidistant from the sun (Equinoxes). The earth’s axis of rotation is tilted about 66.5
with respect to its orbital plane around the sun (23.5 with respect to N–S). The spherical
shape of the earth, elliptical nature of earth orbit, and the tilted angle of earth’s axis account

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for distribution of solar radiation, change of length of hours of daylight and darkness, and
change of seasons.
Specifically, variation of weather most often results from temperature differences from one
place to another, and the temperature variation results from the intensity of solar radiation. On
large scales, temperature differences occur because areas closer to the equator receive more
energy per unit area from the sun than that of the regions closer to the poles. On local scales,
temperature differences can occur because different surfaces have different physical
characteristic such as roughness, reflectivity, and/or moisture. Surface temperature
differences in turn cause pressure differences.

Reflection: Have you ever wondered why is there a variation in weather/climate on

different parts of the world?

Yes, because the climate of the area concerns the average of the weather conditions.
Different parts of the Earth have different climates because of different amount of heat coming from
the Sun.

Below are links to understand the earth-sun geometry from Penn State University (PSU) Engineering
Go For It (eGFI)

http://teachers.egfi-k12.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Solar-Geometry-presentation.pdf
You can also watch this videos to help you further

Mechanism of the Seasons http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLRA87TKXLM

WHAT IS WATER?
Water: An Element of Irrigation
Water is the source of all life on earth. Water has many unique properties that allow it to be
such a universal material. One special characteristic of water is its ability to change state very
easily under earth conditions. These forms play a great part in the hydrologic cycle. For
irrigation, a typical characteristic of water (termed as “water quality”) is important. This
“characteristic” feature influences the suitability of water for an intended use. To irrigate in a
sustainable fashion, it is important to assess the water quality characteristics, land suitability,
and crop limitations.

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Water covers about 70% of the earth’s surface, but it is difficult to comprehend the total
amount of water when we only see a small portion of it. The oceans contain about 97.5% of
the earth’s water, land 2.4%, and the atmosphere holds less than 0.001%, which may seem
surprising because water plays such an important role in weather. The annual precipitation for
the earth is more than 30 times the atmosphere’s total capacity to hold water. This fact
indicates the rapid recycling of water that must occur between the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere. Basically, the source of all water in the earth is rainwater. Conceptually, the main
sources of water from where we meet our needs are the following:
1. Surface water - from rivers, ponds, lakes, etc.
2. Ground water - through dug wells, shallow tube-wells, deep tube-wells, springs, etc.
3. Rain water - from direct rainfall, rain water harvesting.
Water is essential to life. Without it, the biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth would
not be possible. Besides consumptions of biosphere, water resources are harnessed for
drinking, irrigation, municipal and industrial uses, hydropower generation, fish farming, flood
management, navigation, ecological needs, and recreation

The Hydrologic Cycle.

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 The hydrologic cycle otherwise known as the water cycle studies the movement of
water as it occurs in the atmosphere as well as on and below the surface of the earth. As
shown above, the water cycle is a continuous process involving cloud formation that over time
transform itself into rain. The clouds, nurtured by climatic factors result to rain that falls upon
land surfaces and deposited on plant leaves, some infiltrated and percolated into the soil
becoming ground water while others runoff the surface settling on streams and rivers
eventually on the seas and oceans. These surface water evaporates to the atmosphere to
become clouds again. Other moisture on land and plant materials goes back to the
atmosphere via process of evaporation and transpiration. This basic movement of water in its
liquid and gaseous forms or even solid forms is a process or cycle that is repeated over and
over again to become the water cycle or the hydrologic cycle.
Understanding the flow of water will help us conserve it especially the precipitation
(rainfall) which is the primary source of water in the field or in the groundwater as irrigation or
for domestic use. Water (in the form of precipitation) is very important to conserve for future
use, and the best way to conserve it is by storing it as ground water. Here’s how, precipitation
can be conserved. Plant, plant, plant more trees to increase our vegetation or cover in the
soil. We want our soil to absorb more water during a rainfall for it to be stored down as
groundwater. Since we cannot modify the soil texture and structure of our soil, the best
alternative is to plant trees. Trees especially its canopy or the foliage trap or intercept rainfall
droplets thereby breaking it down into smaller droplets and decreasing its energy . It also
helps delayed the droplets from falling in the soil. With this, it gives the water to have more
time to infiltrate into the soil rather than runoff. Studies shows that soils that have cover or
vegetation increases its infiltration rate and capacity.
So planting trees in the forest will increase infiltration and reduce runoff, and therefore
more water will percolate downward and become groundwater that we can extract through
wells by pumping. More groundwater means more fresh water we can use for irrigation.
Runoff water are destructive because it creates soil erosion, and once the water runoff, it
goes straight thru canals, streams, rivers and finally into the sea and ocean where it cannot
be use productively.

Processes involved in a Hydrologic Cycle

 Evaporation ( from bodies of water and land) and transpiration (from plants)
 Condensation ( clouds formation)
 Precipitation ( as rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc)
 Run-off ( overland flow)
 Infiltration – entry of water into the soil
 Percolation – downward movement of water into the soil profile

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  Groundwater flow ( to springs, streams, rivers, lakes, seas, ocean, or stay below
ground)
 Interflow - water infiltrated into the soil but eventually comes out the surface

Self-Assessment 2 .
1. Draw the Hydrologic Cycle and label the different processes involved.

2. Explain in your own words how the processes works in the Hydrologic cycle.
From my own observation the processes of hydrologic cycle is the conservation of water on
earth .Water cycle help the crops to be more productive .. I think Hydrologic cycle can give clean
water to the crops and other living things.

3.How can we conserve water?

We can conserve water by using it wisely. we should not throw garbage on the river not to
affect the habitat of the fish .Water is important during drought periods and in areas where
there are big demands of water supplies.

3.Explain how vegetation or trees increase infiltration and reduce water run-off

Trees especially its canopy or the foliage trap or intercept rainfall droplets there by breaking it down
into smaller droplets and decreasing its energy. It also helps delayed the droplets from falling in the
soil. It gives the water to have more time to infiltrate into the soil rather than the run-off.
September 14-18, 2020

Precipitation

Precipitation is one of the major source of water for irrigation. It is of particular

interest to those concerned with the effective use of soil and water. The weather is
often the controlling factor in problems preventing excessive movement of soil, or
retaining needed water, of increasing the intake of surface water, or adding needed
water by irrigation, and of removing excess water by drainage. Water whether too
much or too little, or poorly distributed, is one of the major limitations in agricultural
production.

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Forms of Precipitation
 Any product of condensation of atmospheric water vapor formed in the free air
or at earth’s surface is a hydrometeor
 Drizzle – or mist, consist of tiny liquid droplets, usually with diameters between
0.1 and 0.5 mm, which occasionally appear to float. Drizzle usually falls from
low stratus and rarely exceeds 1mm/hr.
 Rain – consists of liquid water drops mostly larger than 0.5mm in diameter.
Rainfall usually refers to amounts of liquid precipitation
 Glaze – is the ice coating generally clear and smooth, formed on exposed
surfaces by the freezing of supercooled water deposited by rain or drizzle
 Rime – is a white, opaque deposit of ice granules more or less separated by
trapped air and formed by rapid freezing of supercooled water drop impinging
on exposed objects.
 Snow – is composed of ice crystals, chiefly in complex, branched hexagonal
form, and often agglomerated into snowflakes, which may result 100mm in
diameter
 Hail – is precipitation in the form of balls of ice, produced in convective clouds,
mostly cumulonimbus, hailstones may be spheroidal, conical, or irregular in
shape, and range from about 5 to over 125mm in diameter.
 Sleet - consists of transparent, globular, solid grains of ice formed by the
freezing of raindrops or refreezing of largely melted ice crystals falling through a
layer of subfreezing air near the earth’s surface.

Rainfall Characteristics (Intensity, Duration, and Frequency of Rainfall)

One of the most important rainfall characteristics is rainfall intensity, usually
expressed in millimeters per hour. Very intense storms are not necessarily more
frequent in areas having high total annual rainfall. Storms of high intensity generally
last for fairly short periods and cover small areas. Storms covering large areas are
seldom of high intensity but may last several days.
The infrequent combination of relatively high intensity and long duration gives
large total amounts of rainfall. These storms do much erosion damage and may cause

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 devastating floods. These unusually heavy storms are generally associated with warm
front precipitation.

Importance of some Hydrologic Data

 Precipitation – information on precipitation is needed in estimating run-off, planning
erosion control measures, planning for irrigation and drainage, and water conservation
in low rainfall regions
 Runoff – needed in designing structures and channels that will hold/handle natural
flows of water.
 Infiltration, Evaporation and Transpiration – are required in planning irrigation and
drainage systems, moisture conservation practices.

Classification of Storms
Since no two rainstorms have exactly the same time-intensity relationships, it is often
convenient to group storms with regard to their characteristics. The most common
characteristics used in such groupings are the intensity of the storm and the pattern of the
rainfall intensity histogram. Storm patterns are important because they are one of the factors
determining the shape of the runoff hydrograph. Storm patterns of rainfall intensities are
uniform intensity, advanced pattern, intermediate pattern and delayed pattern.(see graph
Fig.2.2 below) The advanced pattern of rainfall brings higher intensities when the infiltration
rate is the greatest thus causing some reduction in the runoff peaks. On the other hand, the
delayed pattern causes higher runoff peaks, as the high intensities occur when the infiltration
is at a minimum and depression storage has been largely satisfied. In general, the cold front
produces a storm of an advanced type, and the warm front a uniform or intermediate pattern.

22
Self Assessment 3
1. Give the different forms of precipitation?

Forms of Precipitation
 Any product of condensation of atmospheric water vapor formed in the free air
or at earth’s surface is a hydrometeor
 Drizzle – or mist, consist of tiny liquid droplets, usually with diameters between
0.1 and 0.5 mm, which occasionally appear to float. Drizzle usually falls from
low stratus and rarely exceeds 1mm/hr.
 Rain – consists of liquid water drops mostly larger than 0.5mm in diameter.
Rainfall usually refers to amounts of liquid precipitation
 Glaze – is the ice coating generally clear and smooth, formed on exposed
surfaces by the freezing of supercooled water deposited by rain or drizzle
 Rime – is a white, opaque deposit of ice granules more or less separated by
trapped air and formed by rapid freezing of supercooled water drop impinging
on exposed objects.
 Snow – is composed of ice crystals, chiefly in complex, branched hexagonal
form, and often agglomerated into snowflakes, which may result 100mm in
diameter
 Hail – is precipitation in the form of balls of ice, produced in convective clouds,
mostly cumulonimbus, hailstones may be spheroidal, conical, or irregular in
shape, and range from about 5 to over 125mm in diameter.
 Sleet - consists of transparent, globular, solid grains of ice formed by the
freezing of raindrops or refreezing of largely melted ice crystals falling through a
layer of subfreezing air near the earth’s surface.

23
 2. What is the importance of precipitation in agriculture?
Precipitation is important because it helps maintain the atmospheric balance. Without
precipitation, all of the land on the planet would be desert. Precipitation helps farmers grow crops and
provides a fresh water supply for us to drink.

3.What is the relationship between rainfall intensity and duration of

infiltration?
Rainfall intensity decreases recharge coefficient due to development seal crusts and re arrangement of
finer materials on top soil .Others are in favor of infiltration increase with increasing rainfall.These was also a
qualitative relation between the melting front of rainfall redistribution and the duration of rain fall.the lard=ger
the rainfall intensity , the higher the initial and steady infiltration rate were ,and the cumulative infiltration
increase faster with time.

24
Research
Work: Please do a 3-5 page report about rain water harvesting

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In regards to Urban agriculture, rainwater harvesting in urban areas reduces the impact of runoff and
flooding. The combination of urban ‘green’ rooftops with rainwater catchments have been found to reduce
building temperatures by more than 1.3 degrees Celsius. Rainwater harvesting in conjunction with urban
agriculture would be a viable way to help meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for
cleaner and sustainable cities, health and wellbeing, and food and water security. The technology is
available, however, it needs to be remodeled in order to use water more efficiently, especially in an urban
setting.

Kenya has already been successfully harvesting rainwater for toilets, laundry, and irrigation and areas in
Australia use harvested rainwater for cooking and drinking. Studies done by Stout et al researching the
feasibility in India found RWH was most beneficial used for small scale irrigation, which provides income
with the sales of produce, and overflow used for groundwater recharge.
Missions to five Caribbean countries have shown that the capture and storage of rainwater runoff for later
use is able to significantly reduce the risk of losing some or all of the year's harvest because of soil or water
scarcity. In addition, the risks associated with flooding and soil erosion during high rainfall seasons would
decrease. Small farmers, especially those farming on hillsides, could benefit the most from rainwater
harvesting because they are able to capture runoff and decrease the effects of soil erosion.
Many countries, especially those with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable
source of clean water.] To enhance irrigation  in arid environments, ridges of soil are constructed to trap
and prevent rainwater from running down hills and slopes. Even in periods of low rainfall, enough water is
collected for crops to grow. Water can be collected from roofs, dams and ponds can be constructed to hold
large quantities of rainwater so that even on days when little to no rainfall occurs, enough is available to
irrigate crops.

Domestic use[
 In China, Argentina, and Brazil, rooftop rainwater harvesting is used to provide drinking water,
domestic water, water for livestock, water for small irrigation, and a way to replenish groundwater
levels. Gansu province in China and semiarid northeast Brazil have the largest rooftop rainwater
harvesting projects going on.
 About 40% of Thailand's rural population utilizes rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting was
promoted heavily by the government in the 1950s. In the 1990s, after government funding for the
collection tanks ran out, the private sector stepped in and provided several million tanks to private
households, many of which continue to be used today. This is one of the largest examples of supply of
water  worldwide.
 Rainwater harvesting is mandatory for new homes built in Santa Fe Mexico.
 Texas  offers a sales tax exemption for the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment.
 Both Texas and Ohio allow rainwater harvesting to be used even for potable purposes.
 Oklahoma passed the Water for 2060 Act in 2012, to promote pilot projects for rainwater and gray
water use among other water-saving techniques.
 In the United kingdom, water butts are often found in domestic gardens and on allotments to collect
rainwater, which is then used to water the garden.
Industry
25
Frankfurt Airport has the biggest rainwater harvesting system in Germany. The system helps save
approximately 1 million cubic meters of water per year. The cost of the system was 1.5 million dm
(US$63,000) in 1993. This system collects water from roofs of the new terminal which has an area of
26,800 square meters. The water is collected in the basement of the airport in six tanks with a storage
capacity of 100 cubic meters. The water is mainly used for toilet flushing, watering plants and cleaning the
air conditioning system.
Rainwater harvesting was adopted at The Velodrome – The London Olympic park – in order to increase the
sustainability of the facility. A 73% decrease in potable water demand by the park was estimated. Despite
this, it was deemed that rainwater harvesting was a less efficient use of financial resources to increase
sustainability than the park's blackwater recycling program.

Quality of water harvesting

Rainwater may need to be analyzed properly, and used in a way appropriate to its safety. In
the Gansu province for example, solar water disinfection is used by boiling harvested rainwater in parabolic
solar cookers before being used for drinking. These so-called "appropriate technology" methods provide
low-cost disinfection options for treatment of stored rainwater for drinking.
While rainwater itself is a clean source of water, often better than groundwater or water from rivers or
lakes, the process of collection and storage often leaves the water polluted and non-potable. Rainwater
harvested from roofs can contain human, animal and bird feces, mosses  and lichens, windblown dust,
particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and
dissolved gases (CO2 NOx, SOx). High levels of pesticide have been found in rainwater in Europe with the
highest concentrations occurring in the first rain immediately after a dry spell; ] the concentration of these
and other contaminants are reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of run-off water to waste.
Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the
base of the tank) and by using a series of tanks, withdraw from the last in series. Prefiltration is a common
practice used in the industry to keep the system healthy and ensure that the water entering the tank is free
of large sediments.
A very interesting concept of rainwater harvesting and cleaning it with solar energy for rural household
drinking purposes has been developed by Nimbkar Agricultural Research institute.
Conceptually, a water supply system should match the quality of water with the end-user. However, in most
of the developed world, high-quality potable water is used for all end uses. This approach wastes money
and energy and imposes unnecessary impacts on the environment. Supplying rainwater that has gone
through preliminary filtration measures for non potable water uses, such as toilet flushing, irrigation, and
laundry, maybe a significant part of a sustainable water management strategy.

Select suitable sites for harvesting rainwater

Rainwater harvesting is a widely used method of storing rainwater in the countries presenting with drought
characteristics. Several pieces of research have derived and developed different criteria and techniques to
select suitable sites for harvesting rainwater. Some research was identified and selected suitable sites for
the potential erection of dams, as well as derived a model builder in ArcMap 10.4.1. The model combined
several parameters, such as slope, runoff potential, land cover/use, stream order, soil quality, and
hydrology to determine the suitability of the site for harvesting rainwater.

26
Rainwater harvesting system, also called rainwater collection system or rainwater catchment
system, technology that collects and stores rainwater for human use. Rainwater harvesting systems
range from simple rain barrels to more elaborate structures with pumps, tanks, and purification
systems. The non potable water can be used to irrigate landscaping, flush toilets, wash cars, or launder
clothes, and it can even be purified for human consumption. With water scarcity a pressing problem
for many densely populated regions, rainwater harvesting systems can supply households and
businesses with water for use in dry seasons and lessen the demand on municipal systems.

Given that rainfall is sporadic and that only a small proportion of global precipitation is easily
available for human use, rainwater harvesting can be an efficient means of capturing
that precious resource. In cities, much of the rain that falls on buildings, roofs, roads, and other hard
landscaping does not percolate into the soil and is instead directed into storm sewers for disposal.
Impermeable surfaces cause urban flooding in many areas and generate contaminated unusable water
that is directed away from potable water resources. During dry months, local groundwater can be
depleted, and many localities struggle to consistently provide enough potable water to meet demand.
Rainwater harvesting for non potable functions, such as gardening and washing clothes, significantly
reduces both the demanded amount of the total fresh water and the strain on
stormwater infrastructure. That saving in the demand and supply of potable fresh water is significant
in large cities. Although many localities encourage and even subsidize rain barrels and other rainwater
harvesting systems, some areas, particularly those in the southwestern United States, view rainwater
harvesting as a water rights issue and place restrictions on such collections.

Infiltration, Evaporation, and Transpiration

Definition
Infiltration is the passage of water into the soil surface and is distinguished from
percolation which is the movement of water through the soil profile or the downward
movement of water.
Evaporation is the process by which water is returned to the air from liquid to a
gaseous state.
Transpiration is evaporation from plants

Importance
These three phases of the hydrologic cycle is of particular interest in agriculture.
Infiltration, evaporation and percolation. These affect the irrigation water computation and
availability of water to crops. About three fourths of the total precipitation on the land areas of
the world returns directly to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration. Most of the
balance returns to the ocean as surface or subsurface flow. Evaporation and transpiration
are difficult to separate and are often considered together and called evapotranspiration.
Infiltration is of particular interest, for if water to be conserved in the soil and made
available to plants, it must first pass through the soil surface. If the infiltration rate is high, less
water will pass over the soil surface and erosion will be reduced. In this way runoff quantities
and peaks are lowered.
27
 Evaporation, which may occur either from the water surface or from water on soil
particles, is important for water conservation. Evapotranspiration is required for determining
irrigation requirements for crops as well as water storage in ponds and reservoirs. High
evapotranspiration from such crops as grass is beneficial for drainage because of the
increased capacity of the soil for storing water.

Infiltration
Infiltration is measured as volume per unit time per unit of area. These units can be
reduce to depth per unit time. Infiltration is the sole source of soil water to sustain the growth
of vegetation and of the ground water supply of wells, springs, and streams.
The movement of water into the soil by infiltration may be limited by any restriction to
flow of water through the soil profile. Although such restriction often occurs at the soil surface.
The most important items influencing the rate of infiltration have to do with the physical
characteristics of the soil and the cover on the soil surface, but such other factors as soil
water, temperature and rainfall intensity are also involved.

Factors affecting infiltration

Soil factors. The effectiveness of the soil as an agent for transporting water depends
largely on the size and permanency of these channels. In general the size of the
passageways and the infiltration into the soil are dependent on (1) size of the particles that
make up the soil (soil texture), (2) the degree of aggregation between the individual particles
(soil structure), (3) the arrangement of the particles and aggregates. The larger the pore size
and the greater the continuity of the pores that can be maintained, the greater is the resulting
infiltration rate.
Vegetation. Surface sealing can be greatly reduced by when the soil surface is
protected by mulch, crop residue, other permeable mechanical protection, and vegetation. In
general, vegetative cover and surface condition have more influence on infiltration rates than
do the soil type and texture. The protective cover may be grasses or other close-growing
crops. It has been shown that when infiltration rates are determined for soil protected by
vegetation and the vegetation is removed, surface sealing occurs and infiltration drops. (See
graph Fig. 3.1 below)

28
 Other factors. Other factors affecting infiltration include land slope, antecedent soil
moisture, and water temperature. The effect of slope on rate of infiltration has generally been
shown to be small. In general, the steeper the slope the slower the infiltration rate because
the water runoff the soil surface allowing small time in contact with the soil thus infiltration rate
is lower. Soil water generally reduces or limits the infiltration rate. The reduction is due in
large part to the fact that water causes some of the colloids in the soil to swell and thereby
reduces both the pore space and the rate of water movement. The effect of water
temperature on infiltration is not significant because the soil changes the temperature of the
entering water and the size of the pore spaces may change with temperature changes.
Although freezing of the soil surface greatly reduces its infiltration rate

Evaporation and Transpiration

Evaporation occurs when the number of moving molecules that break from the water
surface and escape into the air and become entrapped in the liquid. Transpiration is the
process through which water vapor passes into the atmosphere through the tissues of living
plants. For convenience in analyzing water transfer, the two are combined and referred to as
evapotranspiration.
The amount of water that passes through plants by the transpiration process is often a
substantial portion of the total water available during the growing season. It can vary from
practically nothing to as much as 635mm in depth, depending largely on the water available,
the kind of plant, the density of plant growth, the amount of sunshine, and the soil fertility and
structure.
The rate of evaporation or transpiration increases with the rise in temperature of the
surface soil because vapor pressure increases with increases in temperature. Also wind
increases the rate of evaporation, particularly as it disperses the moist layer found directly
over the evaporating water surface under stagnant conditions. Evaporation also increases
with decrease barometric pressure. Likewise, if other conditions are unchanged, there is
29
greater evaporation at higher elevations. Also the rate of evaporation has been found to
decrease with increase in the salt content of the water.

Evaporation from land surfaces

Because of differences in soil texture and in expected soil water movement, it is
difficult to generalize on the amounts of evaporation from soil surfaces. For saturated soils,
the evaporation may be expected to be essentially the same as from open free-water
surfaces. As the water table drops, however, the evaporation rate will decrease greatly.
Mulches are effective reducer of evaporation. A mulch restricts air movement, maintains a
high air vapor pressure near the soil surface, and shields the soil from solar energy.

Evapotranspiration
For convenience, evaporation and transpiration are combined into evapotranspiration
(ET), often referred to as consumptive use. Many practical applications can be made of
evapotranspiration estimates, but the principal use is to predict soil water deficits for irrigation.
Analyzing weather records and estimating evapotranspiration rates, drought frequencies, and
excess water periods can show potential needs for irrigation and drainage.

Self Assessment 4
1. Define in your own words the following terms: (1) Infiltration, (2) Evaporation and (3)
Transpiration
INFILTRATION- is a process by which the water go downward in the soil
EVAPORATION-The vaporization on the surface of a liquid and changes into gas phase
TRANSPIRATION-the water movement to a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts ,like
leaves, stems and flowers.
2. What is the importance of the three processes in agriculture?
Trees help to reduce run-off , trees are valued for the beauty and many other benefits
they bring to our landscapes and neighborhoods. Their leaf canopies help reduce erosion
caused by falling rain. They also provide surface area where rain water lands and evaporate.

30
 3. How can we increase infiltration of water in the soil? What are the different factors
that influence .
 The main factors that influence the infiltration are:

• The soil characteristics influence capillary forces and absorption.

• The soil coverage by increasing the time of water penetration in the soil .
• Topography and morphology of slopes
• The flow supply(rain intensity, irrigation flow).
• The initial condition of soil humidity, soil humidity is an important factor of
infiltration regime. It involves differently in time of dry and wet soils.
• Soil compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects, The use of hard
agricultural equipment can have consequences on the surface layer of the soil.

 Best management practices to improve soil infiltration include:

• Reduce tillage
• Avoid soil compaction
• Crop rotation
• Keeping the soil covered with good infiltration and utilize and store plant available water
and reduce water run-off which cause flooding.

September 17-21 2020

Runoff Components and Properties

Definition

31
 Runoff is that portion of the precipitation that makes its way toward stream channels,
lakes, or oceans as surface or subsurface flow. The term runoff usually means surface flow.
The important properties of runoff are peak rates of runoff and runoff volume.

The Runoff Process

Before runoff can occur, precipitation must satisfy the demands of evaporation,
interception, infiltration, surface storage, surface detention, and channel detention.
Interception of leaves or the vegetative canopy may be so great as to prevent a light
rain from wetting the soil. Interception also has a detention storage effect, delaying the
progress of precipitation that reaches the soil only after running down the plant or dropping
from the leaves.
Runoff will only proceed when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water
may infiltrate into the soil. After the infiltration rate is satisfied water begins to fill the
depressions, small and large, on the soil surface. As the depressions are filled overland flow

(runoff) begins. (see graph Fig.3.3 below)

Factors Affecting Runoff

The factors affecting runoff may be divided into two, those factors associated with
precipitation and those associated with the soil or the watershed as a whole.

Rainfall ( Precipitation)
Rainfall duration, intensity, and areal distribution influence the rate and volume of
runoff. Total runoff for a storm is clearly related to the duration for a given intensity. Infiltration

32
decreases with time in initial stages of a storm. Thus, a storm of short duration may produce
no runoff, whereas a storm of the same intensity but of long duration will result in runoff.
Rainfall intensity influences both the rate and volume of runoff. An intense storm
exceeds the infiltration capacity than does a gentle rain; thus the total volume of runoff is
greater for the intense storm even though total precipitation for the two rain is the same. The
intense storm actually may decrease the infiltration rate because of its destructive action on
the soil structure at the surface.

Watershed (soil)
Watershed factors affecting runoff are size, shape, orientation, topography, geology
and surface culture or characteristics. Both runoff volumes and rates increase as watershed
size increases. Long narrow watersheds are likely to have lower runoff rates than more
compact watersheds of the same size. When the long axis of a watershed is parallel to the
storm path, storms moving upstream cause a lower peak runoff rate than storms moving
downstream. Topographic features, such as slope of upland areas, the degree of
development and gradients of channels, and the extent and number of areas affect rate sand
volumes of runoff. Watersheds having extensive flat areas or depressed areas without
surface outlets have lower runoff than areas with steep, well defined drainage patterns. The
geologic or soil materials determine to a large degree the infiltration rate, and thus affect
runoff. Vegetation and the practices incident to agriculture and forestry also influence
infiltration. Vegetation retards overland flow and increases surface detention to reduce runoff
rates. Structure such as dams, levees, bridges, and culverts all influence runoff rates.

Design Runoff Rates

Structures and channels are planned to carry runoff that occurs within a specified
return period. The capacity to be provided in a structure that must carry runoff may be termed
the design runoff rate. Vegetated controls and temporary structures are usually designed for a
runoff that may be expected to occur once in 10 years, while permanent structures will be
designed for runoffs expected only once in 50 or 100 years.
There are different methods in predicting design runoff rates;
1. Rational method – a method of predicting a design peak runoff rate is expressed by
the equation
q = 0.0028 CiA
Where q = the design peak runoff rate in m 3/s, C = runoff coefficient, i = rainfall
intensity in mm/h for the design return period and for a duration equal to the “time
of concentration” of the watershed, A = area of the watershed

33
 2. Soil Conservation Service Method – was originally developed for uniform rainfall
using the assumptions for a triangular hydrograph. A hydrograph is a plot of the runoff
rate versus time.
Tp = D/2 + TL = D/2 + 0.6 Tc
Where Tp = time to peak
D = duration of excess rainfall
TL = time to lag
Tc = time of concentration
3. Flood Frequency Analysis Method – one method of flood estimation, called flood
frequency analysis, depends on the existence of a number of years of record from the
watershed/basin under study. These records then constitute a statistical array that
defines the probable frequency of recurrence of floods of given magnitudes.
Extrapolation of the frequency curves enables the hydrologist to predict flood peaks for
a range of return periods.

Runoff Volume
It is often desirable to predict the total volume of runoff that may come from a
watershed during a design flood. Total volume is of primary interest in the design of flood
control reservoirs. The method use to estimate runoff volume is:
1. Soil conservation Service Method – was developed from many years of storm flow
records for agricultural watersheds in many parts of the United States.

(I −0.25)2
Q=
I +0.8 S
Where Q = direct surface runoff depth in mm (area under hydrograph),
I = storm rainfall in mm
S = maximum potential difference between rainfall and runoff in mm, starting at the
time the storm
begins

Water Yield

When surface runoff is to be stored in ponds or reservoirs, the total runoff volume for a
period of several months, usually annual volume, is of more interest than the runoff from a
design storm. The annual runoff is often referred to as the water yield.

34
Self Assessment 5
1. What is runoff? Explain the runoff process?
 is the water that is pulled by gravity across the lands surface, replenishing
groundwave and surface water as it percolates into an aquifer or moves into a
river, stream or watershed.

2. Explain how precipitation and watershed characteristics affect runoff.

 When the rains fall onto the earth, it just doesn`t sit there, it starts moving to the
laws of gravity. A portion of precipitation seeps into the ground to replenish
Earth`s groundwater. Most of it move downhill as run-off. The less run-off there
will be. The amount and type of vegetation in a water shed influence the rates of
run-off and erosion in that watershed.
3. How can we control/decrease runoff?
• add plants
• protect trees
• go permeable
• Break up slabs
• Catch run-off
• Dig a trench
• Plant a rain garden
• Cover soil
• Swap lawn
• Drive on the grass

September 24-28, 2020

Erosion and Sediment Transport

Erosion
Erosion is one of the most important agricultural problems in the world. It is a primary
source of sediment that pollutes streams and fills reservoirs. Earlier years have already given
emphasis to erosion as a contributor to nonpoint pollution. Nonpoint refers to erosion from the
35
land surface rather than from channels and gullies. Eroded sediment can carry nutrients,
particularly phosphates, to waterways, and contribute to eutrophication of lakes and streams.
Adsorbed pesticides are also carried with the eroded sediments, adversely affecting surface
water quality.
The two major types of erosion are geological erosion and erosion from human or
animal activities. Geological erosion includes soil-forming as well as soil-eroding processes
that maintain the soil in a favorable balance, suitable for the growth of most plants. Human- or
animal-induced erosion includes a breakdown of soil aggregates and accelerated removal of
organic and mineral particles resulting from tillage and removal of natural vegetation.
Geological erosion has contributed to the formation of our soils and their distribution on the
surface of the earth. This caused most of our present topographic features such as canyons,
stream channels, and valleys.
Water erosion is the detachment and transport of soil from the land by water, including
runoff from melted snow and ice. Water erosion is accelerated by farming, forestry, and
construction activities.

Types of Water Erosion

Raindrop Erosion – is the soil detachment and transport resulting from the impact of
water rain drops directly on soil particles or on thin water surfaces. Tremendous quantities of
soil are splashed into the air, most particles more than once. On bare soil, it is estimated that
as much as 200 Mg/ha is splashed into air by heavy rains.
Factors affecting the direction and distance of soil splash are slope, wind, surface
condition, and impediments to splash such as vegetative cover and mulches. On sloping land,
the splash moves farther downhill than uphill, not only because the soil particles travel farther,
but also because the angle of impact causes the splash reaction to be in a downhill direction.
(see figure below)

Sheet Erosion – is the uniform removal of soil in the layers from sloping land, resulting
from sheet or overland flow. Minute rilling takes place almost simultaneously with the first
detachment and movement of soil particles. The beating action of raindrops combined with
surface flow causes initial microscopic rilling. Raindrops detach the soil particles, and the
detached sediment can reduce the infiltration by sealing the soil pore spaces.

36
 Interrill Erosion – splash (raindrop) and sheet erosion are sometimes combined and
called interrill erosion. Research has shown interrill erosion to be a function of soil properties,
rainfall intensity, and slope.
Rill Erosion – is the detachment and transport of soil by a concentrated flow of water
and is the predominant form of erosion under most conditions. Rills are small enough to be
removed by normal tillage operations. It is most serious where intense storms occur on soils
with high runoff producing characteristics and highly erodible topsoil.
Gully Erosion – gully erosion produces channels larger than rills. These channels
carry water during and immediately after rains, and as distinguished from rills, gullies cannot
be obliterated by tillage. The rate of gully erosion depends primarily on the runoff-producing
characteristics of the watershed; the drainage area; soil characteristics; the alignment, size,
and shape of the gully, and the slope in the channel.
Stream Channel Erosion – is the soil removal from stream banks or soil movements
in the channel. Stream banks erode either by runoff flowing over the side of the stream or by
scouring and undercutting below the water surface.

Soil Losses
The importance of soil losses is indicated by the effect of erosion phase on crop yield.
Researchers reported that much of the reduced yield observed on eroded soils was due to a
decrease in the amount of water available to the plant on eroded soils. On some soils, these
crop yield decreases can be largely overcome by higher fertilization levels. On other soils,
particularly more shallow soils on sloping terrain, erosion may completely destroy productivity
if appropriate conservation practices are not initiated.
Soil losses, or relatively erosion rates for different management systems, are estimated
to assist farmers and government agencies in evaluating existing farming systems or in
planning to decrease soil losses. A method of estimating losses based on statistical analyses
of field plots resulted in the development of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). A
revised version of the USLE (RUSLE) has been developed for computer applications,
allowing more detailed consideration of farming practices and topography for erosion
prediction.

Self-Assessment 6 .
1. Define erosion.
 is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and
transported by natural forces such as wind or water.
 The action of surface process , this natural process is caused by the dynamic
activity of erosive agents, that is water, ice, snow, air, plants, animals, and
humans.
2. What are the different types of water erosion?

37
 • Streambank Erosion – caused by fast-running rivers and streams cutting into
banks. Can be found at the lower end of stream tributaries and in streams that
have relatively caused flat gradients.
• Rill Erosion- caused by the concentrated flow of water in small rivulets
sometimes referred to as sheet erosion.
• Gully Erosion- the movement of soil by larger streams of water scours
channels in the soil.
• Inter-Rill Erosion- is the movement of the soil by rainfall and its resulting
surface flow . The first and most important step in the water erosion process as
a whole
3. How can you prevent water erosion?
• Planting vegetation
• Laying down mulch
• Terracing
• Contouring
• Strip cropping

Erosion Control Practices

Here are the following erosion control practices that can reduced the effect of erosion
to sustain crop productivity and conserve soil and water.
Contouring
This practice is the performing of field operations, such as plowing, planting,
cultivating, and harvesting, approximately on the contour. It reduces surface runoff by
impounding water in small depressions, and decreases the development of rills. The benefits
of contouring is erosion reduction and conservation of water. Contouring on areas with steep
slopes or under conditions of high rainfall intensity and soil erodibility are not recommended
because row breaks may release the stored water creating gullies and damage the slopes.
Strip Cropping
Strip cropping is the practice of growing alternate strips of different crops in the same
field. For controlling water erosion, the strips are on the contour, but in dry regions, strips are
placed normal to the prevailing wind direction for wind erosion control. The three general

38
types of strip cropping are (1) contour strip cropping, (2) field strip cropping, (3) buffer strip
cropping. In contour strip cropping, layout and tillage are held closely to the contour and the
crops follow a definite rotational sequence. With field strip cropping, strips of uniform width
are placed across the general slope. Field strip cropping may also be used for wind erosion
control. Buffer strip cropping has strips of grass of a grass or legume crop between contour
strips crops in the regular rotation. Buffers may be even or irregular in width or placed crops
on critical slope areas of the field. Their main purpose is to give protection from erosion or
allow for areas of deposition. Choosing the types of strip cropping to be used depends on
cropping system, topography, and types of erosion hazards. Rotations that provide strips of
close-growing perennial grasses and legumes alternating with grain and row crops are the
most effective for strip cropping.
The recommended maximum widths for contour strip cropping, shown in Table 5.3,
reduce the soil loss by the corresponding conservation practice P c. Strip width should be
convenient for multiple-row equipment operation.

Tillage Practices
The essential basis for tillage is the preparation of a seed bed, but the role of tillage
has become increasingly important as a conservation tool. Its primary purpose is to provide
an adequate soil and water environment for the plant; its role as a means of weed control has
diminished with increased use of herbicides and improved timing of operations.
The effect of tillage on erosion is a function of its effect on such factors as surface
residue, aggregation, surface sealing, infiltration, and resistance to wind and water
movement. Excessive tillage destroys structure, increasing the susceptibility of soil to erosion.
One of the major benefits of minimum tillage is to increased residue left on the surface.
Such residue is extremely effective in reducing erosion.

Conserving Soil Water

Conservation of water, particularly in arid and semiarid regions, is of utmost
importance for crop production. The means of conserving water may be done in three ways:
increasing infiltration, reducing evaporation, and preventing unnecessary plant growth. In
practice these can be accomplished by such practices as level terracing, contouring,
mulching, and selection of suitable crops.
The greater the amount of mulch on the surface, the greater the quantity of soil water
conserved. Terracing is a good water conservation practice where level or conservation
bench terraces are suitable and where the slopes are gentle enough so that the water can be
spread over relatively large area. Contouring, strip cropping, and mulching are effective in
increasing the total infiltration and thereby the total soil water available for crops. Field strip

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cropping generally does not conserve as much water as contour strip cropping, but it is
somewhat more effective in reducing surface wind velocities.
Good crop and soil management practices are necessary to maintain a desired soil
structure. The organic matter in the soil should maintained at a high level and lime and
fertilizers should be applied where necessary.

References:
Schwab, G.O. et al., Soil and water Conservation Engineering 4 th ed. 1993 John Wiley and
Sons
Hansen V.E., Israelsen O.W. Stringham G.E. Irrigation Principles and Practices . 4 th edition
John and Wiley Sons
Orcullo, N.A. Irrigation Systems Handbook 1st edition Busybook Distributors Pasig City
M.H Ali, Practices of Irrigation and On-Farm Water Management Volume 2, Springer
M.H. Ali, Fundamentals of Irrigation and On-farm Water Management Volume 1, Springer
Harpal S Mavi, Graeme J Tupper, Agrometeorology, Principles and Applications of Climate
Studies in Agriculture, Food Products Press
http://teachers.egfi-k12.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Solar-Geometry-presentation.pdf

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